Refracting telescope

A refracting telescope (also called a refractor) is a type of

optical telescope that uses a lens as its objective to form an image
(also referred to a dioptric telescope). The refracting telescope
design was originally used in spyglasses and astronomical
telescopes but is also used for long-focus camera lenses. Although
large refracting telescopes were very popular in the second half of
the 19th century, for most research purposes, the refracting
telescope has been superseded by the reflecting telescope, which
allows larger apertures. A refractor's magnification is calculated by
dividing the focal length of the objective lens by that of the
eyepiece.[1]

Refracting telescopes typically have a lens at the front, then a long

tube, then an eyepiece or instrumentation at the rear, where the
telescope view comes to focus. Originally, telescopes had an
objective of one element, but a century later, two and even three
element lenses were made. A 200 mm diameter refracting
telescope at the Poznań
Refracting telescopes use technology that has often been applied Observatory
to other optical devices, such as binoculars and zoom
lenses/telephoto lens/long-focus lens.

Invention
Refractors were the earliest type of optical telescope. The first record of a refracting telescope appeared in
the Netherlands about 1608, when a spectacle maker from Middelburg named Hans Lippershey
unsuccessfully tried to patent one.[2] News of the patent spread fast and Galileo Galilei, happening to be
in Venice in the month of May 1609, heard of the invention, constructed a version of his own, and applied
it to making astronomical discoveries.[3]

Refracting telescope designs

All refracting telescopes use the same principles. The combination of an objective lens 1 and some type
of eyepiece 2 is used to gather more light than the human eye is able to collect on its own, focus it 5, and
present the viewer with a brighter, clearer, and magnified virtual image 6.

The objective in a refracting telescope refracts or bends light. This refraction causes parallel light rays to
converge at a focal point; while those not parallel converge upon a focal plane. The telescope converts a
bundle of parallel rays to make an angle α, with the optical axis to a second parallel bundle with angle β.
The ratio β/α is called the angular
magnification. It equals the ratio
between the retinal image sizes
obtained with and without the
telescope.[4]

Refracting telescopes can come in

many different configurations to
correct for image orientation and types
of aberration. Because the image was
formed by the bending of light, or
refraction, these telescopes are called refracting telescopes or refractors.

Galilean telescope

Optical diagram of Galilean telescope y – Distant object; y′ –

Real image from objective; y″ – Magnified virtual image from
eyepiece; D – Entrance pupil diameter; d – Virtual exit pupil
diameter; L1 – Objective lens; L2 – Eyepiece lens e – Virtual exit
pupil – Telescope equals

The design Galileo Galilei used c. 1609 is commonly called a Galilean telescope.[5] It used a convergent
(plano-convex) objective lens and a divergent (plano-concave) eyepiece lens (Galileo, 1610).[6] A
Galilean telescope, because the design has no intermediary focus, results in a non-inverted (i.e., upright)
image.[7]

Galileo's most powerful telescope, with a total length of just under 1 meter (39 in),[5] magnified objects
about 30 times.[7] Galileo had to work with the poor lens technology of the time, and found he had to use
aperture stops to reduce the diameter of the objective lens (increase its focal ratio) to limit aberrations, so
his telescope produced blurry and distorted images with a narrow field of view.[7] Despite these flaws, the
telescope was still good enough for Galileo to explore the sky. He used it to view craters on the Moon,[8]
the four largest moons of Jupiter,[9] and the phases of Venus.[10]

Parallel rays of light from a distant object (y) would be brought to a focus in the focal plane of the
objective lens (F′ L1 / y′). The (diverging) eyepiece (L2) lens intercepts these rays and renders them
parallel once more. Non-parallel rays of light from the object traveling at an angle α1 to the optical axis
travel at a larger angle (α2 > α1) after they passed through the eyepiece. This leads to an increase in the
apparent angular size and is responsible for the perceived magnification.
The final image (y″) is a virtual image, located at infinity and is the same way up (i.e., non-inverted or
upright) as the object.

Keplerian telescope
The Keplerian telescope, invented by Johannes Kepler in 1611, is
an improvement on Galileo's design.[12] It uses a convex lens as
the eyepiece instead of Galileo's concave one. The advantage of
this arrangement is that the rays of light emerging from the
eyepiece are converging. This allows for a much wider field of
view and greater eye relief, but the image for the viewer is
inverted. Considerably higher magnifications can be reached with
this design, but, like the Galilean telescope, it still uses simple
single element objective lens so needs to have a very high focal
ratio to reduce aberrations[13] (Johannes Hevelius built an Engraved illustration of a 46 m
unwieldy f/225 telescope with a 200-millimetre (8 in) objective (150 ft) focal length Keplerian
and a 46-metre (150 ft) focal length,[14] and even longer tubeless astronomical refracting telescope
built by Johannes Hevelius.[11]
"aerial telescopes" were constructed). The design also allows for
use of a micrometer at the focal plane (to determine the angular
size and/or distance between objects observed).

Huygens built an aerial telescope for Royal Society of London with a 19 cm (7.5″) single-element
lens.[15]

Achromatic refractors

Alvan Clark polishes the big Yerkes

achromatic objective lens, over 1
meter (100 cm) across (1896).
 This 12-inch (30 cm) refractor is
mounted in a dome on a mount that
matches the Earth's rotation.

The next major step in the evolution of refracting telescopes was the invention of the achromatic lens, a
lens with multiple elements that helped solve problems with chromatic aberration and allowed shorter
focal lengths. It was invented in 1733 by an English barrister named Chester Moore Hall, although it was
independently invented and patented by John Dollond around 1758. The design overcame the need for
very long focal lengths in refracting telescopes by using an objective made of two pieces of glass with
different dispersion, 'crown' and 'flint glass', to reduce chromatic and spherical aberration. Each side of
each piece is ground and polished, and then the two pieces are assembled together. Achromatic lenses are
corrected to bring two wavelengths (typically red and blue) into focus in the same plane.

Chester More Hall is noted as having made the first twin color corrected lens in 1730.[16]

Dollond achromats were quite popular in the 18th century.[17][18] A major appeal was they could be made
shorter.[18] However, problems with glass making meant that the glass objectives were not made more
than about four inches (10 cm) in diameter.[18]

In the late 19th century, the Swiss optician Pierre-Louis Guinand[19] developed a way to make higher
quality glass blanks of greater than four inches (10 cm).[18] He passed this technology to his apprentice
Joseph von Fraunhofer, who further developed this technology and also developed the Fraunhofer doublet
lens design.[18] The breakthrough in glass making techniques led to the great refractors of the 19th
century, that became progressively larger through the decade, eventually reaching over 1 meter by the end
of that century before being superseded by silvered-glass reflecting telescopes in astronomy.

Noted lens makers of the 19th century include:[20]

 The Greenwich 28-inch (71 cm)
refractor is a popular tourist
attraction in 21st century London.

Alvan Clark
Brashear[21]
Chance Brothers
Cauchoix[22]
Fraunhofer[23]
Gautier
Grubb
Henry Brothers
Lerebours[24]
Tulley[25]
Some famous 19th century doublet refractors are the James Lick telescope (91 cm/36 in) and the
Greenwich 28 inch refractor (71 cm). An example of an older refractor is the Shuckburgh telescope
(dating to the late 1700s). A famous refractor was the "Trophy Telescope", presented at the 1851 Great
Exhibition in London. The era of the 'great refractors' in the 19th century saw large achromatic lenses,
culminating with the largest achromatic refractor ever built, the Great Paris Exhibition Telescope of 1900.

In the Royal Observatory, Greenwich an 1838 instrument named the Sheepshanks telescope includes an
objective by Cauchoix.[26] The Sheepshanks had a 6.7-inch (17 cm) wide lens, and was the biggest
telescope at Greenwich for about twenty years.[27]
An 1840 report from the Observatory noted of the then-new Sheepshanks telescope with the Cauchoix
doublet:[28]

The power and general goodness of this telescope make it a most welcome addition to the
instruments of the observatory

In the 1900s a noted optics maker was Zeiss.[29] An example of prime achievements of refractors, over 7
million people have been able to view through the 12-inch Zeiss refractor at Griffith Observatory since its
opening in 1935; this is the most people to have viewed through any telescope.[29]

Achromats were popular in astronomy for making star catalogs, and they required less maintenance than
metal mirrors. Some famous discoveries using achromats are the planet Neptune and the Moons of Mars.

The long achromats, despite having smaller aperture than the larger reflectors, were often favored for
"prestige" observatories. In the late 18th century, every few years, a larger and longer refractor would
debut.

For example, the Nice Observatory debuted with 77-centimeter (30.31 in) refractor, the largest at the
time, but was surpassed within only a couple of years.[30]

Apochromatic refractors
Apochromatic refractors have objectives built with special,
extra-low dispersion materials. They are designed to bring three
wavelengths (typically red, green, and blue) into focus in the same
plane. The residual color error (tertiary spectrum) can be an order
of magnitude less than that of an achromatic lens. Such telescopes The Apochromatic lens usually
contain elements of fluorite or special, extra-low dispersion (ED) comprises three elements that bring
glass in the objective and produce a very crisp image that is light of three different frequencies to
a common focus
virtually free of chromatic aberration.[31] Due to the special
materials needed in the fabrication, apochromatic refractors are
usually more expensive than telescopes of other types with a comparable aperture.

In the 18th century, Dollond, a popular maker of doublet telescopes, also made a triplet, although they
were not really as popular as the two element telescopes.[18]

One of the famous triplet objectives is the Cooke triplet, noted for being able to correct the Seidal
aberrations.[32] It is recognized as one of the most important objective designs in the field of
photography.[33][34] The Cooke triplet can correct, with only three elements, for one wavelength,
spherical aberration, coma, astigmatism, field curvature, and distortion.[34]

Technical considerations
Refractors suffer from residual chromatic and spherical aberration. This affects shorter focal ratios more
than longer ones. An f/6 achromatic refractor is likely to show considerable color fringing (generally a
purple halo around bright objects); an f/16 achromat has much less color fringing.
In very large apertures, there is also a problem of lens sagging, a
result of gravity deforming glass. Since a lens can only be held in
place by its edge, the center of a large lens sags due to gravity,
distorting the images it produces. The largest practical lens size in
a refracting telescope is around 1 meter (39 in).[35]

There is a further problem of glass defects, striae or small air

bubbles trapped within the glass. In addition, glass is opaque to The 102 centimetres (40 in)
certain wavelengths, and even visible light is dimmed by refractor, at Yerkes Observatory, the
reflection and absorption when it crosses the air-glass interfaces largest achromatic refractor ever put
and passes through the glass itself. Most of these problems are into astronomical use (photo taken
avoided or diminished in reflecting telescopes, which can be made on 6 May 1921, as Einstein was
visiting)
in far larger apertures and which have all but replaced refractors
for astronomical research.

The ISS-WAC on the Voyager 1/2 used a 6 centimetres (2.4 in) lens, launched into space in the late
1970s, an example of the use of refractors in space.[36]

Applications and achievements

Refracting telescopes were noted for their use in
astronomy as well as for terrestrial viewing. Many
early discoveries of the Solar System were made with
singlet refractors.

The use of refracting telescopic optics are ubiquitous

in photography, and are also used in Earth orbit.

One of the more famous applications of the refracting

telescope was when Galileo used it to discover the
four largest moons of Jupiter in 1609. Furthermore,
early refractors were also used several decades later to
The "Große Refraktor" a double telescope with a
discover Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, along with
80cm (31.5") and 50 cm (19.5") lenses, was used
three more of Saturn's moons.
to discover calcium as an interstellar medium in
1904.
In the 19th century, refracting telescopes were used
for pioneering work on astrophotography and
spectroscopy, and the related instrument, the heliometer, was used to calculate the distance to another star
for the first time. Their modest apertures did not lead to as many discoveries and typically so small in
aperture that many astronomical objects were simply not observable until the advent of long-exposure
photography, by which time the reputation and quirks of reflecting telescopes were beginning to exceed
those of the refractors. Despite this, some discoveries include the Moons of Mars, a fifth Moon of Jupiter,
and many double star discoveries including Sirius (the Dog star). Refractors were often used for
positional astronomy, besides from the other uses in photography and terrestrial viewing.

Singlets
 The Galilean moons and
many other moons of the
solar system, were
discovered with single-
element objectives and
aerial telescopes.

Galileo Galilei's discovered

the Galilean satellites of Astronaut trains with camera with
large lens
Jupiter in 1610 with a
refracting telescope.[37]

The planet Saturn's moon, Titan, was discovered on March 25,

1655, by the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens.[38][39]

Doublets

In 1861, the brightest star in the night sky, Sirius, was found to
have smaller stellar companion using the 18 and half-inch
Dearborn refracting telescope.

By the 18th century refractors began to have major competition

from reflectors, which could be made quite large and did not
normally suffer from the same inherent problem with chromatic
aberration. Nevertheless, the astronomical community continued
Touristic telescope pointed to to use doublet refractors of modest aperture in comparison to
Matterhorn in Switzerland modern instruments. Noted discoveries include the Moons of Mars
and a fifth moon of Jupiter, Amalthea.

Asaph Hall discovered Deimos on 12 August 1877 at about 07:48 UTC and Phobos on 18 August 1877,
at the US Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C., at about 09:14 GMT (contemporary sources, using the
pre-1925 astronomical convention that began the day at noon,[40] give the time of discovery as 11 August
14:40 and 17 August 16:06 Washington mean time respectively).[41][42][43]

The telescope used for the discovery was the 26-inch (66 cm) refractor (telescope with a lens) then
located at Foggy Bottom.[44] In 1893 the lens was remounted and put in a new dome, where it remains
into the 21st century.[45]

Jupiter's moon Amalthea was discovered on 9 September 1892, by Edward Emerson Barnard using the 36
inches (91 cm) refractor telescope at Lick Observatory.[46][47] It was discovered by direct visual
observation with the doublet-lens refractor.[37]

In 1904, one of the discoveries made using Great Refractor of Potsdam (a double telescope with two
doublets) was of the interstellar medium.[48] The astronomer Professor Hartmann determined from
observations of the binary star Mintaka in Orion, that there was the element calcium in the intervening
space.[48]

Triplets
Planet Pluto was discovered by looking at photographs (i.e. 'plates' in astronomy vernacular) in a blink
comparator taken with a refracting telescope, an astrograph with a 3 element 13-inch lens.[49][50]

List of the largest refracting telescopes

Examples of some of the largest achromatic refracting telescopes,
over 60 cm (24 in) diameter.

Great Paris Exhibition Telescope of 1900 (1.25 m or

49 in) – dismantled after exhibition
Yerkes Observatory (101.6 cm or 40 in)
Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope (98 cm or 39 in)
Lick Observatory (91 cm or 36 in)
Paris Observatory Meudon Great Refractor (83 cm
(33 in), + 62 cm (24 in)) The Yerkes Great refractor mounted
Potsdam Great Refractor (80 cm (31 in), + 50 cm (20 in)) at the 1893 World's Fair in Chicago;
Nice Observatory (77 cm or 30 in) the tallest, longest, and biggest
John Wall (76.20 cm or 30 in) dialyte refracting aperture refractor up to that time.
telescope - the largest refractor built by an individual, at
Hanwell Community Observatory[51]
28-inch Grubb Refractor at Royal Greenwich
Observatory, (71 cm or 28 in) aperture lens
Great Refractor of Vienna Observatory, (69 cm or 27 in)
Archenhold Observatory – the longest refracting
telescope ever built (68 cm or 27 in × 21 m or 69 ft focal
length)
United States Naval Observatory refractor, (66 cm or
26 in)
Newall refractor at the National Observatory of Athens The 68 cm (27 in) refractor at the
(62.5 cm or 24.6 in) Vienna University Observatory
Lowell Observatory (61 cm or 24 in)

See also
Astrograph
Baden-Powell's unilens
Catadioptric telescopes
List of largest optical refracting telescopes
List of largest optical telescopes historically
List of telescope types
Reflecting telescope
Star diagonal
Heliometer

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51. "John Wall refractor | Hanwell Community Observatory" (http://www.hanwellobservatory.org.
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External links
nasa.gov – Build a Telescope (https://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/informal/feature
s/F_Build_a_Telescope_prt.htm)
Making a Galilean Telescope (http://galileo.rice.edu/lib/student_work/astronomy96/mtelesco
pe.html)
Angular and Linear Fields of View of Galilean Telescopes and Telemicroscopes (http://journa
ls.lww.com/optvissci/Fulltext/2007/06000/Angular_and_Linear_Fields_of_View_of_Galilean.
16.aspx)
Refracting telescopes (https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/science/t
elescopes-and-spectrographs/content-section-1.3)
Introduction to Galileo's Telescope (http://www.telescope1609.com/Telescope.htm)

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