Subject: CHEMISTRY

Term: 2ND
Session : 2021/2022
School: pIS
Class : SS2
Educator : ERHABOR JOSHUA
 TABLE OF CONTENT 2ND TERM
WEEK 2: ENERGY EFFECT-
WEEK 1: RATE OF REACTION
THERMOCHEMISTRY

WEEK 3: CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM WEEK 4: OXYGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS

WEEK 5: HYDROGEN; PREPARATION,

WEEK 6: MID TERM BREAK
PROPERTIES AND USES

WEEK 7:WATER WEEK 8: SOLUTION AND SOLUBILITY

WEEK 9:SHAPES OF SIMPLE

WEEK 10: EXAMINATION
MOLECULES/REVISION

WEEK 11:EXAMINATION WEEK 12:

WEEK 13:
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SUMMARY
Rate of reaction is the number of moles I. Collision theory assumes that the
of reactant converted or products reactant particles must collide before a
Topic :RATE OF REACTION
formed per unit time. reaction can take place.
II. Activation energy theory assumes that
Rate curve is a graph that shows the
the reactant particles must possess a
variation of concentration of a minimum amount of energy called
reactant or product with time activation energy before they can react.
• Reaction rate can be measured by; III. Effective collisions are collisions that
Measuring the decrease in the result in a chemical reaction or products
mass of the reacting system. formation.
• Measuring the volume of a Activation energy is the minimum amount of
gaseous product. energy the reactants must possess before
they can react.
• Measuring the amount of
Activated complex is the chemical species with
precipitate formed. the highest energy formed as a result of
• Measuring the changes in intensity collision between reactants.
of colour. Factors affecting collision include ;
• Measuring the changes in pH. Concentration and temperature

HOM
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RATES OF REACTION
 DEFINITION:
 The rate of a chemical reaction is defined as the
amount of reactant converted to product per unit
time; Or the amount of product formed per unit time.
 The S.I unit of reaction rate is mole per dm3 per
seconds (moldm-3s-1)
 REACTION RATES
 Consider
A B
the chemical reaction:

t = 20. min t = 40. min

Time = 0.
5.0 mol A 2.0 mol A
10. mol A
5.0 mol B 8.0 mol B
Reaction Rates
 If we consider the rate of appearance of B over the
first 20 minutes of reaction:
 Average rate of appearance of B = D (mol B)

Dt
 = 5.0 mol B – 0.0 mol B
 20. min – 0. min
 = 0.25 mol/min
Reaction Rates
 The average rate of appearance of B during the
second 20 minutes of the reaction:

 Avg. rate = 8.0 mol B – 5.0 mol B

 40. min – 20. min

 = 0.15 mol/min
MEASURING REACTION RATE
 The rate of a chemical reaction can be measured
by
 Measuring the decrease in the mass of the reaction
system.
 Measuring the volume of a gaseous product.
 Measuring the amount of precipitate formed.
 Measuring the changes in intensity of colour.
 Measuring the changes in pH.
 Measuring the changes in total gas pressure.
The rate curve is the graph which shows how the
concentration of reactant or product varies or changes with
time.THE RATE
It is a graph thatCURVE
shows the rate of reaction .
 Slowing down.

gas/cm3
Volume of
Reaction
finished.

Reaction fastest at the

beginning.

Time/sec.
 DEDUCTION FROM RATE CURVE
Slowing down.

1. Why is the reaction

gas/cm3
Volume of

fastest at the beginning?

Reaction 2. Why does the reaction
finished. slow down?
Reaction fastest at 3. Why does the reaction
the beginning. eventually stop?

Time/sec.
1. This is where the concentration of the reactants is highest, therefore
fastest reaction.
2. As the reactants are used their concentration decreases so the rate of
reaction decreases.
3. One of the reactants is used up, so there can be no further reaction.
COLLISION THEORY
The collision theory assumes that for a
chemical reaction to occur:
1. the reactant particles must collide with each
other.
2. the collisions must posses enough energy to
overcome the activation energy
3. The bond of reactants must be broken to
form the bond of the product.
N/B; It is not all collisions that result in a
chemical reaction.
 ALIGNMENT DURING
COLLISION
 EFFECTIVE COLLISION
 These are collisions that result in chemical
reactions or products formation.
 For collisions to be effective, the reactants
particles must :
 Possess high energy
 Collide fast enough and
 In the right direction.
 FACTORS AFFECTING
COLLISION
 There are two factors affecting collision, namely:
 Temperature: an increase in temperature increases
the frequency of collision.
 Concentration of reactants: an increase in
concentration increases the frequency of collision.
ACTIVATION ENERGY
 Activationenergy is the minimum amount of
energy required for a chemical reaction to occur.
 Diagrams showing activated
complex
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF REACTION

 The following factors affect the rate of a chemical

reaction;
 1.Temperature
 2. Concentration of reactants.(Solids and liquids)
 3. Pressure (gases)
 4. Surface area of reactant(or particle size)
 5. Light
 6. Nature of the reactants
 7. Catalyst
 FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATE
1. TEMPERATURE: Increasing the temperature increases the rate
of reaction because the particles move faster and collide more
often with greater energy.
2. CONCENTRATION: Increasing the concentration increases the
rate of reaction because there are more collisions between the
reactant particles.
3. SURFACE AREA: Increasing the surface area gives a faster
reaction because more particles are ‘exposed’ for effective
collisions.
4. NATURE OF REACTANT: If the reactants are both of the same
nature, e.g. All gases or liquids, the reaction will proceed at a
faster rate. (homogeneous)
5. CATALYST: A catalyst increases the rate of a reaction by
reducing the activation energy so more of the reactant particles
have enough energy to react.
 LIGHT: reactions that take place through the agency of light
are called photochemical reactions. Light supplies the
necessary activation energy for the reactions.
 Examples of photochemical reactions include;
 1.Reaction between CO2 and water in the presence of sunlight
and chlorophyll to form glucose (photosynthesis).
 2.Transformation of silver halides e.g. AgBr to grey metallic
silver in photography.
 3. Substitution reaction between methane and chlorine
 4. Reaction between hydrogen and halogens in the presence of
sunlight(uv light).
 PRESSURE(FOR
GASEOUS REACTIONS)
Higher pressure = faster reaction
 The rate of reaction between gases is increased by
increased
These two gas jarspressure. Low pressure,
contain theeffect
 In samepressure is the gas equivalent
particles far
ofapart.
number of gas Less collision of
concentration.
particles. particles.

The higher pressure jar has

more particles per unit Higher pressure,
volume which means a particles closer
higher concentration, together
hence faster reaction. More collisions of
particles.
 SURFACE AREA

When solids take part in chemical reactions only the surface

particles are exposed so they are the only ones that can collide
with particles of other reactants.
‘Inner’ particles are protected and
cannot collide with other particles
until they become ‘exposed’.

The surface particles

are ‘exposed’ and
can react.
 4. More on Surface Area
If we break up this ‘lump’ into smaller
pieces the number of particles has not
changed but there are now more
‘surface’ particles.

There is now a greater surface

area with more exposed particles
so more collisions can occur,
hence faster reaction.

Larger surface area =

faster reaction.
. EFFECT OF A CATALYST
.
A catalyst is a substance that increases the
speed of a reaction, without being used up. A
catalyst can be recovered at the end of a
.
reaction and used again.
 An enzyme is an organic catalyst.
 A catalyst reduces the activation energy of a
reaction and provides an alternative pathway
for a reaction.
 EFFECT OF A CATALYST

Activation energy The lower activation energy in the

without catalyst. presence of a catalyst means the
reaction will be faster. More of the
collisions have enough energy to
react. There is a lower ‘energy barrier’.
energy

Activation energy
with catalyst.

Catalyst = faster reaction.

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CLASSWORK ASSIGNMEN
Topic :CLASS WORK AND
1.Define the rate of a chemical reaction
ASSIGNMENT
2.State 4 ways of measuring the reaction T
rate.
3.Give the reasons for the following
observations;
•The rate curve begins at the origin
•The rate curve is steeper at the start of New School Chemistry by Osei
a reaction Yaw Ababio 9th edition; Page 265.
•The reaction slows down Number 1 to 10.
4. In the reaction below
H2 + I2 2HI
the concentration of HI increases from 0
to 0.001mol/dm3 in 50 seconds.
Calculate the rate of the reaction
5. List any 5 factors affecting reaction
rate.

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Topic : ENERGY EFFECT

Picture or diagrams to introduce the lesson or topic

ENERGY EFFECT
 Chemical reactions are always accompanied by
energy changes. The concept of energy changes in
chemical reaction is studied under thermochemistry.
 THERMODYNAMICS
 Thermodynamics literally means ‘heat in motion’ or
mechanical action produced by heat.
 THERMODYNAMICS is defined as the study of
energy changes accompanying both physical and
chemical processes.
 THERMOCHEMISTRY OR ENERGY
EFFECT
 Thermochemistry or Energy effect is the study of
energy changes involved in chemical processes.
 ENERGY EFFECTS

Some Terms used in

Thermodynamics
 System: A system here may be defined as the part
of the physical universe chosen for
thermodynamic studies. For example, in the
laboratory, a system may be a flask or a test tube
containing a gas or a reaction mixture placed in a
water bath(surrounding).
 The flask with the gas is the system while the
water bath is the surrounding.
 continuation
 Surrounding is the immediate vicinity of the
system.
 TYPES OF SYSTEM
 (a) An OPEN SYSTEM: Is a type of system where
Exchange of
there
matteris an exchange of both matter and energy

between the system and the surrounding.

Exchange of
energy


Exchange of
energy
 ENERGY EFFECT

A CLOSED SYSTEM
 This is a system where there is only transfer of
energy but not matter between the system and the
surrounding. For example, a sealed beaker or test
tube containing a reaction mixture in a hot water
bath.
No Exchange
of matter

Exchange of
energy Exchange of
energy

Exchange of
energy
 ENERGY EFFECT

An ISOLATED SYSTEM
 This is a system where there is neither exchange of
energy nor matter between the system and the
surrounding.
 HEAT OF REACTION OR ENTHALPY
CHANGE(∆H)
ENERGY EFFECT
 DEFINITION: The heat of reaction or enthalpy
change is the energy absorbed or evolved during a
chemical reaction.
 Heat of reaction is the energy change which
accompanies a chemical reaction.
 ∆H = Hp – Hr, where
 Hp = heat content of product
 Hr = heat content of reactant
 Exothermic and
endothermic reactions
 An exothermic reaction is a reaction during which
heat energy is liberated to the surrounding from
the system.
 An endothermic reaction is a reaction during
which heat energy is absorbed from the
Cooler than the
surrounding
Hotter than the into the system.
surrounding
surrounding

Endothermic reaction
Exothermic reaction
 Exothermic and endothermic
reactions
 For an exothermic reaction, ∆H = -ve( i.e Hp<Hr)
 For an endothermic reaction, ∆H = +ve(i.e. Hp>
Hr).
 ENERGY PROFILE FOR
ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
 Heat Of Reaction And Chemical Bonds(bond
Breaking And Bond Formation)
ENERGY EFFECT
 During chemical reactions, the atoms, molecules or ions
rearrange themselves to form products. During this process,
two things occur:
 (a) Bond breaking: old bonds in the reactants are broken. For
these bonds to be broken, heat energy is absorbed. Hence,
Bond breaking is ENDOTHERMIC.
 (b) Bond forming: New chemical bonds in the products are
also formed. Bond formation leads to the release of energy.
Hence, bond formation is EXOTHERMIC
 N/B: the energy changes in chemical reactions are due to the
breaking and formation of bonds.
 STANDARD HEAT OF
REACTION(∆Hᶱ)
 Definition : Standard heat of reaction is amount of heat evolved or absorbed
during a chemical reaction between molar quantities of substances under
standard conditions(298K and 1atm).

 TYPES OF ENTHALPY CHANGES(HEAT OF REACTION)

 (a) Heat of formation(∆ Hf): This is the amount of heat evolved or absorbed
when one mole of a substance is formed from its constituent elements.
 E.g H2(g) + 1/2O2(g) H2O(l), ∆H = -285.58 kJ/mol
 Standard heat of formation(∆Hfᶱ):
 This is the amount of heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of a
substance is formed from its constituent elements under standard
conditions.
 Heat of neutralization (∆Hn):This is the amount of heat
evolved when one mole of hydrogen ion(H+) from an
acid reacts with one mole of hydroxide ion(OH-) from
an alkali to form one mole of water.
 H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
 Standard heat of neutralization (∆ Hnᶱ):
 This is the amount of heat evolved when one mole of
hydrogen ion(H+) from an acid reacts with one mole of
hydroxide ion(OH-) from an alkali to form one mole of
water under standard conditions
 N/B: The heat of neutralization of strong acids
versus strong base is approximately constant(-
57.4kjmol-1) because heat of neutralization is the
heat of formation of one mole of water. Also,
strong acids and strong alkalis ionize completely
in water to produce all H+ and OH- respectively.
 When weak acids and weak alkalis are involved,
heat of neutralization is less since they are
partially dissociated in solution.
HEAT OF REACTION
 Heat of neutralization can be determined or
measured using glass calorimeter.
 HEAT OF COMBUSTION(∆Hc);
 This is the amount of heat evolved when one mole
of a substance is completely burned in oxygen.
 E.g C + O2 CO2
 Heat of combustion is measured using bomb
calorimeter
 HEAT OF SOLUTION(∆HS)
 This is the heat change which occurs when one mole of a solute is added to
a solvent to make a solution of stated concentration.
 If the solution is diluted further, there is usually a further heat change
which is called heat of dilution.
 When an ionic solid dissolves in water, two separate stages or processes
occurs;
 (a) the lattice is broken into separate ions. The energy per mole required to
effect this is called LATTICE ENERGY.
 (b) the free ions attached themselves electrostatically to the molecules of
the solvent(ion-dipole interaction). This is called HYDRATION OR
SOLVATION
 Hydration or solvation energy is defined as the amount of energy released
when one mole of ions is combined electrostatically with the solvent.
 Dissolution is
 (i) exothermic, if lattice energy is less than
hydration energy.
 (ii) endothermic, if lattice energy is greater than
hydration energy.
 DETERMINING THE
SPONTANEITY OF A REACTION
 There are 3 factors used to determine the
spontaneity of a reaction, namely;
 ENTHALPY CHANGE(ΔH)
 ENTROPY CHANGE(ΔS)
 Gibb’s FREE ENERGY CHANGE(ΔG)
ENTHALPY CHANGE
 A spontaneous reaction occurs when there is
evolution of heat energy i.e exothermic reaction.
ΔH = -ve
 Some endothermic reactions are also spontaneous
i.e ΔH = +ve.
ENTROPY CHANGE
 Definition of Entropy(S)
 The entropy of a substance or a system is defined as a measure of the degree
of disorderliness or randomness of its molecules. The unit entropy is J/kmol
 Δs = ΔH/T, where ΔH = enthalpy change, T = absolute
temperature(temperature in kelvin)
 CHANGES IN ENTROPY
 Entropy of a system can either increase or decrease.
 ΔS = Sp - Sr
 Increase in entropy means increase in molecular disorder . That is change in
entropy is positive (ΔS = +ve) or (ΔS >0)
 A decrease in entropy means a decrease in molecular disorder.
 (ΔS = -ve ) or (ΔS <0)
 ENTROPY
Entropy increases as a solid melts into a liquid and
liquid changes into a gas or vapour due to increase in
molecular disorder.
EXAMPLES
 H2O(l) H2O(g) (ΔS = +ve)
 H2O(g) H2O(l) (ΔS = -ve)
 Cl2(g) 2Cl(atoms) (ΔS = +ve)
 C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) (ΔS = +ve)
 NaCl(s) NaCl(aq) (ΔS = +ve)

 N/B: changes in entropy also occurs when

 There is an increase or a decrease in volume
 A solid melts or dissolves in a liquid
 A liquid vaporizes
 Entropy and spontaneity of a
reaction
 When
 (ΔS = +ve) or (ΔS >0), reaction is spontaneous.

 (ΔS <0), reaction is not spontaneous.

 (ΔS = 0), reaction is at equilibrium
 GIBBs FREE ENERGY
CHANGE (ΔG )
 The free energy of a system is defined as the energy available for doing
work.
 It is the part of the total internal energy converted to useful work. Its unit
is J/mol or KJ/mol.
 FREE ENERGY AND THE SPONTANEITY OF A REACTION
 When
 ΔG is negative i.e. ΔG<0, reaction is spontaneous in the given direction.
 ΔG is positive i.e. ΔG>0, reaction is not spontaneous in the given direction.
 ΔG = 0, the reaction is at equilibrium
 N/B: A spontaneous change occurs only when there is a decrease in free
energy(ΔG = -ve). That is, the driving force increases as the free energy
decreases.
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FREE ENERGY , ENTROPY ,
ENTHALPY CHANGES AND ABSOLUTE
TEMPERATURE

 ΔG = ΔH - T ΔS -----[i]
 At equilibrium, ΔG = 0, then
 ΔH = T ΔS -----[ii]
 Equation [i] can be used to predict the spontaneity
of a reaction.
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CLASSWORK.
1. The heat of formation of ASSIGNMENT
carbon (IV) oxide is
393KJ /mol. Calculate the Simplified Calculations in
heat given off when 2.2g of Chemistry
carbon (IV) oxide is formed Page 95 Number 1,3 and 6.
from its element.
2. 15.9KJ of heat is given off
when 1.4g of calcium oxide is
formed from its elements.
Calculate the heat of
formation of calcium oxide.
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Point: concept of chemical

equilibrium
Topic :CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
 Learning Outcomes Point : dynamic equilbrium

 At the end of the lesson, students should be able

to;
Point : characteristics of a system in a
state of chemical equilibrium

Point : Factors affecting a system in a

stste of chemical equilibrium
Le’ Chatelier’s principle
CHEMICAL
EQUILIBRIUM
 CHEMICAL
EQUILIBRIUM
 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
 This is a chemical system where the concentration
of reactants and products remain constants over
time at fixed temperature.
 DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
 A dynamic equilibrium is the one in which the rate
of forward reaction is equal to the rate of
backward reaction.
 IRREVERSIBLE AND
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
 Arrows between reactants and products separate them
and quantitatively indicate the extent of reaction.
 A single arrow( ) e.g. C(s) + O2 (g) CO2(g)
shows that the reaction proceeds far to completion; That
is, reactants are converted completely to products. This
type of reaction is said to be irreversible
 Double Arrow( ) indicates that reactants react to
form products, and products also reacts to form
reactants. This type of reaction is called reversible or
opposing reaction.
 CHEMICAL
EQUILIBRIUM
 N/B; A dynamic equilibrium only occurs in ;
 A reversible reaction
 A closed system.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
 1. A chemical equilibrium is dynamic and not static.
 2. A chemical equilibrium involves a reversible reaction.
 3. A chemical equilibrium can only be achieved in a closed
system.
 4. Equilibrium can be attained or approached from either
direction; That is from the forward(reactant) or backward
(product) direction.
 5. Catalysts have no effect on equilibrium position. That is,
they cannot alter the state of equilibrium or equilibrium
position. They can only hasten the approach to equilibrium.
 CONDITIONS FOR A CHEMICAL
SYSTEM TO BE IN EQUILIBRIUM
 1. The reaction must be reversible.
 2. The system must be dynamic ; That is the rate of
forward reaction must be equal to the rate of
backward reaction.
 3. The free energy change(∆G) must be equal to
zero.
 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
 Kc = equilibrium constant.
 Kc = [product]
 [reactant]
 Examples: Write the equilibrium consatnt of the following
reactions.
 i. N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇄ 2NH3(g); Kc =
[NH3]2
 [N2][H2]3
 ii. CH4(g) + H2O (g) ⇄ CO(g) + 3H2(g);

 Kc =

[CO][H2]3
[CH4][H2O]
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
 CaCO3(s) ⇄ CaO(s) + CO2(g);
 kc = [CO2]
 N/B; the concentration of a solid is constant.
(Le Chatelier’s principle)

 Le Chatelier’s principle states that when a stress or

an external constraint is applied to a system in
equilibrium, the equilibrium will shift so to annul
or cancel the stress.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE POSITION
OF CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
 There are three factors that affect chemical equilibrium.
They are:
 i. CONCENTRATION
 ii. TEMPERATURE
 iii. PRESSURE.
 CONCENTRATION: Increase in the concentration of
one of the reactants shifts the equilibrium to the right
while the removal of one of the reactants or increase in
the concentration of the products shifts the equilibrium
to the left.
 TEMPERATURE: For an endothermic reaction, an
increase in temperature favors the product formation.
For an exothermic reaction, an increase in temperature
favors the formation of reactants (i.e. reverse reaction).
E.g.
 N2 (g) + O2 (g) 2NO(g); ΔH = +90.4kJmol -1
 Forward reaction is favored by increase in temperature.
 2SO2 + O2 2SO3 (g); ΔH = - 395.7KJmol -1
 Low temperature favors the forward reaction i. e.
product formation
 Effect of pressure
 Effect of changing the pressure on an equilibrium
reaction
 This only applies to reactions involving gases. When
the pressure is increased (due to reducing the volume), the
system will reduce the pressure by shifting the equilibrium
to the side with fewer moles of gas.
 Conversely, when the pressure is decreased
(due to increasing the volume), the system will act to
increase pressure.
 The equilibrium will shift to the side with more
moles of gas.
 Summary:
 Exothermic reaction : Low temperature and high
pressure favour the forward reaction by shifting the
equilibrium from left to right. While high temperature
and low pressure favour the backward reaction by
shifting the equilibrium from right to left

 Endothermic reaction: High temperature and low pressure

favour the forward reaction while low temperature and
high pressure favour the backward reaction
Equilibrium in practice
 Haber process: is used for the industrial preparation of
ammonia.
 N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇄ 2NH3(g), ∆H = negative
1 vol 3 vol 2 vols.
 Conditions for optimum yield of ammonia include;
 250 – 500 atmosphere pressure,
 Temperature of about 450 ◦C,
 iii. finely divided Iron as a catalyst
 Iv increase concentration of the reactants e.g Nitrogen or
Hydrogen
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EQULIBRIUM CONSTANT, FREE ENERGY AND
ELECTRODE POTENTIAL

 Equilibrium constant can be calculated from the standard free energy(∆Gᶱ) of a

reaction.
 ∆Gᶱ = -RTlnK ---- (I)
 = -2.303RTlogK where [lnk = 2.303logk]
 R = gas molar constant
 T = absolute temperature or temperature in kelvin

 ∆Gᶱ = -nFEᶱ ---(II) (reactions in electrochemical cell) where

 n = number of moles of electrons
 F = Faraday constant (96500 coulomb)
 Eᶱ = standard electrode potential
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
 From eqn (I) and (II)
 -RTlnK = -nFEᶱ
 -2.303RTlogK = -nFEᶱ
 Eᶱ = 2.303RTlogK / nF
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CLASSWORK
Consider the reaction; N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇄ ASSIGNMENT
Topic : EXERCISES
2NH3(g), ∆H = negative New School Chemistry by Osei
(a) when is this reaction said to be in Yaw Ababio 9th edition; Page 285.
dynamic equilibrium? Number 19 and 23.
(b) Write the equilibrium constant for the
reaction.
(c) State the effect of the following
changes on the equilibrium position
of the reaction; (I) adding a positive
catalyst (II) increasing the partial
pressure of nitrogen (IV) removal of
NH3 (V) increasing the temperature.
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Topic : OXYGEN

Picture or diagrams to introduce the lesson or topic

INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF OXYGEN BY FRACTIONATION OF

AIR
OXYGEN
General Properties Of The Oxygen/Chalcogen
Family
Oxygen is in group VI of the periodic table. The other
elements in the group, in order of atomic number, are
sulphur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te) and
polonium (Po).
There is an increase in metallic properties from
oxygen to polonium. O, S, and Se are non-metals; Te
is a metalloid; Po is a metal.
Generally:
i. All the elements have an outer electronic
configuration of ns2np4;
ii. The atomic radius increases down the group;
iii. The melting and boiling points increase from O to
OXYGEN

 The electronegativity decreases down the group.
 The most common oxidation number for elements of
oxygen family is -2. However, other valencies, +2, +4 and +6, also
possible for S, Se and Po.
 Occurrence Of Oxygen
 It occurs in the atmosphere around us as diatomic
molecules. It also occurs in the upper atmosphere as triatomic
molecules called ozone, constituting the ozone layer and
preventing harmful ultra violet radiations from reaching us. It also
occurs in water supporting marine life and is a component of
materials that make up the earth’s crust e.g SiO2.
OXYGEN
 Bonding Capacity of Oxygen
 The electronic configuration or structure of oxygen is 2, 6 or
1s22s22p4. Hence, an oxygen atom needs two more electrons to
complete its valence shell. This is achieved by gaining or sharing
electrons.
 Formation of Ionic Bond
 Oxygen gains two electrons from a metallic atom to form an
ionic compound. For example, oxygen reacts with sodium to form
sodium oxide, Na2O.
 Formation of Covalent Bond
 Oxygen combines with itself and/or non-metals by sharing
electrons. For example, O + O O2.
 Laboratory Preparation Of
Oxygen
 oxygen can be prepared in the laboratory by:
 catalytic decomposition of potassium trioxochlorate(v),
 catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide,
 oxidation of hydrogen peroxide by acidified potassium
tetraoxomanganate(VII), etc
 Catalytic Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide
 Here, oxygen is prepared by using manganese(IV) oxide,
MnO2, as a catalyst to decompose hydrogen peroxide, H2O2.
This is achieved by adding 10 volume or 3% H2O2 solution
very slowly to the MnO2 catalyst. Thus, 2H2O2(aq)MnO2
O2(g) + 2H2O(l).
 Laboratory Preparation Of
Oxygen
 oxygen can be prepared in the laboratory by:
 catalytic decomposition of potassium trioxochlorate(v),
 catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide,
 oxidation of hydrogen peroxide by acidified potassium
tetraoxomanganate(VII), etc
 Catalytic Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide
 Here, oxygen is prepared by using manganese(IV) oxide,
MnO2, as a catalyst to decompose hydrogen peroxide, H2O2.
This is achieved by adding 10 volume or 3% H2O2 solution
very slowly to the MnO2 catalyst. Thus, 2H2O2(aq)MnO2
O2(g) + 2H2O(l).
 Laboratory Preparation Of
Oxygen
 The gas is collected over water and if
required dry is passed through concentrated
tetraoxosulphate(VI), H2SO4
 Thermal-Catalytic Decomposition of Potassium
Trioxochlorate(V)
 Potassium trioxochlorate (V) decomposes
slowly when heated above its melting point
(368oC) to oxygen and potassium chloride. In the
laboratory, Manganese (IV) oxide is used as the
catalyst. The gas is collected over water and when
required dry, it is passed through anhydrous CaCl2
and then collected over mercury.
THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF
kClO3

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 PREPARATION OF
OXYGEN
 Oxidation Of Hydrogen Peroxide By
Acidified Potassium Tetraoxomanganate(vii)
 5H2O2(aq) + KMnO4(aq) + H2SO4(aq)
K2SO4(aq) + 2MnSO4(aq) + 8H2O +
5O2(g)
 Industrial Preparation Of
Oxygen
 Oxygen is prepared industrially by
fractional distillation of liquid air. This method
involves two stages:
 Liquefaction of air,
 Fractional distillation of liquid air.
 Liquefaction Of Air:
 To liquefy air, it is passed through caustic
soda(NaOH) to remove carbon(IV) oxide. It is
then compressed to a pressure of about 200
atmospheres and then cooled to -200C to freeze
out water and carbon (IV) oxide. The resulting air
 INDUSTRIAL
PREPARATION OF OXYGEN
 AIR

 Compressed to 200 atmospheres, cool to -200C to freeze

out CO2 and H2O

 Compress to 100 atmospheres

 Allow to expand suddenly: this cools the air.

 After many cycles of compression and expansion, air

liquefies.

 LIQUID AIR
 Fractional Distillation Of The Resultant Liquid
Air
 The liquefied air is then fractionally
distilled. Nitrogen with a lower boiling point of -
1960C boils out first. It is then followed by argon
with a b.pt of -1860C . Oxygen with a b.pt of -
1830C boils out last.
Test For Oxygen
 Test:
 Insert a glowing splinter into the unknown
gas
 Observation:
 The gas rekindles (relights) the glowing
splint.
 Inference/Conclusion:
 The gas is oxygen.
 Physical Properties of
Oxygen
 It is an odourless, colourles, tasteless and diatomic
gas.
 It is neutral to moist litmus paper.
 It is slightly denser than air.
 It is slightly soluble in water.
 It liquefies at -183oC and solidifies at -2250C.
 It does not burn but supports burning.
 It is a non-poisonous gas.
 Chemical Properties of
Oxygen
 1. Oxygen reacts with most metals to form basic
oxides some of which dissolve in water to form
alkalis. For examples,
 4Na (s) + O2 (g) 2Na2O (s)
 2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO (s)
 4K (s) + O2 (g) 2K2O (s)
 2. Oxygen reacts with non-metals to give
acidic oxides or acid anhydrides. Examples are
shown below:
 Chemical Properties of
Oxygen
 S(s) + O2(g) SO2 (g)
 SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
 P4(s) + 3O2(g) P4O6(g)
 P4O6(g) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO3(aq)
 C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
 CO2 (g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
 3. Oxygen reacts with compounds like
Phosphorous(III) oxide to give phosphorous(v)
oxide. Thus,
 P4O6(s) + 2O2(g) P4O10(s)
 Chemical Properties of
Oxygen
 4. Ammonia burns in oxygen to give water and
nitrogen. Thus,
 4NH3(g) + 3O2(g) 2N2 (g) + 6H2O(g)
 5. Carbon (II) oxide burns in oxygen to give
carbon (IV) oxide. Thus,
 2CO(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g)
Uses of oxygen
 It is used in breathing.
 It is essential for burning.
 In hospitals, oxygen is supplied to patients with
breathing difficulty and administered to patient
during anaesthetic.
 It is carried along in cylinders by ocean divers,
mountain climbers and astronauts to help in
breathing.
 It is used oxy-ethyne flame for welding and
cutting of metals.
OXIDES
 Oxides are compounds formed when
oxygen combines with another element. The
element may be metal or non metal. Thus,
 ELEMENT + OXYGEN OXIDE.
 Alternatively, oxides can be defined as
binary compounds of oxygen and other elements.
Types Of Oxides
 The following are types of oxides:
 Acidic Oxide,
 Basic Oxide,
 Amphoteric Oxide,
 Neutral Oxide,
Acidic Oxide
 An acidic oxide is an oxide of a non-metal that can dissolve
in water to form acid. They are otherwise called acid anhydrides.
 Examples of acidic oxides are: CO2; NO2; SO2; SO3 and P4O6
 CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
 SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)
 P4O10(g) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO4(aq)
 P4O6(g) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO3(aq)
 An acidic oxide can neutralize a base to form salt and water.
 CO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Acidic Oxides
 N/B. Nitrogen(IV)oxide is called a mixed
acid anhydride because when it dissolves in water
it forms a mixture of two acids; trioxonitrate(V)
acid and dioxonitrate(III) acid. Thus,
 NO2(g) + H2O(l)
HNO3(aq) + HNO2(aq)
Basic Oxide
 A basic oxide is an oxide of a metal that can react with
acid to form salt and water. Examples are:
 Na2O(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
 CuO (s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
 Most basic oxides do not dissolve in water, but those that
do form alkalis. Examples of soluble basic oxides are: Na2O;
K2O and CaO. These dissolve in water to form alkalis. Alkalis
are soluble metal hydroxides.
 Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)
 CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq)
 K2O(s) + H2O(l) 2KOH(aq)
Amphoteric Oxides
 These are oxides of metals that exhibit both basic
and acidic characteristics. Al, Zn and Pb oxides are
amphoteric. Thus,
 ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) +
H2O(l)
 ZnO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + H2O(l)
Na2Zn(OH)4(aq)
 Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2AlCl3(s) + 3H2O(l)
 Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l)
2NaAl(OH)4(aq)
Neutral Oxides
 A neutral oxide, as the name implies, is
neither acidic nor basic. They are neutral to litmus.
Examples of neutral oxides are: water, H2O;
carbon (II) oxide, CO and dinitrogen (I) oxide;
N2O, etc
Substances That Can Remove
Oxygen From The Air
 They are:
 -heated copper turnings;
 -burning phosphorus;
 -alkaline pyrogallol; etc
Heated Copper Turnings
 Air is passed through heated copper turnings in which
oxygen in air reacts with copper to form copper(II) oxide. Thus,
 Cu(s) + O2(g) 2CuO(s)

 Burning Phosphorus
 Burning phosphorus is used to remove oxygen in air by
the reaction between them. Thus,
 P4(s) + 5O2(g) P4O10 (s)


Alkaline Pyrogallol
 Pyrogallol is an organic compound with the
formula C6H3(OH)3. It is a white, water-soluble
solid although samples are typically brownish
because of its sensitivity toward oxygen. Hence, it
used to absorb oxygen in air.
EXERCISE
 1. List and briefly explain the types of oxides
 2.Give 2 examples each of the oxides in question
1.
 HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
 Hydrogen peroxide is another Hydride of
Oxygen apart from water.
 Laboratory Preparation of Hydrogen Peroxide
 Hydrogen peroxide is usually prepared in the
laboratory by the action of acid on metallic peroxides.
Thus,
 Acid + metallic peroxide Salt + Hydrogen
peroxide . For e.g.,
 H2SO4(aq) + BaO2(s) BaSO4(s) +
H2O2(aq)
 Physical Properties Of H2O2
 Pure hydrogen peroxide is a pale blue syrupy
liquid.
 It dissolves in water to give a very weak acidic
solution.
 It boils, with decomposition, at 1500C and freezes
about -0.90C.
 Chemical Properties of H2O2
 1. When hydrogen peroxide is exposed to air, it
decomposes to form water and oxygen. The
decomposition is accelerated by
 Heating,
 The addition of alkali,
 Introduction of finely divided metal such as gold,
platinum or Manganese(IV) oxide which act as catalyst.
 Thus, 2H2O2(l) Heat 2H2O(l) + O2(g).
 Au Catalyst
 Chemical Properties of H2O2
 2. H2O2 acts as a strong oxidizing agent in
chemical reactions in which it is reduced to water. For
example,
 PbS(s) + 4H2O2(l) PbSO4(aq) +
4H2O(l)
 3. In the presence of stronger oxidizing agents, H2O2
acts as a reducing agent. For example,
 Cl2(g) + H2O2(l) 2HCl(aq) +
O2(g)

ASSIGNMENT 4
 State with balanced equations, three methods of preparing oxygen in
the laboratory.
 Give two drying agents for oxygen gas
 Name three substances that can be used to remove oxygen from the
air.
 State the two processes involved in the industrial preparation of
oxygen fro the air.
 Define acid anhydrides; give three examples.
 Give two examples each of the following: (I) basic oxides (II)
amphoteric oxides (III) neutral oxides
 Give the anhydrides of the following acids (I) H2SO4 (II) HNO3 (III)
H2CO3 (IV)H3PO4 (V) H3PO3 (VI) HNO2 (VII) H2SO3
HYDROGEN
 Hydrogen (a name given by Antoine Lavoisier) means
water former. Each atom of the element has one proton and one
electron. It has no neutron, therefore, it is the lightest known
element.
 Thus, the electronic configuration of hydrogen is
1s1 or 1.
 Hydrogen usually has an oxidation of +1. However,
it has a valency of -1 in its hydrides. For eg, NaH
 Occurrence Of Hydrogen
 Hydrogen occurs as a diatomic molecule, H2. It is a component
of water gas, oil, natural gas, protein and carbohydrates. It is an
essential constituent of all living things.
HYDROGEN
 The Unique Position of Hydrogen In the Periodic Table
 Hydrogen resembles the elements of groups I, IV and VII in
some respects. However, the properties of hydrogen do not
completely match any one of the aforementioned groups. For this
reason, the position of hydrogen is still undecided.
 The reasons why hydrogen cannot be placed in a
particular group in the periodic table are as follows:
 Resemblance of hydrogen with the group I elements (alkali metals):
 Like alkali metals, hydrogen has one valence electron. For eg, 1H;
1
 3Li; 2, 1
 (ii) Both hydrogen and group I elements are good reducing agents
HYDROGEN
 (iii) Like alkali metals, hydrogen can also form halides.
Thus, Hydrogen halides: HCl, HI, HBr
 Alkali halides: NaCl, KI, KBr.
 (iv) Like alkali metals, hydrogen can also form
compounds with non-metals. Thus, Alkali compund:
Na2S
 Hydrogen compound: H2S
 However, the differences between
hydrogen and the group I elements are enumerated
below.
 Hydrogen Group I Elements

HYDROGEN
Hydrogen is a non-metal They are all metals.
 (iii) Like alkali metals, hydrogen can also form halides.
Hydrogen Thus, Hydrogen
can form halides:
both HCl,TheyHI, HBr
can only form ionic

covalent and ionic Alkali halides: NaCl, KI, KBr.
compounds.
 (iv) Like alkali metals, hydrogen can also form
compounds.
compounds with non-metals. Thus, Alkali compund:
It is a gas
Na2S at room They are solids at room
 Hydrogen compound: H2S
temperature and pressure. temperature and pressure.
 However, the differences between
H+ is unstable
hydrogenin andwater. Theirareions
the group I elements are stable in
enumerated
below. water.
HYDROGEN
 (b) Resemblance of hydrogen with the group IV elements (the
carbon family):
 (i) Like the elements of carbon family, the valence shell of
hydrogen is half-filled. Thus, 1H; 1
 6C; 2, 4
 (ii) The ionization potentials and electron affinities of hydrogen
and carbon family are comparable.
 (iii) Electronegativities of hydrogen and carbon family are
almost similar.
 However, the differences between hydrogen and
the group IV elements are given below.
Hydrogen Group IV Elements

HYDROGEN
It is monovalent. They are tetravalent.
 (b) Resemblance of hydrogen with the group IV elements (the
carbon family):
 (i) Like the elements of carbon family, the valence shell of
hydrogen is half-filled. Thus, 1H; 1
It is a gas at room They are solids at room
6C; 2, 4
temperature and pressure.
 (ii) The ionization temperature and pressure.
potentials and electron affinities of hydrogen
and carbon family are comparable.
 (iii) Electronegativities of hydrogen and carbon family are
The boiling and melting
almost similar.
Their boiling and melting
pointsof hydrogen are the differences
However, points are very
between high.
hydrogen and
very low. the group IV elements are given below.
HYDROGEN
 (c) Resemblance of hydrogen with the group VI elements (the
halogens):
 (i) Both hydrogen and halogens require one electron to complete
their valence shells.
 (ii) Both of them are non-metals (except iodine that has a partial
metallic character).
 (iii) Both of them act as negative ions when combined with metals.
 (iv) They both form diatomic molecules.
 (v) They both form ionic and covalent compounds.
 However, the differences between hydrogen and
halogens are:
Hydrogen Halogens

HYDROGEN
 (c) Resemblance of hydrogen with the group VI elements (the
It has one valence
halogens): They have seven
electron.

valence electrons.
(i) Both hydrogen and halogens require one electron to complete
their valence shells.
 (ii) Both of them are non-metals (except iodine that has a partial
metallic character).
 (iii) Both of them act as negative ions when combined with metals.
H+ is unstable in water. Their ions are stable in
(iv) They both form diatomic molecules.


water.
(v) They both form ionic and covalent compounds.
However, the differences between hydrogen and
halogens are:
HYDROGEN
 (d) Hydrogen is the only element which has no neutron in its
nucleus.
 Isotopes of Hydrogen
 The three isotopes of hydrogen are:
 Protium (hydrogen-1),
 Deuterium (hydrogen-2),
 Tritium (hydrogen-3).
 From the table below, all the isotopes of H have the
 same number of protons and electrons, but different
 numbers of nuetrons. Hence, they all have the same
 electronic configuration of 1s1 or 1.
Element Symbol Number Number Number
of Protons of of
Electrons Neutrons
HYDROGEN
Protium H or 11H 1 1 0
 (d) Hydrogen is the only element which has no
neutron in its nucleus.
 Isotopes of Hydrogen
Deuteriu D orisotopes
 The three
2
1H 1 hydrogen are:
of 1 1
m  Protium (hydrogen-1),
 Deuterium (hydrogen-2),
Tritium T or
 Tritium 3
1H 1
(hydrogen-3). 1 2
Element Symbol Number Number Number
of Protons of of
Electrons Neutrons
HYDROGEN
Protium H or 11H 1 1 0
 (d) Hydrogen is the only element which has no
neutron in its nucleus.
 Isotopes of Hydrogen
Deuteriu D orisotopes
 The three
2
1H 1 hydrogen are:
of 1 1
m  Protium (hydrogen-1),
 Deuterium (hydrogen-2),
Tritium T or
 Tritium 3
1H 1
(hydrogen-3). 1 2
 Laboratory Preparation Of
Hydrogen
 Hydrogen can be prepared in the
laboratory by reacting a
 fairly reactive metal like Zn with
dilute acid like H2SO4. A
 little CuSO4(aq) is usually added
to catalyze the reaction.
 The gas is collected over water.
The gas may be dried by
 passing it through conc. H2SO4
and then collected by
 upward delivery.
 Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4
ZnSO4(aq) +
H2(aq)

06/20/2024
 Laboratory Preparation Of
Hydrogen

06/20/2024
HYDROGEN

OTHER REACTIONS THAT PRODUCE HYDROGEN IN THE LABORATORY

 REACTION BETWEEN METALS AND STRONG ACIDS

 Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
 Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
 REACTION BETWEEN ACTIVE METALS AND WATER
 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
 Calcium reacts with cold water slowly
 Ca(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(aq)
 Magnesium reacts with steam
 Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)
 steam
 Reaction between steam and Iron at red heat
 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
 steam
HYDROGEN
 Reaction between certain metals (Zn, Al and Si) and warm
caustic alkalis( e.g. NaOH or KOH).
 Zn(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 2H2O(l) Na2Zn(OH)4 (aq) +
H2(g)
 sodium tetrahydroxoZincate(II)
 Al(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 6H2O(l) 2AlNaZn(OH)4 (aq) +
3H2(g) sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate(III)
 Si(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + H2O(l) Na2SiO3(s) + 2H2(g)
sodium Trioxosilicate(IV)
 N/B; These methods are not usually used in the laboratory preparation
of hydrogen.
 Test For Hydrogen
 Test:
 Insert a lighted splinter into the gas jar
containing an unknown.
 Observation:
 The gas burns with a pop sound and
extinguishes the lighted splint.
 Inference/Conclusion
 The gas is hydrogen.
 Industrial Preparation Of
Hydrogen
 Hydrogen can be prepared in the industry using any of the following
methods:
 Electrolysis of brine, dilute NaOH and acidified water;
 Steam reformation of natural gas (CH4);
 Action of alkanols on steam;
 The water gas reaction (bosch process).
 Electrolysis of Brine, Dil. NaOH and Acidified water
 Where there is a cheap power supply, hydrogen can easily be
 produced in large quantities by electrolysis of the
 aforementioned substances.
 Steam Reformation of Natural Gas
 Here, hydrogen is produced by the reaction between methane
 (CH4) from natural gas and steam. This reaction involves two
 stages.
 Industrial Preparation Of
Hydrogen
 Stage 1;
 Methane reacts with steam at 7500C to 8000C over a nickel
 catalyst to produce a mixture of hydrogen and carbon(II) oxide.
 Thus, CH4(g) + H2O(g) Heat CO(g) + 3H2(g).
 Ni (synthesis gas)
 Stage 2;
 The CO reacts reversibly with excess steam over an iron catalyst
 at 3500C to form more H2 and CO2. Thus,
 CO(g) + H2O(g) Fe CO2(g) + H2(g).
 3500C
 The impurities, mainly CO2 and H2S, can be removed by passing
 the gases (under pressure) through water.
 Industrial Preparation Of
Hydrogen
 Action of Alkanols on Steam
 When an alkanol such as methanol, is passed over steam at
 2500C and a copper catalyst, hydrogen and CO2 are formed.
 Thus, CH3OH(g) + H2O(g) 2500C CO2(g) + 3H2(g).
 Cu
 Water Gas Reaction (Bosch Process)
 Here, H2 is produced by passing steam over red-hot coke to first
 obtain water gas. Thus, C(s) + H2O(g) CO(g) + H2(g).
 Coke Water gas
 The water gas is further reacted with more steam over a catalyst,
 iron(III) oxide, at a temperature of 4500C to form CO2 and more
 of H2. Thus, CO(g) + H2(g) 4500C CO2(g) + 2H2(g).
 Fe2O3.
 Industrial Preparation Of
Hydrogen
 The CO2 is then removed by passing the
mixture through an alkali or dissolving in water
under a pressure of 30 atmosphere.
 Any remaining traces of CO is removed by
absorbing in ammoniacal solution of copper(I)
methanoate.
 Physical Properties Of
Hydrogen
 Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless, and tasteless gas.
 It is neutral to moist litmus paper.
 It is relatively insoluble in water.
 It is lighter or less dense than air. It is the lightest known
substance.
 It liquefies at -2350C ,under high pressure, and boils at -
2530C
 It burns with a pale blue flame but does not support
burning.
 It is a non-poisonous gas.
 Chemical Properties Of
Hydrogen
 1. It burns with a pale blue flame in air to form water. Thus,
 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)

 2. Hydrogen is a good reducing agent. It reduces the oxides of

less reactive metals such as CuO, Fe2O3, PbO, etc. For
example,
 PbO(s) + H2(g) Pb(s) + H2O(g)
 CuO(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) + H2O(g)

 3. Hydrogen combines with some reactive metals to form ionic

hydride. Examples include;
 Chemical Properties Of
Hydrogen

 2Li(s) + H2(g) 2LiH(s)

 2Na(s) +H2(g) 2NaH(s)
 Ca(s) + H2(g) CaH2(s)
 4. Hydrogen reacts explosively with chlorine in
the presence of sunlight to form hydrogen chloride
 H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)
Uses Of Hydrogen
 Hydrogen is used in the manufacture of ammonia in the
Haber process.
 It is used in the hydrogenation of oils in the manufacture of
margarine.
 It is used in the manufacture of methanol.
 It is used in oxy-hydrogen flame for cutting metals.
 Liquid hydrogen is used as rocket fuel.
 It is used in the manufacture of synthetic petroleum
(hydrogenation of coal in Bergius process).
 C(s) + H2 synthetic petroleum
CLASSWORK 5 A
 Why is hydrogen regarded as the lightest known
element in the periodic table? (2mks)
 Why is it that hydrogen has a valency of -1 in its
hydrides? (2mks)
 With convincing reasons, explain the unique position
of hydrogen in the periodic table. (4mks)
 Describe the test for hydrogen. Differentiate this test
from that of oxygen. (2mks)
ASSIGNMENT 5 A
 State with balanced equations any two methods of
preparing hydrogen in: (a) laboratory (b) industries.
Give one drying agent for hydrogen gas.
(4mks)
 Give two substances that can be used to absorb or
remove CO2 from a sample of air. (2mks)
 Name one substance that can be used to absorb CO.
(1mk)
 What is synthesis gas? (2mks)
 State one use of hydrogen. (1mk)
AIR POLLUTION
 Air pollution is the process of releasing harmful
substances into the atmosphere.
 Air Pollutants
 Air pollutants are harmful substances released into the
atmosphere. Air pollutants can be grouped into two classes:
 Solid air pollutants,
 Gaseous air pollutants
 Solid Air Pollutants
 They include dusts, soot, lead dust, radioactive
materials, pollen grains, spores of bacteria and fungi.
 AIR POLLUTION
 Gaseous Air Pollutants
 They include sulphur (IV) oxide, oxides of carbon (CO and
CO2), oxides of nitrogen (NO and NO2) and chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs).
 Effects of Air Solid Pollutants
 Lead
 Source:
 It is emitted in the exhaust of motor cars using leaded petrol.
 Effect:
 Lead dust can cause lead poisoning and injury to the
nervous system.
 Dust, soot and smoke
 Source:
 They are emitted by industrial processes,
burning of coal and wood fires.
 Effect:
 They damage the respiratory system if
breath in as air.
 AIR POLLUTION

 Radioactive materials
 Source:
 They are obtained from nuclear plants and
explosives (atomic bomb)
 Effect:
 They inhibit cell division, denature
proteins and cause deformities in children.
 Effects of gaseous air
pollutants
 Effects of Gaseous Air Pollutants
 Sulphur (IV) oxide(SO2)
 Source:
 Combustion of sulphur containing coal and cracking of
petroleum from industrial plant.
 Effects:
 SO2 causes acid rain which changes the acidity of water and
causes changes in the population of plants and animals in the
water.
 2. It causes acute injuries and drying of injured tissues in plants.
 3. It corrodes metallic structures and building materials.
AIR POLLUTION
 4. It causes reduction in growth rate in plants.
 It causes irritation of the nose, throat and respiratory
system when breathed in as air.
 Oxides of Nitrogen
 Sources:
 They are generated by automobiles and
electricity generating stations.
 Effect:
 1. NO2 causes acute leaf injuries and leaves drop in
citrus trees on exposure.
 AIR POLLUTION

 2. NO2 produces pulmonary oedema and also produces

certain changes in the cell when inhaled.
 3. NO combines with haemoglobin to cause suffocation.
 Oxides of Carbon
 Sources:
 CO is generated by in- complete combustion of
 automobile fuels.
 Effect:
 It combines with haemoglobin to cause suffocation
 and death.
POLLUTION
 AIR POLLUTION

 Sources:
 CO2 is generated by complete combustion of
fossil fuel.
 Effects:
 It helps to retain a certain amount of the infra-red
 rays that is radiated by earth.
 This gives rise to the green house effect;(a gradual
warming of our planet i.e. global warming). So,
green house gases are CO2, CH4 and water vapour.
 AIR POLLUTION

 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs):
 Sources:
 Freon is used as propellants for spray
cans , coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners
and for making plastics foams.
 AIR POLLUTION

 Effects:
 It combines with oxygen causing ozone
layer depletion. Thus increasing the ultra- violet
radiation in the earth’s surface poses danger to
human health and cause an increase in cataracts,
skin cancer and sunburns.
Control Of Air Pollution
 By passing strict laws
 By educating people on the causes and dangers of
air pollution.
 By improving machine for more efficient fuel
combustion engines
 Use of fossil fuel should be reduced.
 Industries should be far from residential areas.
 Burning of refuse in incinerators with in built
devices to control air pollution.
Class work 5 B
 1. Define the following:
 i. air pollution
 ii. air pollutants (4mks)
 2. Mention two:
 i. Solid air pollutants,
 ii. Gaseous air pollutants (2mks)
 3. State one effect of the following:
 (i). lead (ii). SO2 iii. CO (iv). CO2 v. CFCs
(4mks)
ASSIGNMENT 5 B
 1. State the air pollutants that cause the following:
 Suffocation and death
 Acid rain
 Global warming
 Ozone layer depletion (4mks)
 2. State three effects of ozone later depletion
(3mks)
 3. Name any three solid air pollutants. (3mks)
WATER
 Water is one of the most important compounds on earth. It is
made up of hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of 2:1.
 Water is considered as a universal solvent because it can dissolve
a wide variety of substances due to its polar nature.
 Sources Of Water
 Sources of water include;
 Natural water is obtained from two main sources:
 surface water e.g rainwater river water, lake water, and sea water.
 ground water e.g. well-water, spring water.
 Rain water is the purest form of natural water.
 Spring water is a good source of drinking as it contains some
mineral salts and less bacteria and suspended impurities.
WATER
 Treated water: e.g. distilled water, pipe borne(tap) water,
chlorinated water and deionized water.
 Treatment Of Water For Township Supply
 Water from natural sources is rarely pure and therefore, it must be
treated before supplied to the town for domestic and human consumption.
 Stages Involved In The Treatment
 They include;
 Screening and storage,
 Coagulation or flocculation,
 Sedimentation,
 Filtration, and
 Disinfection.
 Treatment of water for
township supply
 Screening and Storage:
 Water is pump from a river (the source) and allowed to pass
through a screen that removes larger bits of rubbish. The water is
then stored in a reservoir.
 Coagulation or flocculation:
 This involves addition of alum (potash alum) or sodium
aluminate(III) to the untreated water in large tanks or reservoirs.
This causes the impurities to clump together forming large particles
(flocs).
 Sedimentation:
 The flocs settle to the bottom of the tank. Addition of alum
facilitate sedimentation.
 Treatment of water for
township supply
 Filtration:
 The water is then passed through sand bed (slow sand filter) to
remove the remaining fine particles of dirt.
 Disinfection or Addition Of Some Calculated Amount Chemicals
 Activated carbon filter(activated charcoal); to remove unwanted
colour.
 Calcium hydroxide(slaked lime); to improve taste or correct the pH.
 (III) Chlorine: to kill bacteria or germs.
 (IV) Iodine: to prevent goitre.
 (V) Fluorine: to prevent dental caries(tooth decay).
 Finally, the treated water is stored in reservoirs and ready for
distribution to the town for use.
Treatment of water for township
supply
 N/B; The water may also be aerated.
Aeration involves exposing the water to a large
amount of air which causes oxidation that kills
micro organisms. To ensure the water is free from
microbes, calculated amount of chlorine is added
before distribution.
HARDNESS OF WATER
 A sample of water is said to be hard when
it does not lather or foam readily with soap. This
is because it contains a high concentration
dissolved minerals, particularly Ca2+ and Mg2+
ions.
 Origin Of Hardness of Water
 (i) When water dissolves gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O
from rocks.(permanent hardness)
 (ii) When water containing dissolved
carbon(IV)oxide, CO2 dissolves limestone
forming soluble calcium hydrogen
Cause Of Hardness
 Soap is sodium or potassium salt of fatty
acids( e.g. sodium octadecanoate or sodium
stearate). When soap is added to hard water the
calcium or magnesium ion forming insoluble
scum(which is calcium octadecanoate or calcium
stearate)
 2NaSt. + Ca2+ 2Na+ + CaSt2
 Soap hardwater calcium
stearate(scum)
 Types of Hardness
 The two types of hardness of water include:
Types Of Hard Water

 Temporary Hardness
 This is caused by the presence of dissolved calcium or
magnesium hydrogen trioxocarbonate(IV), Ca(HCO3)2 or
Mg(HCO3)2 in water.
 It is called temporary hardness because it can be removed
easily by boiling. Heat decomposes the soluble calcium hydrogen
trioxocarbonate(IV) to insoluble calcium trioxocarbonate(IV). On
a large scale this method of removing temporary hardness from
water would be expensive.
 Ca(HCO3)2(aq) Heat CaCO3(s) + H2O(I) +
CO2(g)
 Soluble insoluble
 Temporary Hardness

 Chemical Methods of Removing Temporary Hardness

 (a) Addition of calculated amount of slaked lime(calcium hydroxide):
 Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) 2CaCO3(s) +
2H2O(I)
 The soluble calcium ion in water is removed as an insoluble calcium
trioxocarbonate(IV)
 (b) Addition of sodium trioxocarbonate(IV), Na2CO3 :
 Na2CO3(aq) + Ca(HCO3)2(aq) CaCO3(s) +
NaHCO3(s)
 hard water
 (c) By boiling
 (d) Distillation
 TEMPORARY HARDNESS

 Effects of Temporary Hardness

 (a) Furring of kettles and boilers: The white fur formed
in kettles and boilers when used to boil hard
water(kettle) or when hard boiling water is passed
through is gradual deposition of CaCO3 due to
decomposition of Ca(HCO3)2 from hard water. This
reduces the bore of the pipes, causes over heating which
leads to weakening and bursting of the pipes.
 (b) Formation of stalagmites and stalactites in caves

 PERMANENT HARDNESS
 Permanent hardness is caused by the presence of soluble calcium
and magnesium tetraoxosulphate(VI) and soluble chlorides in water. It is
called permanent hardness because it cannot be removed by a mere boiling
of the hard water.
 Removal Of Permanent Hardness
 The methods include:
 (a) Addition of washing soda, Na2CO3.
 CaSO4(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
 (b) Addition of sodium hydroxide, NaOH.
 CaSO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) Ca(OH)2(S) + Na2SO4(aq)
 (c) Use of permutit or Zeolite: Permutit is ion-exchange resin, a naturally
occurring sodium trioxosilicate(IV) commonly known as sodium zeolite.
PERMANENT HARDNESS
 How Sodium Zeolite Works
 When hard water passes through the resin, the sodium ions goes
into solution while the calcium ion replaces the sodium ion in the resin.
 Sodium zeolite + calcium tetraoxosulphate(IV)

 calcium zeolite + sodium tetroxosulphate(VI)

 insoluble soluble
 N/B: The zeolite can be regenerated by addition of strong solution of
sodium chloride.
 Sodium chloride + calcium zeolite sodium zeolite + calcium
chloride
 Advantages of Hard Water
 It tastes better than soft water due the presence of dissolved
minerals.
 Calcium in hard water helps to build up strong bones and
teeth in animals.
 It also helps mollusc e.g snails to make their shells.
 It does not dissolve lead pipes that may lead to lead poisoning
 Disadvantages Of Hard Water
 It wastes soap.
 It causes furring of kettles and boilers.
 It cannot be used for dyeing and tanning.
 Disadvantages Of Soft Water
 It dissolves lead pipes.
 It is not nutritious as it lacks essential nutrients e.g
Calcium
 Physical Properties of water
 Pure water is a clear, colourless, tasteless and
odourless liquid.
 It has a boiling point of 1000C.
 It has a freezing point and a melting point of 00C.
 At 4 0C water has a maximum density of 1g/cm3
 It is neutral to litmus.
 Chemical properties of water
 1. Reaction with metals: Metals like sodium, potassium
and calcium react with cold water to liberate hydrogen
gas and form alkaline solutions.
 Potassium reacts explosively, sodium reacts
vigorously and calcium reacts slowly.
 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
 Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
 Chemical Properties Of Water
 Magnesium, aluminium, zinc, tin and iron reacts with
steam.
 Magnesium reacts with steam to form magnesium oxide
and hydrogen gas.
 Zinc and Iron react with steam at red heat.
 Aluminium reacts with steam at above 6000C.
 Equations;
 Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)
 Zn(s) + H2O(g) ZnO(s) + H2(g)
 Lead, copper, mercury, silver and gold do not react both
water and steam.
 Reaction of water with metals
 K
 Na reacts with cold water
 Ca

 Mg
 Al
 Zn reacts wit steam
 Fe

 Pb
 Cu
 Hg do not react with water or steam
 Ag
 Au
 Chemical Properties of
water
 2. Reaction with oxides:
 (a) Water reacts with acidic oxides to form acidic solutions (see note on
oxides)
 (b) Water reacts with basic oxides to form alkalis.(see notes on oxides)
 3.Reaction with non-metals;
 with chlorine, it forms a mixture of two acids.
 Cl2(g)+ H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)
 (b) Carbon reacts with steam at red heat to form water gas.(an equal
mixture of CO and H2)
 C(s) + H2O(g) CO(g) + H2(g)


USES OF WATER
 1.It is a universal solvent because it can dissolve
many solids, liquids and gases.
 2. It constitutes about 80% of the body weight.
 3. It aids digestion and assimilation of food.
 4. It is also a medium for transporting food and
other substances.
 5.It acts as a lubricant
 6.It helps in temperature control by its evaporation.
TEST FOR WATER
 When a few drops of water are added to:
 (a)White anhydrous copper (II) tetraoxosulphate
(VI), it turns blue. Thus,
 CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)
CuSO4.5H2O(s)
 White anhydrous blue hydrated
 (b)Blue cobalt (II)chloride, it turns pink.
 CoCl2(s) + 6H2O(l) CoCl2.6H2O
 Blue anhydrous pink hydrated
WATER POLLUTION
 Water pollution is the in discriminate
release of harmful substances into water bodies.
 WATER POLLUTANTS
 Water pollutants are harmful substances that are
discharged into water bodies through human activities.
 They include:
 Domestic wastes- refuse and sewage
 Industrial wastes- dyes, detergents, acids, heavy metals
like mercury, lead etc.
 Agricultural wastes- pesticides and fertilizers
 Waste water(HOT)- thermal pollution
 Oil spillage
WATER POLLUTION
 Effects of water pollution
 Polluted water containing heavy metals such as lead and
mercury can easily cause death to both aquatic and land
animals.
 Accumulation and breakdown of domestic sewage reduces
oxygen level in water.
 It reduces light penetration and hence photosynthesis is
reduced.
 Drinking and use of contaminated water spreads germs that
cause diseases.
 Waste water increases water temperature
 and directly kill aquatic organisms.
 Effects of water pollution
 6. Agricultural waste i.e. fertilizers stimulate
excessive growth of aquatic plants(Eutrophication)
and oxygen is depleted in water.
 7. Detergents are poisonous and may kill
organisms and reduce light penetration.
 8. Dyes are poisonous to aquatic organisms and
may accumulate in fishes and affect man that eats
such fish.
 Control of water pollution
 1.Treatment of sewage before it is discharged into
water.
 2. Control discharge of industrial waste and treatment.
 3. Use of detergent that can be degraded into harmless
substances and correct sewage treatment before
discharge.
 4. Burning and burying of refuse
 5. Reduce the use of some pesticides and fertilizers.
Oil spillage
 This is an accidental or deliberate
discharged of oil into the environment.
Causes of Oil Spillage
 Explosion during drilling operations in the oil well
or in depots.
 The bursting /damage of pipelines through failures
in operational equipments.
 Damaged oil tankers through accidents in depots
or along delivery routes.
 Sabotage organized by unsatisfied citizens or
thieves who burst pipelines to siphon fuel.
 Effects of oil spillage
 Oil spillage kills all life forms in the aquatic
environment.
 Oil spillage makes the water in rivers and sea unfit for
drinking.
 Oil spillage destroys plants in and around the water
body including crops.
 On land oil spillage kill plants and animals and make
the land unfit for planting crops.
 Oil spillage will cause some industries to close down
and people will loose jobs.
 Control of oil spillage
 Oil spillage is best controlled through preventive
operational measures.
 Dispersants like detergents should be applied with
caution to avoid further harmful effects by the
detergents.
 Other forms of dispersants that can remove oil
with out harming the organisms should be used.
Water pollution
 ......:
7 of
T2 WK
……
8
1. Define water pollution. (1mk)
2. Define water pollutants. (1mk)
3. Mention 4 sources of water pollutants.
Topic
(2mks)
: CLASS EXERCISE 7
4. Mention 3 effects of water pollution. (3mks)
5. Mention 3 ways of controlling water pollution.
(3mks)
6. Give any two agricultural pollutants explaining in
each case how the pollution is caused.
(4mks)
 ......:
7 of
T2 WK
……
8

1. Explain briefly why water is a good solvent for sodium chloride but not for oil.
Topic : ASSIGNMENT 7 (2mks)
2. State the two types hardness in water. (1mks)
3. Name a salt that causes each type of hardness in (2) above.
(2mks)
4. Write a balanced equation for the removal of each type of hardness in (2) above.
(2mks)
5. Why is water regarded as a universal solvent? (1mk)
6. How would you show that each of the following substances contains water?
(i) Brine; (1mk)
(ii) A blue dye. (1mk)
SOLUTION
 A solution is any homogeneous mixture of
two or more substances. Or a solution is the
homogeneous mixture of a solvent and a solute.
 Solvent + solute solution
 N/B; a solvent or solute may be solid,
liquid or gas depending on the substance which is
in excess or not in excess. Any substance that is in
excess is regarded as the solvent while the one that
is not in excess is the solute.
Solutes Solvents
Iodine Ethanol
Paints Turpentine
Sulphur Solutes andCarbon(IV)
their solvents
sulphide
Naphthalene Ethanol
Sugar Water
Sodium chloride Water
Copper(II) Water
tetraoxosulphate(VI)
Rubber Benzene
Grease Petrol
Types of solution
 Aqueous solution: This is a solution in which the solvent(liquid)
is water.
 Non-aqueous solution: This is a solution in which the solvent
(liquid) is not water.
 Chemical solution: This is a solution of a solute in a solvent
accompanied by a chemical reaction.
 True solution: This is a solution in which the solute particles are
uniformly dispersed in a liquid forming a homogeneous mixture. The
solute particles which are too small to be seen by the naked eye are
called crystalloids.
 False or Colloidal solution: This is a solution in which the solute
particles are larger than those in true solution but not large enough to be
seen by the naked eye. E. g starch and albumen.
Types of solution
 Saturated solution: A saturated solution of a solute
in at a particular temperature is one which contains as much
solute than it can dissolve at that temperature in the
presence of undissolved solute particles. The concentration
of a saturated solution varies with the solute, solvent and
temperature. OR
 A solution that can dissolve no more of the solute at
a particular temperature is said to be a saturated solution at
that temperature.
 A saturated solution is always at equilibrium with
the undissolved solute.
Solutions and sollubility
Types of solution
 Unsaturated solution: This is a solution that contains less than
the maximum amount of solute it can dissolve at a particular temperature.
Unsaturated solution can still dissolve more solute.
 Supersaturated solution: A solution is said to be super saturated
when it contains more of the solute than it could hold at that temperature
if crystals of the solute were present.
 Solution that is more concentrated than a saturated solution is
known as supersaturated solution. If a crystal of solute is added to this
solution, the excess of solute crystallizes out.
 A supersaturated solution is unstable. Over time, they will tend to
precipitate out some solute until they are only saturated again. Sometimes
this can be prevented by not providing any surface for molecules of
solute to aggregate on.
A super saturated solution
True Solution False or Colloidal Solution
Differences Between True
and False/Colloidal solutions
 Unsaturated solution: This is a solution that contains less than
The solution can be The solution cannot be
the maximum amount of solute it can dissolve at a particular temperature.
Unsaturated solution can still dissolve more solute.
dialyzed
 (i.e., the solutes dialyzed.
Supersaturated solution: A solution is said to be super saturated
can diffuse through a semi
when it contains more of the solute than it could hold at that temperature
if crystals of the solute were present.
permeable
 membrane)
Solution that is more concentrated than a saturated solution is
known as supersaturated solution. If a crystal of solute is added to this
The solutes do not scatter The solutes can scatter light
solution, the excess of solute crystallizes out.
light rays.

rays (i.e., the solution
A supersaturated solution is unstable. Over time, they will tend to
precipitate out some solute until they are only saturated again. Sometimes
exhibits the Tyndall effect.
this can be prevented by not providing any surface for molecules of
solute to aggregate on.
 Similarity Between True
and False/Colloidal solutions
 In both of them, the solutes can pass through a filter paper.
 Their solutes cannot be seen by the naked eyes
 Types of Colloids
 They are:
 Sols,
 Gels,
 Aerosols,
 Emulsion, etc
 Sols
 These are colloids in which solid particles are dispersed in liquid
medium. For example, starch, glue, agar, jelly, gelatin, clay, etc
 Gels
 These are colloids formed when sols solidify under certain
conditions.
 Aerosols
 These are colloidal systems in which liquid particles are dispersed
in gases. Examples are fog, smoke, sprays of insecticides, deodorants from
aerosol cans.
 Emulsions
 These are colloidal systems whereby liquids are dispersed in other
liquids. Examples include milk, hair cream, cod liver oil, etc. Butter is a
solid emulsion (i.e., liquid particles dispersed in a solid medium).
 N.B: The cleaning action of soap and detergents is due to their ability to
form emulsions.
Colloid Solvent or Solute or
dispersion dispersed
Examples medium
of colloids substance
Fog Gas Liquid
 Gels
 These are colloids formed when sols solidify under certain
Smoke conditions.
Gas Aerosols
Solid
 These are colloidal systems in which liquid particles are dispersed
in gases. Examples are fog, smoke, sprays of insecticides, deodorants from
Foam or lather
aerosol cans. Liquid Gas
 Emulsions
 These are colloidal systems whereby liquids are dispersed in other
Emulsion Liquid Liquid
liquids. Examples include milk, hair cream, cod liver oil, etc. Butter is a
solid emulsion (i.e., liquid particles dispersed in a solid medium).
 N.B: The cleaning action of soap and detergents is due to their ability to
form emulsions.
Sols Liquid Solid
Suspensions

 A suspensions is a heterogeneous mixture of
undissolved particles in a given medium. The particles
are usually large enough to be seen without the aid of
an instrument, and they eventually settle down if left
standing. The harmattan is an example of a suspension.
Other examples are clouds, fogs, aerosols, etc.
 Read-up the comparisons between the particle
sizes of true solutions, colloidal solution and
suspensions.
SOLUBILITY
 Solubility is a means of comparing the
extent to which different solutes can dissolve in a
particular solvent at a definite temperature.
 DEFINITION OF
SOLUBILITY
 It is defined as the maximum amount of solute in moles
or in grams required to saturate 1 dm3 of solvent at a given
temperature.
 Solubility can be expressed in
 gdm-3
 moldm-3
 Generally, solubility may be calculated using the
relationship below:
 Solubility in moldm-3 =
 mass of salt, g x 1000cm3 of solvent or solution
 molar mass, gmol-1 x volume of solvent or solution,cm3
 DEFINITION OF
SOLUBILITY
 Solubility in gdm-3 =
 mass of salt or solute, g x 1000cm3 of solvent or
solution volume of solvent or
solution, cm3.
 DETERMINATION OF
SOLUBILITY
 The determination of the solubility of a
particular solute involves two stages:
 The preparation of a saturated solution of the
solute at the particular temperature;
 Taking a known mass of the saturated solution,
evaporating it to dryness and consequently
calculating the exact mass of the solvent and
solute in the saturated solution at the specified
temperature.
ASSIGNMENT 8 A
 Describe how you would determine the solubility of
potassium trioxonitrate(V) in water at the temperature of
the laboratory.

(5mks)
 Hint: check New School Chemistry pg 308.
 State the difference(s) between saturated , unsaturated
and super saturated solutions.

(5mks)
 Calculations In Solubility
 1. Temperature of water bath = 25oC
 Mass of saturated solution NaCl = 25g
 Mass of solute = 6.56g
 Mass of solvent (water evaporated) = 18.44g
 Molar mass of NaCl = 58.5g/mol
 Volume of water involved = 18.44cm 3

 18.44cm3 of water dissolves 6.56g of NaCl

 1000cm 3 of water would dissolve 6.56 x 1000
 18.44
 = 355.75gdm-3
 This is the solubility of NaCl in gdm-3 at 250C
 Calculations In Solubility
 Number of moles of NaCl = 355.75

58.5
 =
6.08 moldm-3
 Solubility of sodium chloride in moldm-3
at 25oC is 6.08 moldm-3.
 Calculations In Solubility
 2. If 12.2g of lead(II) trioxonitrate(V) were dissolved in 21g of distilled water
at 200C, calculate the solubility of the solute in moldm-3. [Molar mass of
Pb(NO3)2 = 331g/mol]
 Solution
 Number of moles of Pb(NO3)2 = 12.2g
 331g/mol
 = 0.037mol
 21g or 21cm3 of water dissolved 0.037mol of Pb(NO3)2 at 200C.
 100cm3 of water will dissolve = 1000cm3 x 0.037mol
 21cm3.
 = 1.76mol of Pb(NO3)2
 at 200C.
 Therefore, the solubility of Pb(NO3)2 is 1.76moldm-3 at 200C.
 Calculations In Solubility
 Alternatively using formula method,
 Solubility in moldm-3 = mass,g x 1000cm3
 molar mass, g/mol x vol,
cm3.
 = 12.2g x 1000cm3
 331g/mol x 21cm3.
 = 1.76moldm-3.
 3. The following data were obtained in an experiment to determine the
solubility of potassium trioxochlorate(V) in water at room temperature:
 Mass of saturated solution = 55.27g
 Mass of solvent evaporated = 43.40g
 Molar mass of KNO3 = 101gmol-1
 Calculations In Solubility
 Calculate the solubility of KNO3 in:
 (i) g/dm3
 (ii) mol/dm3.
 Solution
 Mass of dry residue (KNO3) = (55.27 – 43.40)g
 = 11.87g
 1g of water = 1cm3 of water
 Solubility of KNO3 in gdm-3 = mass, g x 1000cm3
 vol. of solvent, cm3.
 = 11.87g x 1000cm3
 43.40cm3.
 = 273.50gdm-3 at 250C
 Calculations In Solubility
 (ii) Solubility of KNO3 in moldm-3 = mass, g x
1000cm3
 molar mass, gmol-1 x
vol. of solvent, cm3.
 = 11.87g x
1000cm3
 101g/mol
x 43.40cm3.
 =
2.71moldm-3 at 250C
 Solubility Curve/Graph
 This is a graph of solubility in moles per
dm3 against temperature. The graph could be used
to determine the solubility of a solute at different
temperatures.
 Application Of Solubility
Curves
 It enables pharmacist to know the right quantity of
drugs to be dissolved in a particular solvent to get
a desired dosage.
 It enables chemist and researchers to know what
solvent at what temperature is to be used in the
extraction of essential chemicals from natural
sources.
 It enables purification by fractional crystallization.
 Solubility Of Solids And
Gases In Liquids
 Solubility of solids in liquids increases with
increase in temperature except for Ca(OH)2 and
CaSO4 where it decreases.
 Solubility of gases in liquids decreases with
increase in temperature
 Solubility of solids in liquids is not affected by
pressure
 Solubility of gases in liquids increases with
increase in pressure.
 Miscellaneous Calculations
 1. At 100oC the solubility of salt X is 1.05g per 1000g of water.
At 70oC the solubility is 0.95g per 1000g of water. If the saturated
solution made in 3.5g of water is cooled from 100oC to 70oC,
how much of it will crystallize out?
 Solution
 At 100oC, 1000g of water dissolves 1.05g of X
 At 70oC, 1000g of water dissolves 0.95g of X
 On cooling from 100oC to 70oC, 1000g of water will
 deposit 1.05 – 0.95 = 0.10g
 Therefore, on cooling from 1000C to 700C,
 1000g of water deposit 0.10g of X
 Miscellaneous Calculations
 Therefore, 3.5g of water will deposit 0.10 x 3.5g
 1000
 = 0.00035g of X
 2. If the solubility of sodium chloride at 30oC is 50g per 1000g of
water, how much of the salt will be obtained from 35g of the
solution?
 Solution
 1000g of water dissolves 50g of NaCl
 35g of water will dissolve 50 x 35
 1000
 = 1.75g of NaCl
 Miscellaneous Calculations
 Mass of solution that contains 1.75g of
NaCl = 35 + 1.75
 = 36.75g
 If 36.75g of solution contains 1.75g of
NaCl, then
 35g of solution will contain 1.75 x 35g
 36.75
 = 1.67g of NaCl
 Miscellaneous Calculations
 3. The solubility of sodium tetraoxosulphate (VI) at 35oC is 2.4mol/dm3
water, calculate the mass of the tetraoxosulphate(VI) present in 160cm3
of solution at 35oc.
 Solution
 Molar mass of Na2SO4 = (23 x2) + 32 + (16 x 4)
 = 46 + 32 + 64
 = 142gmol-1
 Mass of Na2SO4 in 1000cm3 = 142 x 2.4
 = 340.80g
 Mass of Na2SO4 in 160cm3
 = 340.80 x 160 = 54.53g
 1000
 Miscellaneous Calculations
 4. 12g of solid potassium trioxochlorate(v), KClO3, were added to
40 cm3 of water and heated to dissolve all the solid. As the solution
cools, crystals of potassium trioxochlorate (v) starts to form at
66oC. Calculate the solubility of the trioxochlorate (v) at 66oC.
 [K = 39, Cl = 35.5, O = 16]
 Solution
 Molar mass of KClO3 = 39+35.5+16 x 3
 = 39+35.5+48
 = 122.50g/mol
 Solubility = mass x 1000
 molar mass x volume
 Miscellaneous Calculations
 12g x 1000
 122.5 40
 = 0.098 x 25
 = 2.45moldm-3
 5. Calculate the solubility of Na2CO3 at 25oC, if 0.0cm3 of the
saturated solution at that temperature gave 1.75g of anhydrous
salt.
 Solution
 Molar mass of Na2CO3 =(23 x 2) +12 +(16 x 3)
 = 46+12+48
 = 106g/mol
 Miscellaneous Calculations
 mass x 1000
 Molar mass x volume
 = 1.75 x 1000
 106 x 20
 0.83mol/dm3
1. Water was added to 120g of a salt MCl2 to produce
60Cm3 of a saturated solution at 298K. The
Study
solubility Mesalt at that temperature was
of the
8.0mol/dm3. calculate the mass of the salt which
remained undissolved. [M = 24, Cl = 35.5]
2. the solubility of a solute X at 75oC is 270g per 100g
water while at 32oC it is 105g per 100g water.
Calculate the mass of X that will
Crystallize out of the solution if 233g of the
saturated solution at 75oC is cooled to 32oC
Study me
 3. If the solubility of KNO3 at 0oC is
1.33mol/dm3, determine whether a solution of
KNO3 containing 30.30g/dm3 at 0oC is saturated
or unsaturated.
SOLUTION
 1. molar mass of MCl2 = 24+ (35.5 x 2)
 = 24+71
 = 95g/mol
 Solubility of MCl2 = 8.0mol/dm3
 Mass of MCl2 dissolved in 1000cm3
 = 8 x 95g
 = 760g of MCl2
 60cm3 will dissolve 760 x 60 g of MCl2
 1000
 = 45.60g of MCl2
 SOLUTION
 Mass of undissolved MCl2 = 120 - 45.60
 = 74.40g of
MCl2
 2. At 75oC, 100cm3 contains 270g of X
 At 32oC, 100cm3 contains 105g of X.
 On cooling from 75oC to 32oC, the mass of salt
that will crystallize out will be
 270 – 105
 = 165g of X
 If 100g of solution crystallized out 165g of X,
 SOLUTION
 233g of solution will crystallize out
 165 x 233g of X
 100
 = 384.45g of X.
 SOLUTION
 3.Molar mass of KNO3 = 39+14+(16 x3)
 = 39+14+48
 = 101g/mol
 Mass of KNO3 in 1dm3 = 1.33 x 101
 = 134.33g
 The solution containing 30.30g/dm3 is
unsaturated.
 ASSIGNMENT 8B
 1. In an experiment to determine the solubility of a given salt Y, the
following data were provided:
 Mass of dry empty dish = 7.16g
 Mass of dish + salt Y = 10.60g
 Mass of dish + saturated solution of salt Y = 19.75g
 Temperature of solution = 300C
 Density of solution Y = 1.00g/cm3
 Molar mass of salt Y = 100g/mol
 Calculate the solubility salt Y in:
 (i) gdm-3 of solution; (6mks)
 (ii) moldm-3 of solution. (2mks)
Temperature, 0C ASSIGNMENT
0 10 20 30 8B
40 50 60
Solubility, moldm-3 0.13 0.21 0.31 0.45 0.63 0.85 1.10
 2. The table below gives the solubility of salt Z at various
temperatures:

 Using a graph paper, plot a graph of solubility against temperature.

(5mks)
 From the graph, determine the solubility of salt Z at 350C. (2mks)
 If 100cm3 of saturated solution is cooled from 550C to 350C,
calculate the mass of salt Z that would crystallize out.
[Molar mass of salt Z =100gmol-1] (5mks)
 ......: 1 of
T2 WK9 ……

Topic : SHAPES OF SIMPLE

MOLCULES
Point : BONDING AND NON
 Learning Outcomes BONDING OR LONE PAIR
 At the end of the lesson, students should be able
to:
• Explain VSEPR Point : LEWIS FORMULA

• Show bonding and non

bonding electrons
Point : LINEAR SHAPE
• Draw Lewis structure
for simple molecules
 ......: 2 of
T2 WK 9 ……

Topic : SHAPE OF SIMPLE

MOLECULES

Picture or diagrams to introduce the lesson or topic

THE TRIGONAL SHAPE OF AMMONIA

The Electron Pair Repulsion Theory

 The VSEPR[valence shell electron pair repulsion theory]

model can be explained in the following ways:
 1. An atom has an outer shell of valence electrons. These valence
electrons may be involved in the formation of single, double, or
triple bonds, or they may be unshared.
 2. Each set of electrons, whether unshared or in a bond, creates
a negatively charged region of space that tend to repel each other.
 The VSEPR model states that the various regions containing
electrons or electron clouds around an atom spread out so that each
region is as far from the others as possible. OR the shape adopted
by a simple molecule or ion is that which keeps repulsive forces to a
minimum.
 SHAPES OF SIMPLE
MOLECULES
 The shape of a molecule or ion is governed by the
arrangement of the electron pairs[bonding and non-bonding
or lone pairs] around the central atom.
 Due to the presence of the equal repulsive forces
between bond pairs, most simple molecules, (ones with a
central atom and others bonded to it), have standard shapes
with equal bond angles.
 Also, lone pairs of electrons on the central atom
affects the angle between the bonds and thus affects the
shape.
Lewis structure and VSEPR
 A Lewis structure is a two-dimensional (2D)
representation of a molecule.
 Lewis structures are used in conjunction with
valence shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory to
predict the three-dimensional (3D) shapes of molecules.
 N/B; Lewis structures do not depict shape
 Lone pairs- lone pair (unshared electron pairs or
non bonding pair) repulsion> Lone pairs- bonding pairs
repulsion > bonding pairs - bonding pairs repulsion .
 Writing Lewis Structure Or
Formula
 Steps
 Write the Molecular formula of the given molecule.
 Place the atom with the lowest EN
[Electronegativity]in the center.
 Find the total number of valence electrons in the
molecule.
 Give each atom 8 electrons{2-electrons for hydrogen].
 Remaining electron(s) forms lone pair on the central
atom.
Examples
 Draw the Lewis structure for :
 methane, CH4.
 Ammonia, NH3
 Water, H2O
 Carbon(IV) oxide, CO2
 LEWIS STRUCTURE FOR
WATER
 Oxygen has six electrons in its outer shell
 It cannot pair up all six - it is restricted to
eight electrons in its outer shell
 It pairs up only two of its six electrons
 2 covalent bonds are formed and 2 pairs
of non-bonded [lone pairs]electrons are left
 As the total number of electron pairs is 4,
the shape is BASED on a tetrahedron
 Lewis Structure For
Ammonia
 Nitrogen has five electrons in its outer shell
 It cannot pair up all five - it is restricted to eight
electrons in its outer shell
 It pairs up only three of its five electrons
 3 covalent bonds are formed and a pair of non-
bonded electrons is left
 As the total number of electron pairs is 4, the
shape is BASED on a tetrahedron
 .. LEWIS STRUCTURE FOR
Carbon - has four electrons to pair
up
METHANE
Hydrogen - 1 electron to complete
shell

Four covalent bonds are formed

C and H now have complete shells

METHAN
E
 LEWIS STRUCTURE FOR
carbon(IV) oxide
 Carbon - has four electrons to pair up
 Oxygen has six electrons in its outer shell
 It cannot pair up all six - it is restricted to eight electrons in its
outer shell
 It pairs up only two of its six electrons
 Two double covalent bonds each are formed between carbon
and oxygen.
 Both carbon and oxygen now has a complete octet
structure(eight electrons in the outermost shells).

 O = C= O O = C= O
The different shapes
 The different shapes of simple molecules
can determined using the general symbolism
below;
 AXmEn symbolism:
 A = central atom,
 X = surrounding atoms,
 E = non-bonding electrons (usually a lone
pair)
Linear shape
 A. Linear Molecules (AX2)
If a molecule contains only two atoms, those two
atoms are in a straight line and thus form a linear
molecule. Some three-atom molecules also have
straight-line geometry and bond angle of 180◦. No
lone pair on the central atom.
 For example: CO2, F2, Cl2,BeCl2 e.t.c.
Linear molecule

180°
Cl Be Cl
LINEAR MOLECULES
CARBON(IV) OXIDE

HYDROGEN
CYANIDE

ETHYNE
 Tetrahedral shape
 An example of a tetrahedral molecule is
methane, CH4.
 Four electron pairs arrange themselves in
space in what is called a tetrahedral arrangement.
A tetrahedron is a regular triangularly-based
pyramid. The carbon atom would be at the centre
and the hydrogens at the four corners. All the bond
angles are 109.5◦
BOND PAIRS 4
 Bond angle; 109.5◦
LONE PAIRS 0
 BENT OR V-SHAPE OR
ANGULAR
 An example is water[AX2E2]
 The shape is based on a tetrahedron but not all the repulsions
are the same
 LP-LP REPULSIONS > LP-BP REPULSIONS > BP-BP
REPULSIONS
 The O-H bonds are pushed even closer together
 Lone pairs are not included in the shape
 ANGLE... 104.5°
 SHAPE... ANGULAR
 BOND PAIRS 2
 LONE PAIRS 2
 TOTAL PAIRS 4
WATER

 H
H

Trigonal pyramidal
 An example of a molecule with this shape is ammonia, NH3
 The electron pairs arrange themselves in a tetrahedral fashion as in methane.

 The shape is based on a tetrahedron but not all the repulsions are the
same(AX3E)
 LP-BP REPULSIONS > BP-BP REPULSIONS
 The N-H bonds are pushed closer together due to repulsion between the
LP[lone pair] and BP[bonding pair]. This forces the bonding pairs together slightly -
reducing the bond angle from 109.5° to 107°

 Lone pairs are not included in the shape

 BOND PAIRS 3
 LONE PAIRS 1
 TOTAL PAIRS 4
 BOND ANGLE: 107°
Shape of ammonia

N
H

H H

HYBRIDIZATION
 Hybridization :the mixing of different
atomic orbitals to form a new set of orbitals called
hybrid orbitals that are equivalent.
