SCHEME OF WORK

1. Redox reaction
2. Rate of chemical reaction
3. Energy changes in chemical reaction
4. Introduction to quantitative analysis
5. Hydrogen and its compounds
6. Oxygen and its compounds
7. Chemical equilibrium
8. Introduction to Organic chemistry
LEAVE 5 PAGES FOR ACTIVITIES ON BALANCING REDOX EQUATIONS

RATE OF REACTION
CONTENT
 Meaning of Rate of Chemical Reaction.
 Rate Curve.
 The Collision Theory.
 Factors Affecting Rate of Chemical Reactions
MEANING OF RATE OF REACTION
The rate of a chemical reaction is the number of moles of reactants
converted or products formed per unit time.

Usually, rate of reaction is determined experimentally by measuring change

in concentration of one of the components in the reaction with time.

Thus,
Rate of reaction = change in concentration of reactant or product (mol/dm 3)
Time taken for the change (seconds)
The unit of the rate of reaction is mol/dm -3s-1 or g dm-3s –1.
Rate of reaction can also be expressed as:
Rate of reaction = change in number of mole or mass of reactant or product
Time taken for the change
Then the unit of rate is mols-1 or gs-1

EXAMPLE: When 0.5g of calcium trioxocarbonate (IV) was added to excess

dilute hydrochloric acid, carbon (IV) oxide was evolved. The complete
reaction took 5 minutes. What was the rate of reaction?
SOLUTION:
Rate of reaction = change in mass of reactant
Time taken for the change
 = (0.5 – 0)g = 0.5
5x60 300
= 1.67 x 10-3 gs-1

WAYS OF MEASURING REACTION RATE

Concentration is one of the properties of a reaction that can change with
time.
The following properties can also change with time and can thus be used to
measure rate of reaction.
1. Decrease in mass of reaction system
2. Volume of gaseous product
3. Amount of precipitate formed
4. Change in colour intensity
5. Change in pH
6. Change in total gas pressure

EVALUATION
1. What is rate of reaction?
2. State two ways of measuring reaction rate

COLLISION THEORY
The collision theory states that for a chemical reaction to occur the reactant
particles must collide and they must collide with a certain minimum amount
of energy known as activation energy.
Reacting particles are in continuous motion, thus they possess energy and
they also collide with one another. Not all collisions result into chemical
reaction. Collisions, which result into chemical reaction, are called EFFECTIVE
COLLISIONS. Minimum amount of energy required by reacting particles for
chemical reaction to occur is called ACTIVATION ENERGY. Activation energy
is the ENERGY BARRIER the reactants must overcome for reaction to occur. It
is the minimum energy required for bond breaking for chemical reaction to
occur.
Chemical reaction occur only when the energy of the colliding reactant
particles is equal to or more than the activation energy. Activation energy
must be equal to energy barriers also for chemical reaction to occur.

Every reaction has its own energy of activation. Reactions with low activation
energy have high rate of reaction and occur spontaneously. Reaction with
high activation energy have low rate of reaction and are not spontaneous.

FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF REACTION

From the collision theory, it can be seen that rates of reaction depends on
the following features.
1. The energy of the particle.
2. The frequency of collision of the reaction.
3. The activation energy of the reaction.

These features of a chemical reaction are in turn affected by some factors,

which can make them to change and consequently affect the rate of
reaction. These are factors that affect the rate of reactions. Some important
ones are:
1. Nature of reactants.
2. Concentration / pressure (for gases) of reactants.
3. Surface area of reactants
4. Temperature of reaction mixture
5. Presence of light
6. Presence of catalysts
To study the effect of any one of these factors on rate of reaction all other
factors must be kept constant.

EFFECT OF NATURE OF REACTANTS

If all other factors are kept constant, different substances will have different
rate of reaction with dilute HCl, for example. When dilute HCl reacts with
zinc, iron and gold under the same condition, hydrogen gas is evolved fast
with zinc, slow with iron and no gas evolved with gold.

The difference in rate of reaction is due to the chemical nature of the

elements as they naturally posses different amount of energy content.
EFFECT OF CONCENTRATION OF REACTANTS
The frequency of collision among particles is high when the particles are
crowded in a small space, i.e high concentration. This leads to high effective
collision and thus high rate of reaction. An increase or decrease in the
concentration of the reactants will result in corresponding increase or
decrease in effective collisions of the reactants and hence the reaction rate.

EFFECT OF SURFACE AREA OF REACTANTS

This is a very important factor to be considered when a solid is involved in a
chemical reaction. Lumped solids offer small surface area of contact for
reaction while powdered solids offer large surface area for reaction. Rate of
reaction is slow with lumped solid but high with powdered solids.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
Increasing the temperature of a system can lead to an increase in reaction
rate in two ways. When heat is raised, energy in form of heat is supplied to
the reactant particles, so that
1. The number of particles with energy equal to or greater than the
activation energy increases.
2. The velocity of all the reactant particles increases due to the greater
kinetic energy, leading to a higher frequency of collision.
As a result, the number of effective collisions increases and the reaction
proceeds at a faster rate. Decreases in temperature leads to decrease rate of
reactions.

EFFECT OF LIGHT
Some reactions are influenced by light. The rate of reaction is high when the
lights intensity is high, low when the intensity is low and does not proceed at
all in the absence of light. Such reactions are known as photochemical
reaction. Examples of photochemical reactions :
include.
1. Reaction between hydrogen and chlorine and
2. Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
3. Reactions between methane and chlorine
4. Photosynthesis in plant
5. Conversion of silver halides to grey metallic silver.

EFFECT OF CATALYST
A Catalyst is a substance, which alters the rate of a reaction, but itself does
not undergo any change at the end of the reaction.
A positive catalyst increases the rate of reaction by lowering the activation
energy of the reaction whereas, the one which increases the activation
energy is known as a negative catalyst or an inhibitor.
Mention reactions that require catalyst and hence state the
required catalyst
RATE CURVE
The rate curve is a graphical illustration of the rate of a reaction.
The following graph illustrate rate curve

FEATURES OF RATE CURVE

1. It passes through the origin. This is because there is no change in
concentration or mass at the start of reaction.
2. It steeps at first, this because the rate is fast at the beginning.
3. It becomes less steep later. This is because the rate slows down.
4. It finally becomes horizontally. This is because the reaction has
reached the end points.

The following can be determined from the rate curve

1. Average rate of reaction
Average rate = total number of mole / mass involved
Time taken
2. Rate at a particular instant during the reaction
Rate at instant = Gradient at a point on the curve
When the rate of reaction has direct variation with concentration, then
Rate of reaction α[Concentration of A]
R α [A]
R = k[A]
Where k is called Rate constant

CLASS WORK
1. List and explain three factors that can affect the rate of reaction of the
following reaction: CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)→ CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2. In a chemical reaction, after 10seconds, 6moles from the initial
concentration of 16moles of the reactant disappeared. Calculate the
rate of the reaction.
3. State THREE characteristics of catalyst.
4. What is the volume in dm3 of 8g of oxygen gas at s.t.p?
5. Calculate the percentage of water in sodium trioxocarbonate (VI)
heptahydrate

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
SECTION A: Write the correct option ONLY
1. The minimum amount of energy that colliding molecules must possess
for their collisions to be effective is a. thermal energy b. collision energy
c. activation energy d. kinetic energy
2.Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
The rate of evolution of hydrogen gas in the above reaction will be
greatly increased if a. the zinc is in the form of pellets b. a smaller
volume of H2SO4 is used c. the reaction flask is immersed in an ice bath
d. the zinc is in powdered form
3. The units of rate of reactions is a. moldm -3s-1 b. mol-1s-1 c. mol-1 d. smol-
1

4. If 2g of zinc granules was reacted with excess dilute HCl to evolve

hydrogen gas which
ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
ENERGY
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. It exists in different forms like:
heat, light, sound, electrical, potentials (stored), kinetic etc.

LAWS OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Energy can be changed from one form to another. The total amount of
energy before and after the change remains the same. This observation is
stated in the law of conservation of energy which states that energy can
neither be created nor destroyed but can be changed from one form to
another.

There are types of energy such as chemical energy, heat energy, and light
energy.

HEAT CONTENT (ENTHALPY) OF A SUBSTANCE

Heat content or Enthalpy of a substance is the characteristic internal energy
possess by the substance, which is due to the structure and physical state of
a substance. The potential energy is due to the structure while the kinetic
energy is due to the physical state. Enthalpy of one substance is different
from another. Total enthalpy cannot be measured but only enthalpy change.
Generally, an enthalpy change (∆H) is the heat that would be exchanged
with the surrounding, that is, it is the amount of energy involved in a
reaction.

Thus,
Enthalpy change = Heat of products – Heat of reactants
That is, ∆H = Hproducts - Hreactants

The enthalpy change of a given reaction is always written side by side with
the given equation and it may be either a positive or negative value.
Example: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ∆H = -57.3kJ
Unit of enthalpy change(∆H) is Joules(J) or kilojoules(kJ)
EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
EXOTHERMIC REACTION
A chemical reaction in which heat is given off to the surrounding is known as
exothermic reaction. When an exothermic reaction occurs, heat is liberated
and transferred from the chemicals to the surroundings and the temperature
of the reaction mixture rises. The reaction vessel will feel hot.

Examples of exothermic reactions include:

1. Reaction between calcium oxide and water
2. Reaction between an acid and a base.
3. Combustion of fuel
4. Corrosion of metals
5. Respiration
In exothermic reaction, enthalpy change is negative since the heat content
of the products is less than the heat content of the reactants.

ENDOTHERMIC REACTION
An Endothermic reaction is a type of reaction in which heat is absorbed from
the surroundings. When an endothermic reaction occurs, heat energy is
absorbed and transferred from the surrounding to the reactants and the
temperature of the reaction mixture falls. The reaction vessel will feel cold.
Examples of endothermic reactions are:
1. Thermal decomposition of calcium trioxocarbonate (IV)
2. Thermal dissociation of ammonium chloride
3. Action of light on silver bromide in photographic film
4. Photosynthesis in plants
In endothermic reaction, the heat content of the product is more than the
heat content of the reactant; hence the enthalpy change is positive.

ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAMS

Energy changes can be presented by diagrams, which shows at once
whether reactions are exothermic or endothermic.
LEAVE 10 LINES FOR THE ENERGY PROFILE DIAGRAMS

Activation energy: This is the minimum energy required for a reaction to

take place
Activated complex : This is a complex of high energy that lies between the
reactant and the product.

TYPES OF HEAT CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

HEAT OF FORMATION
The amount of heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of a substance is
formed from its elements is known as heat of formation [or enthalpy of
formation].
The standard heat of formation of a substance(∆H fθ) is the heat evolved or
absorbed, when one mole of that substance is formed from its elements
under standard conditions.
For the formation of 1 mole of liquid water, the equation is
H2(g) + 1/2O2(g) H2O(1) ∆Hfθ = - 285kJmol-1
Thus, ∆Hfθ of water = - 285kJmol-1

HEAT OF NEUTRALIZATION
Neutralization is an exothermic reaction. The amount of heat evolved during
a neutralization reaction in which one mole of water is formed is known as
the heat of neutralization (or enthalpy of neutralization).The standard heat of
neutralization ∆Hnθ is the amount of heat evolved when 1 mole of hydrogen
ions, H+, from an acid reacts with 1 mole of hydroxide ions, OH -, from an
alkali to form 1 mole of water under standard conditions. Heat of
neutralization is also known as heat of formation of one mole of water from
its ionic components.
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l) ∆Hnθ = – 57.4kJmol-1

HEAT OF COMBUSTION
Combustion reaction is always exothermic. The amount of heat evolved
when one mole of a substance is burned completely in oxygen is known as
the heat of combustion or enthalpy of combustion. The standard heat of
combustion of a substance, ∆HCθ; is the heat evolved when one mole of the
substance is burned completely in oxygen under standard conditions.
A bomb calorimeter is usually used for accurate determination of heat of
combustion.
Heat of combustion can be determined from the relation below:
Heat of combustion = Heat energy produced x molar mass
Mass burnt 1
When the heat evolved by the burning substance is used to raise the
temperature of a known mass of water, then the expression for heat of
combustion can be given as:
Heat of combustion = mC∆θ x molar mass
Mass burnt 1
Where m = mass of water
C = Specific heat capacity of water
∆θ = change in temperature, that is, θ 2 – θ1

HEAT OF SOLUTION
Heat of solution can be exothermic or endothermic. Heat of solution is the
heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of a substance is dissolved in so
much water that further dilution results in no detectable heat change.
Standard heat of solution, ∆Hsθ , is the amount of heat evolved or absorbed
when 1 mole of substance is dissolved in so much water that further dilution
results in no detectable heat change at standard conditions.
HEAT OF REACTION
The is the heat change when a chemical reaction occurs between the molar
quantities of the substances specified in the equation under standard
conditions

Leave 4 pages for calculations

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMIC

The second law of thermodynamic states that a spontaneous process occurs
only if there is an increase in the entropy of a system and its surroundings.
A spontaneous process is one that occurs on its own, without any energy
input from the outside. For example, a ball will roll down an incline; water will
flow downhill; ice will melt into water; radioisotopes will decay, and the iron
will rust.
Factors which determines the spontaneity of a process are:
i. Enthalpy change, ∆H: The heat content of the substances involved
ii. Entropy change, ∆S: The measure of degree of disorderliness or
randomness of a substance
iii. free energy change ∆G: The energy which is available for doing work.

ENTROPY CHANGE (S)

Entropy is the measure of degree of disorderliness or randomness of a
system. The standard entropy change (∆S θ) is a state function because it
depends on the initial and final state of the system. That is:
∆Sθ = Sθproducts - Sθreactants
The S.I unit of is JK-1mol-1

Entropy increases from solid to liquid to gaseous state because as you go

from solid to liquid to gaseous state, randomness increases, that is; ∆S θ tends
to positive.
For a reversible process at constant temperature,
S = H/T
When ∆S is positive, there is increase in entropy. When ∆S is negative there
is decrease in the entropy of a system.
Leave 5 lines for examples
GIBB’S FREE ENERGY
The free energy of a system is the energy which is available for doing work in
the system; that is, the driving force that brings about a chemical change.
The standard free energy change (∆G θ) is a state function because it
depends on the initial and final state of the system. That is:
∆Gθ = Gθproducts - Gθreactants
Free energy takes into account the effect of the enthalpy and entropy factors
as represented in the equation below:
G = H-TS
For a change at constant temperature,
G= H-T S
NOTE:
1. When G is negative, the reaction is spontaneous or feasible.
2. When G is positive, the reaction is not spontaneous, unless the
resultant effect of both H and S leads to a net decrease in G
3. When G is zero, the system is in equilibrium

Example: The reaction: C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

is carried out at a temperature of 57oC. If the enthalpy change is -500J and
the entropy change is +15J.Calculate the free energy change
Solution:
G= H - T S
= -5000 - (57 + 273) x (+15)
= -5000- 330 x 15
= -5000- (+4950)
= -5000- 4950
= -9950J or -9.950kJ
LEAVE A PAGE FOR EXAMPLE

INTRODUCTION TO QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

 Definition: In the Volumetric Analysis, the unknown concentration of a known
compound is determined by titrating it with another solution of known
concentration.

Apparatus Used for Acid- Base Titration

.1. Beaker
2. Funnel
3. Burette
4. Pipette
5. Retort stand
6. White tile
7. Conical flask
8. Standard volumetric flask
PRECAUTIONS IN ACID –BASE TITRATION
1. Rinse the burette with the solution of the acid
2. Rinse the pipette with the solution of the base
3. Add 2-3 drops of the indicator
4. Do not blow the last drop in the pipette
5. Remove the funnel as soon as the burette is filled the solution of
the acid
6. Read off the burette reading at the lower meniscus to avoid error
due to parallax

INDICATORS

(i) An acid-base indicator is a weak acid or weak base (or organic

compound) that has
one colour in acid medium and another colour in alkaline medium.
OR
An acid-base indicator is a weak acid or weak base whose colour in the
dissociated
form is different from the colour in the undissociated form.

(ii) An indicator is suitable, when it changes its colour (sharply) at

the equivalence
point of the titration reaction.
Types of titration and Indicator
Type of tiration Indicator
Strong acid and strong base Any indicator is suitable e.g methyl
orange or phenolphthalein
Strong acid and weak base Methyl orange
Strong base and weak acid Phenolphthalein
Weak acid and weak base No suitable indicator

What are primary and secondary standards?

Answer: The primary standard substances are stable, pure, readily soluble
in most of the solutions and remain unaffected by the presence of moisture
and air. The solutions of these substances remain as such for a number of
days. While, the secondary standard substances do not possess the
aforementioned characteristics.