P-Class and NP-Class Problems

Introduction to Algorithms
CSE3004
Dr. Paras Jain
Associate Professor - SCAI
VIT Bhopal University
Outline
• Introduction to algorithm
• Asymptotic notation
• Time and space complexity
• P,
• NP,
• NPN,
• NPC
What are the applications of
algorithm?
• Algorithms lie at the heart of computing.

• If we observe our surroundings, we can find several algorithms
working to solve our daily life problems: Social media networks, GPS
applications, Google search, e-commerce platforms, Netflix
recommendation systems, etc.
• applications are powered by algorithms
What is the algorithms
• In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm is a finite sequence of rigorous

instructions, typically used to solve a class of specific problems or to perform a
computation.
• A finite set of steps to solve a problem is called an algorithm.
• The analysis is the process of comparing two algorithms with respect to time, space, etc.
• Primary analysis is two types
1) Priory
2) Posterior
Cont.…
1. S1: Read A 1
S2: Read B 1 2. Main()
S3: Sum = A+B 1
S4: Print (sum) 1/4 Int a, b, sum; 1
3. Main() Scanf (a,b); 1
Int a=1; Sum = a + b; 1
While(1) infinite
Printf (sum) 1
A= a+1; inf
Complexity definitions
• Big-Oh
• Big-Theta
• Big - Omega
Big Oh (O)
• f(n)= O(g(n)) iff there exist positive constants c and n0 such that f(n) ≤ cg(n)
for all n ≥ n0
• O-notation to give an upper bound on a function

Omega Notation
• Big oh provides an asymptotic upper bound on a function.

• Omega provides an asymptotic lower bound on a function.
Theta Notation
• Theta notation is used when function f can be bounded both from above
and below by the same function g
How bad is exponential complexity
• Fibonacci example – the recursive fib cannot even compute fib(50)
P, NP, NP Hard, NP
Complete
Traveling Salesperson Problem
• You have to visit n cities

• You want to make the shortest trip
• How could you do this?
• What if you had a machine that could guess?
The class P
• The class P consists of those problems that are solvable in polynomial time.
• More specifically, they are problems that can be solved in time O(nk) for
some constant k, where n is the size of the input to the problem.
• The key is that n is the size of input

P-Class
• The class P consists of those problems that are solvable in polynomial

time, i.e. these problems can be solved in time O(nk) in worst-case,
where k is constant.
• These problems are called tractable, while others are
called intractable or superpolynomial.
• Formally, an algorithm is polynomial time algorithm, if there exists a
polynomial p(n) such that the algorithm can solve any instance of
size n in a time O(p(n)).
• Problem requiring Ω(n50) time to solve are essentially intractable for large n.
Most known polynomial time algorithm run in time O(nk) for fairly low value
of k.
• The advantages in considering the class of polynomial-time algorithms is that

all reasonable deterministic single processor model of computation can
be simulated on each other with at most a polynomial.
Example
This class contains many natural problems like:
• Calculating the greatest common divisor.
• Finding a maximum matching.
• Decision versions of linear programming.
• Sorting
• Mearge sort
• Quick sort
• Insertion sort
• Others?
What is the complexity of primality testing?
public static boolean isPrime(int n){
boolean answer = (n>1)? true: false; • This loops until the square root of n so this
should be
for(int i = 2; i*i <= n; ++i)
{
• But what is the input size? How many bits does
it take to represent the number n? log(n) = k
System.out.printf ("%d\n", i);
if(n%i == 0)
• What is
{
answer = false;
break;
} Naïve primality testing is exponential!!
}
return answer;
}
Why obsess about primes?
• Crypto uses it heavily

• Primality testing actually is in P
• Proven in 2002
• Uses complicated number theory
• AKS primality test
Non-deterministic polynomial time
• Deterministic Polynomial Time: The TM takes at most O(nc) steps to accept a

string of length n
• Non-deterministic Polynomial Time: The TM takes at most O(nc) steps on
each computation path to accept a string of length n
NP
• NP is not the same as non-polynomial complexity/running time. NP does
not stand for not polynomial.
• NP = Non-Deterministic polynomial time
• NP means verifiable in polynomial time
• Verifiable?
• If we are somehow given a ‘certificate’ of a solution we can verify the legitimacy in
polynomial time
• NP: the class of decision problems that are solvable in polynomial time on a
nondeterministic machine (or with a nondeterministic algorithm) – (A
deterministic computer is what we know)
• – A nondeterministic computer is one that can “guess” the right answer or
solution.
• Think of a nondeterministic computer as a parallel machine that can freely
spawn an infinite number of processes .
• Thus NP can also be thought of as the class of problems “whose solutions
can be verified in polynomial time” .
• Note that NP stands for “Nondeterministic Polynomial-time”
Sample Problems in NP
• Fractional Knapsack
• MST
• Others?
• – Traveling Salesman
• – Graph Coloring
• – Satisfiability (SAT)
• The problem of deciding whether a given Boolean formula is satisfiable
Ex.
• Graph theory has these fascinating(annoying?) pairs of problems

• Shortest path algorithms?
• Longest path is NP complete (we’ll define NP complete later)
• Eulerian tours (visit every vertex but cover every edge only once, even degree etc).
Solvable in polynomial time!
• Hamiltonian tours (visit every vertex, no vertices can be repeated). NP complete
What happened to automata?
• Problem is in NP iff it is decidable by some non deterministic Turing machine in
polynomial time.
• Remember that the model we have used so far is a deterministic Turing machine
• It is provable that a Non Deterministic Turing Machine is equivalent to a
Deterministic Turing Machine
• Remember NFA to DFA conversion?
• Given an NFA with n states how many states does the equivalent DFA have?
• Worst case …. 2n
• The deterministic version of a poly time non deterministic Turing machine will
run in exponential time (worst case)
Hamiltonian cycles
• Hamiltonian cycle, Hamiltonian circuit, vertex tour or graph cycle is a
cycle that visits each vertex exactly once. A graph that contains a
Hamiltonian cycle is called a Hamiltonian graph.
• Determining whether a directed graph has a Hamiltonian cycle does not
have a polynomial time algorithm (yet!)
• However if someone was to give you a sequence of vertices, determining
whether or not that sequence forms a Hamiltonian cycle can be done in
polynomial time.
• Therefore Hamiltonian cycles are in NP
SAT
• A boolean formula is satisfiable if there exists some assignment of the

values 0 and 1 to its variables that causes it to evaluate to 1.
• CNF – Conjunctive Normal Form. ANDing of clauses of ORs
2-CNF SAT
• Each or operation has two arguments that are either variables or negation
of variables
• The problem in 2 CNF SAT is to find true/false(0 or 1) assignments to the
variables in order to make the entire formula true.
(x  y)(y  z)(x z)(z  y)
• Any of the OR clauses can be converted to implication clauses

2-SAT is in P
Create the implication graph
x
y
x
y
z
z
Satisfiability via path finding
• If there is a path from

• And if there is a path from
• Then FAIL!
• How to find paths in graphs?
• DFS/BFS and modifications thereof
P is a subset of NP
• Since it takes polynomial time to run the program, just run the program and
get a solution
• But is NP a subset of P?
• No one knows if P = NP or not
• Solve for a million dollars!
• http://www.claymath.org/millennium-problems
• The Poincare conjecture is solved today
What is not in NP?
• Undecidable problems
• Given a polynomial with integer coefficients, does it have integer roots
• Hilbert’s nth problem
• Impossible to check for all the integers
• Even a non-deterministic TM has to have a finite number of states!
• More on decidability later
• Tautology
• A boolean formula that is true for all possible assignments
• Here just one ‘verifier’ will not work. You have to try all possible values

P-Class and NP-Class Problems

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

P-Class and NP-Class Problems

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

P-Class and NP-Class Problems

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction to Algorithms

• Algorithms lie at the heart of computing.

• In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm is a finite sequence of rigorous

• O-notation to give an upper bound on a function

• Big oh provides an asymptotic upper bound on a function.

• You have to visit n cities

• The key is that n is the size of input

• The class P consists of those problems that are solvable in polynomial

• The advantages in considering the class of polynomial-time algorithms is that

• Crypto uses it heavily

• Deterministic Polynomial Time: The TM takes at most O(nc) steps to accept a

• Graph theory has these fascinating(annoying?) pairs of problems

• A boolean formula is satisfiable if there exists some assignment of the

(x  y)(y  z)(x z)(z  y)

• Any of the OR clauses can be converted to implication clauses

• If there is a path from

You might also like

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.