Nanotechnology Reviews 2024; 13: 20240119

Review Article

Derrick Mirindi*, James Hunter, Frederic Mirindi, David Sinkhonde, and Fatemeh Yazdandoust

Structural performance of boards through

nanoparticle reinforcement: An advance review
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2024-0119 panels set standards such as the ANSI/A208.1-1999, including
received February 12, 2024; accepted October 24, 2024 water absorption of 8%, thickness swelling of 3% and EN 312
Abstract: Under the turbulence of global change, the produc- for the bending strength (15–16 MPa) and bending stiffness
tion of boards has been influenced by the rising demand and (2.2–2.4 GPa) for P4 and P6 boards, respectively. These results
price of wood-based materials. To improve the structural support the transformative power of nanomaterials in pro-
performance of boards, reinforcement materials have been moting a more sustainable and future solution for boards in
added, such as nanoparticles. The purpose of this review is the building construction industry.
to explore the application of nanomaterials, including nano- Keywords: nanoparticle, board, water absorption, thick-
SiO2, nano-Al2O3, nano-ZnO, nano-Fe2O3, nano-cellulose, nano- ness swelling, modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity
lignin, and nano-chitosan, to evaluate the physical and
mechanical properties of particleboards. These nanoparticles
have demonstrated their ability to reduce formaldehyde emis-
sions, enhance the dimensional stability, bending strength, 1 Introduction
bending stiffness, fire resistance, and resistance to thermal
conductivity in board production. For example, the addition Population growth, climate change, energy crisis, defores-
of nano-SiO2, known for its hydrophilicity, attracts and holds tation, and forest degradation are significant factors con-
water molecules and acts as a thermal barrier due to its high tributing to the rise in global greenhouse gas emissions
melting point and low thermal conductivity. In contrast, nano- [1–4]. A study in the New England’s Forest highlights that
Al2O3 is known for its high compressive strength (up to 3 GPa), the demand for wood products exacerbates these issues,
hardness strength (9 Mohs scale), and high thermal conduc- especially when it comes to timber harvesting, which can
tivity, which helps to dissipate heat more effectively. This result in forests shifting from net carbon sinks to net
comprehensive evaluation brings together recent advances carbon sources, potentially emitting up to 909 million
in producing particleboards and medium density fiberboard metric tons of CO2 equivalent by 2060 [5]. Demand for
reinforced with nanoparticles, which are essential for future wood products often exceeds the available supply, driving
research and industry applications. The study emphasizes up prices. Moreover, this demand, particularly for con-
how innovative nanoparticles can contribute to sustainable struction purposes, contributes to changes in land use
urban development and construction practices, reduce defor- [6]. The projected growth of the construction industry,
estation, preserve natural habitats, and provide affordable driven by future population trends, is expected to further
housing. The research indicates that nanoparticle boards fuel the demand for wood products [7]. However, if man-
meet (e.g., nanoclay and nanoalumina panels) and in some aged sustainably, this increased demand can help store CO2
cases exceed the minimum requirement for general-purpose and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, as wood products
sequester carbon and require less energy to produce com-
pared to materials such as concrete and steel.

On the other hand, in the construction industry, con-
* Corresponding author: Derrick Mirindi, School of Architecture and
Planning, Morgan State University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of cerns have arisen due to formaldehyde emissions from
America, e-mail: demir1@morgan.edu conventional particleboards and medium density fiber-
James Hunter, Fatemeh Yazdandoust: School of Architecture and board (MDF), which are mostly made of wood fibers and
Planning, Morgan State University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin and have been reported to
America
have negative effects on human health [8,9]. Indeed, tradi-
Frederic Mirindi: Department of Economics, University of Manitoba,
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
tional particleboards made with UF and wood fibers, when
David Sinkhonde: School of Civil Engineering, Pan Africa University for installed in kitchen or bathroom countertops, have a very
Basic Science and Technology, Juja, Kenya little moisture resistance because water comes into

Open Access. © 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
2  Derrick Mirindi et al.

permanent contact with boards. Over time, they swell, their dimensional stability. Finally, the absence of guidance
break apart, and release formaldehyde, which is negative for structural applications can be addressed by analyzing
for human health and leads to cancer in the human body, the connections between nanoparticle characteristics (den-
causes eye irritation and nausea, and affects upper respira- sity, electrical conductivity, melting point, etc.) with the
tory system and nervous system [10,11]. Indeed, Hosseini bonding resin, facilitating the classification, use, and grade
and Fadaei [12] demonstrated that particleboards made of nanoparticle board in building construction. This research
from chips of mixed wood species and UF at a thickness provides valuable reference data for producing high-perfor-
swelling (TS) of 30% after 24 h can have formaldehyde mance boards to meet the growing demand for engineered
emissions up to 0.3 mg/L when tested using the desiccator wood products in construction.
method according to the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) D5582 [13]. Also, according to the United
States Department of Housing and Urban Development,
particleboards, MDF, and hardwood plywood made with 2 Nanoparticle boards
a veneer core or composite core typically have formalde-
hyde emissions below 0.09, 0.13, 0.11, and 0.05 ppm, respec- 2.1 Metal oxide-based nanoparticle board
tively [14].
MDF and particleboards differ in appearance, density, Metal oxide nanoparticles, such as nano- zinc oxide (ZnO)
strength, durability, and moisture absorption. In contrast [19], nano-aluminum oxide (Al2O3) [20], nano-iron oxide
to particleboard, which is made with coarsely ground (Fe2O3) [21], nano-silver (Ag) [22,23], nano-titanium oxide
recycled, generally wood shavings, sawdust, and chips, is (TiO2), and nano-copper oxide (CuO) [22,23], are increasingly
less strong and has less water resistance, MDF, known for being utilized to enhance boards’ physical and mechanical
its good water resistance, consists of wood fibers of the properties. Furthermore, Ag has the highest density com-
same size with a smooth finish [15]. Integrating nanoma- pared to ZnO, FeO3, Al2O3, and CuO with 5.9, 5.25, 3.987,
terial reinforcement such as nano-SiO2, nano-Al2O3, nano- and 6.31 g/cm3 as densities, respectively [24,25], while it has
ZnO, nano-CaSiCO3, and nanocellulose in particleboard the lowest melting point with 1,974, 1,539, 2,072, and 1,201°C,
production for structural purposes is important for sus- respectively. Also, nanoparticles including ZnO, Al2O3,
tainable alternatives in board manufacturing leading to and CuO have thermal conductivity and electricity con-
affordable housing. Nanoparticles exist in various che- ductivity of 30 W/m K with high electron mobility and
mical compositions, such as micelles, metal oxides, syn- 401 W/m K and can be used as an electrical insulator,
thetic polymers, and large biomolecules. Each of these respectively. These properties have the potential to
materials possesses distinct chemical compositions, which increase the boards’ quality in building production.
can be examined using various techniques such as X-ray Indeed, researchers have demonstrated that nanoparti-
fluorescence and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) [16]. cles can be used as reinforcement in panel production.
The use of these nanoparticles, which typically range in size For instance, the interaction between nano-ZnO and UF
from 1 to 100 nm, has shown promise in reducing formalde- resin primarily occurs through hydrogen bonding and
hyde emissions, improving bending strength and stiffness, acid-base interactions. The chemical structure of UF can
and reducing the TS percentage. Wen et al. [17] demon- be formed in the reaction below [26,27]:
strated that adding 3% (mass fraction) of nano-SiO2 particles
improves the mechanical properties of gypsum particle- NH2CONH2 + CH2O → NH2CONHCH2OH
board production. Similarly, Karkoodi et al. [18] discovered NH2CONHCH2OH + NH2CONH2 → NH2CONHCH2NHCONH2
that incorporating various concentrations of nano-Al2O3 in
+ H2O
the production of MDF leads to the creation of high-perfor-
mance particleboards. NH2CONHCH2OH has key functional groups: Carbonyl
This research focuses on investigating the use of nano- (C]O), amino (−NH₂), and hydroxyl (−OH). Indeed, the
material reinforcement in addressing three main issues. The hydroxyl groups (−OH) on the surface of nano-ZnO can
first is the insufficient mechanical strength and bonding interact with the carbonyl (C]O) and amino (−NH2) groups
performance of particleboards that can be addressed by of the UF resin, forming hydrogen bonds. The hydroxyl
the resin’s interaction with nanoparticles during board pro- groups (−OH) on the surface of nano-ZnO can form hydrogen
duction, which significantly improves in properties. The bonds with the carbonyl (C]O) and amino (−NH2) groups of
second, nanoparticle technology, shows promise for enhan- the UF resin. Hydrogen bonding occurs when a hydrogen
cing the durability of particleboards and MDF by improving atom (H) bonded to an electronegative atom (X), such as
 Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement  3

oxygen (O) or nitrogen (N), interacts with another electrone- disrupt metabolic processes, and cause oxidative stress, ulti-
gative atom (Y) nearby. In this case, the hydrogen atoms (H) of mately leading to cell death [35,36].
the surface hydroxyl groups (−OH) on nano-ZnO can form The incorporation of nano-Ag effectively inhibits the
hydrogen bonds (X–H···Y) with the oxygen atom (O) of the growth of microorganisms, thereby enhancing the particle-
carbonyl group (C]O) and the nitrogen atom (N) of the amino boards’ resistance to biological degradation [22,23,37]. This
group (−NH2) in the UF resin. This interaction improves the is particularly advantageous in environments that demand
dispersion of nanoparticles within the resin matrix, leading to high levels of hygiene, including healthcare facilities or
enhanced strength of the boards and reduced formaldehyde food processing areas. Finally, nano-Cu has been used to
emissions [28–30]. fabricate panels. Indeed, the copper ions (Cu+/Cu2+) may
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy provides insights form coordination complexes with the nitrogen atoms pre-
into these interactions, with shifts in characteristic bands indi- sent in the UF resin during the fabrication process to bond
cating interactions between ZnO nanoparticles and UF resin. together [38,39].
These shifts suggest that ZnO acts as a Lewis acid, while the NH
groups in the UF resin act as Lewis bases. This acid-base inter-
action increases cross-linkage density, providing stability to the 2.2 Calcium-based nanoparticle board
zinc oxide nanoparticles within the UF resin matrix and enhan-
cing mechanical strength and water resistance [31]. Calcium-based nanoparticles are used to fabricate particle-
When added to particleboards or MDF, they have boards and MDF to improve their physical and mechanical
demonstrated the potential to improve not only mechan- properties. These nanoparticles have unique characteristics
ical but also heat transfer properties due to the high that can positively impact the performance of particle-
thermal conductivity of metal oxide nanoparticles, in parti- boards. Studies have shown that incorporating nano-cal-
cular nano-ZnO and nano-Al2O3, contributing to the boards’ cium carbonate (CaCO3) [40,41] and nano-calcium silicate
durability and longevity [19,20]. They catalyze condensation (CaSiO3) [42] can increase the bending stiffness, bending
reactions, ensure uniform curing, and increase cross-linking strength, and internal bond (IB) strength, as well as improve
density. The catalyzing effect of metal oxide nanoparticles in the dimensional stability of particleboard and MDF. The phy-
panel production is primarily a chemical effect, with the sical and mechanical basis for the improvement in board
physical effect of quicker warming playing a secondary properties when incorporating nano-CaCO₃ and nano-CaSiO₃
role. The high thermal conductivity of nano-ZnO (49 W/m·K can be attributed to their high surface area-to-volume ratio,
at 300 K and 10 W/m·K at 1,000 K) [32] and nano-Al2O3 density, and thermal stability. For example, CaCO3 has a den-
(20–30 W/m·K with a pH level ranging between 8 and 10 at sity of 2.71 g/cm³ and a melting point of 1,339°C, while CaSiO₃
25°C) [33] can contribute to faster warming of the mat during has a density of 2.9 g/cm³ and a melting point of 1,540°C. By
hot pressing in board production. Incorporating these nanopar- adding 1% nano-CaCO₃, it increases the bending strength
ticles into the UF resin can enhance heat transfer throughout and stiffness by 3% and 2%, respectively, while adding 3%
the mat, resulting in more efficient and uniform curing of increases the tensile strength by 30% [43]. Additionally,
the resin. This faster heat distribution can lead to improved nano-CaCO3 and CaSiO3 can potentially enhance the fire
mechanical properties and reduced pressing time. resistance of boards. They can be used as insulators and
Because of their chemical properties, they create a have been reported to have a thermal conductivity of 3.14
compact, less porous structure, acting as a barrier to and 1.5 W/m·K, respectively, improving fire resistance [44,45].
moisture penetration and reducing water absorption (WA) The basis for this improvement lies in the thermal decomposi-
and TS. Additionally, nano-Al₂O₃ forms a protective layer, tion of CaCO₃ at 1,339°C, which produces CaO and CO₂ [46,47].
enhancing fire resistance in board production. On the other This reaction is given in the equation below [46,47]:
hand, nano-Ag particles have also been employed in parti- CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
cleboard production. They possess unique properties due to The above reaction leads to the formation of a protec-
their high surface area-to-volume ratio, which imparts anti- tive CaO-layer on the surface of the panel. The char layer
microbial characteristics to the particleboards and MDF. The acts as a thermal barrier, slowing down heat transfer
high surface area-to-volume ratio of nanoparticles (e.g., a and combustion [45]. Similarly, with a melting point of
particle of size 3 nm has 50% of its atoms on the surface) 1,540°C, CaSiO3 undergoes thermal decomposition at high
[34] such as nano-Ag enhances their antimicrobial efficacy temperatures, releasing CO2 and forming a protective layer
by increasing the contact area and reactivity with bacterial of CaO and SiO2 which provides an effective thermal
cell membranes. This, in turn, facilitates the release of anti- shield, improving the overall fire resistance of the parti-
microbial ions (Ag+) that interact with cellular components, cleboard [48,49].
4  Derrick Mirindi et al.

2.3 Silica-based nanoparticle board area and reactivity of nano-SiO2 particles allow them to form
strong interfacial bonds with both the wood surface and the
Nano-SiO2, also known as nano-silica or silica nanoparti- adhesive, enhancing the adhesion and durability of the wood-
cles, an inorganic nanoparticle, refers to silicon dioxide adhesive interface. These interactions contribute to improved
particles with sizes in the nanometer range, typically less bonding strength and reduced formaldehyde emissions in
than 100 nm in diameter, exhibiting unique properties due wood composites. For instance, using the desiccator method
to their small size. Adding nano-SiO₂ leads to improve- and mixing 12% UF resin with nanoclay at three different
ments in the modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elas- levels (1.5, 2, and 2.5%), Khorramabadi et al. [52] found that
ticity (MOE), and IB strength of both particleboards and it reduced 5, 15, and 22% of formaldehyde emissions, respec-
MDF, as well as reduced WA and TS percentage. tively. The decrease in formaldehyde emission of the MDF
The incorporation of nano-SiO2 can be attributed to the with nanoclay can be attributed to the strong absorbability
strong interfacial interactions between the nano-SiO2 particles, of SiO2 and the barrier property (shielding effect) of nanopar-
wood fibers, and polymer matrix (Si–O–Si). The high surface ticles. The SiO2 can react with the active group of the pure UF
area-to-volume ratio of nano-SiO2 particles improves their reac- resin and absorb free formaldehyde. Also, after adding nano-
tivity up to 300 m2/g. These hydrogen bonding (Si–OH···O–C) clay to UF resin, UF molecules penetrate between clay layers
interactions improve stress transfer and mechanical properties and exfoliate the clay. Exfoliated clay layers create a barrier
of the panels. to gases and water, forcing them to follow a tortuous path.
Indeed, the physical properties of nano-SiO2 such as its
density (2.65 g/cm3), high melting point (1,713°C), and low
thermal conductivity (1.4 W/m·K), contribute to the improve-
ment in dimensional stability of the panels [50]. The well- 2.4 Cellulose-based nanoparticle board
dispersed nano-SiO2 particles fill voids and micropores within
the wood fibers and at the fiber-matrix interface, creating a Nanocellulose, a nanomaterial derived from natural cellu-
more compact and less porous structure. lose, is obtained from cellulose and typically has dimen-
Furthermore, nano-SiO₂ has been associated with improved sions ranging from a few to tens of nanometers in width.
fire retardancy, making it suitable for applications where fire They can be classified into various forms, including cellu-
safety is a concern [42,51]. The presence of nano-SiO2 in panels lose nanocrystals (CNCs) and cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs),
leads to stronger fire retardancy compared to panels without each with their own unique properties and potential appli-
nanomaterials. The protective layer formed during combustion cations in particleboard and MDF production (Figure 1). In
acts as a thermal barrier and slows down heat transfer more addition to these two nanomorphologies, bacterial nano-
effectively when nano-SiO2 is incorporated. For example, when cellulose (BCN) also exists [53]. BCN has shown promise for
exposed to high temperatures, nano-SiO2 undergoes a reaction enhancing the mechanical properties of boards due to its
with hydrofluoric acid to form silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4) and high purity, three-dimensional nanofibril network struc-
water (H2O). This reaction contributes to the release of non- ture composed of ribbon-like nanofibers around 100 nm
combustible gases, further enhancing the fire resistance of the in diameter and 100 μm in length, and a high bending
panels. Additionally, studies have shown that the incorporation stiffness ranging from 16 to 18 GPa and ultimate strength
of nano-SiO2 into intumescent fire-retardant coatings improves up to 260 MPa.
their flame retardancy and smoke suppression properties. CNCs consist of cylindrical, elongated, and rod-like
Nano-SiO2 coatings on regenerated cellulose fibers have been nanoparticles with a high aspect ratio (length-to-diameter
found to increase the temperature at which the fiber starts to ratio) ranging from 3–5 nm in width and 50–500 nm in length
decompose by 20°C and hinder the flow of oxygen to the gen- [54]. They are known for their high strength, with a theore-
erated volatiles during thermal decomposition. tical tensile strength of 7.5–7.7 GPa [55], the bending stiffness
Nano-SiO₂ enhances the wood-adhesive interaction through ranging between 110 and 220 GPa [56], and a density of 1.6 g/cm3
various mechanisms, despite the size discrepancy between the as well as improved dimensional stability, making them sui-
nanoparticles (typically less than 100 nm) and the larger wood table for reinforcing composite materials such as particle-
voids such as lumens (up to 30 μm). While nano-SiO2 particles boards and MDF [57].
are too small to directly fill these larger voids, they can fill On the other hand, CNFs are long and thin fibrillar
nanoscale crevices and surface roughness on the wood cell nanoparticles that have high aspect ratios, typically ran-
walls, creating a more uniform and smoother surface for the ging from 5 to 50 nm in diameter and several micrometers
adhesive to interact with. This improves the contact area and in length, and a large surface area [58] with a density of
adhesion between the wood and the adhesive. The high surface 1.25–1.5 g/cm3, the bending stiffness ranges between 50 and
 Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement  5

Figure 1: Schematic illustration of cellulosic fibers (nanocrystals and nanofibrils) hierarchical structure [71].

160 GPa, while the tensile strength is between 0.8 and materials, contributing to the development of advanced
1 GPa [59]. nanocellulose-based particleboards with improved strength,
Several articles support the use of nanocellulose in stiffness, and dimensional stability [60,63–65]. The high sur-
particleboard production. For instance, Amini et al. [60] face area (>200 m²/g) and abundant hydroxyl groups (−OH)
demonstrated the utilization of CNFs as a binder for parti- of nanocellulose form extensive hydrogen bonds (O–H···O)
cleboard manufacture, where the CNFs formed a three- with wood fibers and adhesives, creating a robust 3D net-
dimensional network that held the wood particles together work [66]. The high aspect ratio (10–100) of nanocellulose
upon drying. A variation of 5% CNFs content increases fibrils enables mechanical interlocking and micro-void pene-
slightly the MOR from 7.9 to 9.9 MPa and MOE from 1,200 tration, improving load transfer [62]. Nanocellulose acts as
to 1,250 MPa, approximately at 0.60–0.79 g/cm3 density for a coupling agent, enhancing interfacial adhesion and stress
low-density panels as specified by the ASTM D1037 standard distribution. Its nanoscale dimensions (1–100 nm) create a
[61]. Additionally, recent advances in nanocellulose-based path for water molecules, improving dimensional stability
biomaterials have been reviewed, emphasizing the advanta- [67]. Nanocellulose can also catalyze cross-linking reactions
geous features of nanocellulose, such as its nanoscale effect, (R−OH + R′−NCO → R−O−CO−NH−R′) within the adhesive
nontoxicity, biocompatibility, biodegradability, high specific matrix [68]. These mechanisms significantly improve the
surface area, and high mechanical strength [62]. mechanical properties (e.g., 30–50% increase in MOE) and
The integration of nanocellulose in board production moisture resistance (20–40% reduction in TS) of nanocellu-
offers a promising avenue for enhancing board perfor- lose-reinforced panels [64]. Additionally, CNCs and CNFs exhibit
mance and sustainability. The unique characteristics of low thermal conductivity (0.1–0.5 W/m K) and electrical insula-
CNCs and CNFs, such as their high strength (especially tion properties, which can be beneficial for applications
for CNCs), stiffness (Young’s modulus up to 150 GPa for requiring thermal management and electrical insulation [64,69].
CNCs and CNFs), aspect ratio (10–70 for CNCs and 5–50 For example, a study by Koga et al. [70] showed that CNFs have
for CNFs), and surface area (several hundred m²/g for a high electrical resistance (>1014 Ω) due to the presence of sp3-
CNFs), make them valuable reinforcements for composite hybridized carbons in cellulose molecules.
6  Derrick Mirindi et al.

when incorporated into polymer matrices [73–75]. For

instance, nanolignin, with a concentration ranging between
1 and 5 wt%, has been used as a reinforcement to improve
the adhesion between wood flour and polypropylene matrix
in wood-plastic composites [76]. The nanolignin panels’
superior results compared to control with the MOR, MOE,
IB, and impact strength vary from 22 to 35 MPa, 1.8 to
2.8 GPa, 15 to 22 MPa, and 0.8 to 1.4 MJ/m2, respectively.

Figure 2: 3D structure of lignin [72].

2.6 Nano-chitosan reinforcement

2.5 Nanolignin reinforcement Chitosan nanoparticles are biodegradable, nontoxic car-

riers for nucleotides and drugs with potential broad appli-
Nanolignin particles are lignin components from plant bio- cations in human disease. They are derived from chitin, a
mass that have been reduced to dimensions below 100 nm. natural biopolymer found in the exoskeletons of crusta-
Decreasing the size of lignin to the nanoscale increases its ceans such as shrimp, crab, and lobster. As shown in
surface area, which can enhance properties such as reac- Figure 3, seafood waste from these marine sources serves
tivity and interactions when used in composites [72]. The as the raw material for chemical extraction processes to
3D structure of lignin consists of three monomer units obtain chitin [77]. The chitin then undergoes deacetylation
(p-coumaryl alcohol, sinapyl alcohol, and coniferyl alcohol) to produce chitosan, which is the starting material for
(Figure 2) linked by ether and carbon–carbon bonds, con- synthesizing chitosan nanoparticles. Chitosan is a natural
taining aliphatic, aromatic, and hydroxyl functional groups. cationic polysaccharide composed of randomly distrib-
Isolating cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin from biomass is uted N-acetylD-glucosamine and b-(1,4)-linked D-glucosa-
crucial for effective biomass utilization. Nanolignin exhibits mine (Figure 4) [77,78]. Further, the chitosan molecules
antioxidant, UV-absorption, thermal stability, and biocom- can form crosslinks with epoxidized linseed oil through
patibility, suiting applications such as nanocomposites, packa- ring-opening reactions, creating a stronger network struc-
ging, biomedicine, and environmental remediation by acting ture to enhance the mechanical and physical properties of
as a reinforcing agent and improving mechanical strength the composite material [79].

Figure 3: A summary of chitosan nanoparticle extraction [77].

 Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement  7

Figure 4: Chitosan, epoxy, and wood fibers molecular reaction [78].

Due to its chemical composition, nano-chitosan rein- hydraulic hot press of Burkle fabricated in Germany. The
forcement has shown promising results in improving the panels then underwent horizontal cooling for 72 h. For
properties of boards and other wood-based composites. Fe₂O₃-UF nanofillers, panels of identical dimensions and
Studies have demonstrated that producing MDF panels comparable densities were produced. The nanofillers were
from hardwood fibers using nano-chitosan can signifi- combined with poplar wood fibers in a rotary drum mixer,
cantly improve the panel properties. For example, mixing hot-pressed at 168°C and 162 bar for 4.2 min using a hydraulic
nano-chitosan with UF decreases the TS and WA from 25% hot press of Burkle manufactured in Germany, and subse-
to 5% and 47% to 17%, respectively [78]. Indeed, chitosan quently cooled for 3 days. In preparing ZnO-UF nanofiller
nanoparticles are known to enhance bonding through MDF, Populus caspica fibers were blended with the nanofillers
their reactive amino (–NH2) and hydroxyl (–OH) groups, in a rotary mechanical drum. The final nano-MDF underwent
improve water resistance by reacting with formaldehyde, hot pressing at 175°C and 165 bar for 4.1 min. The resulting
fill micro-voids, and increase crosslinking in the adhesive panels were subjected to cooling for 72 h in a forced convection
network. Their nanoscale size (up to 100 nm) allows for cooling wheel. These nanoparticle boards were then subjected
uniform distribution and intimate interaction with wood to physical and mechanical tests according to different stan-
fibers and adhesives, leading to significant improvements dards (e.g., European Standards (EN), ASTM) using a universal
in board properties. testing machine (UTM) (Figure 5.vi), as well as a thermal con-
ductivity test (Figure 5.viii) before the thermogravimetric ana-
lysis (TGA) and dynamic mechanical analysis (Figure 5.v). The
results obtained from these tests determine the suitability of
3 Material and methods the nanoparticle boards for various construction applications,
ensuring that they meet standards. To ascertain the dimen-
Nanoparticle boards can be manufactured by mixing nano- sional stability of the panel in accordance with ASTM D 1037-
particles such as Al2O3, ZnO, and Fe2O3 with a binder, typi- 06a [81], equations (1) and (2) are employed:
cally UF, and raw materials including pine wood fibers, wf − wi
WA(%) = × 100, (1)
rice husk, sawdust, etc. (Figure 5.i). In the study by Gul wi
[80], the next step, after collecting materials, involves SEM
tf − ti
(Figure 5.iii) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) (Figure 5.iv), which TS(%) = × 100, (2)
ti
are used to determine the void content and chemical com-
position of the various nanoparticles, binder, and raw mate- where wf and wi symbolize the final and initial weights,
rials, respectively. Also, in the same study, MDF panels mea- respectively, and tf and ti signify the corresponding final
suring 450 × 450 × 16 mm and having densities between 700 and initial thicknesses.
and 750 kg/m³ were made with Al₂O3-UF nanofiller. The The mechanical properties, encompassing the bending
Al₂O3-UF nanofillers were sprayed on Populus deltoides strength or MOR and bending stiffness or Young’s modulus
(Poplar) and Euamericana fibers via spray gun, followed or MOE, are determined by conducting a three-point bending
by hot pressing at 185°C and 150 bar for 4 min using a test utilizing a UTM. Equations (3) and (4) are employed to
8  Derrick Mirindi et al.

Figure 5: (i) Mixing process: (a) Alumina nanoparticles, (b) UF resin, and (c) natural fibers; (ii) Gold sputtering; (iii) SEM analysis with energy-dispersive
X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) system; (iv) XRD apparatus; (v) TGA/DSC apparatus; (vi) UTM; (vii) Schematic representation of MOE and MOR; (viii) thermal
conductivity measuring apparatus, own elaboration based on [80].

calculate the MOR and MOE, considering the sample’s width L3 P1

MOE(MPa) = × . (4)
(b), thickness (d), span length (L), maximum load (P), load at 4bd 3 y1
the proportional limit (P1), and center deflection at the pro-
portional limit load (y1). Figure 5.vii provides a schematic
representation of the bending stiffness and bending strength 4 Results and discussion
test [82]. The appendix depicts a standardized sample cut-up
pattern used for testing various properties of particleboard This study reviews the performance of nanoparticle-based
and similar wood-based panel products according to ASTM MDF and particleboards. Results showed that adding nano-
test procedures (Figure A1). particle elements in MDF production increases the energy
3PL peak and the heat content and decreases the curing tem-
MOR(MPa) = , (3) perature. For instance, a study conducted by Gul et al. [31]
(2bd 2 )
 Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement  9

Figure 6: (a) EDS analysis of pure UF resin and (b) EDS analysis of UF resin containing 3% alumina nanoparticles [80].

shows that by analyzing pure UF resin and UF resin con- change the curing peak temperature but increases the total
taining 3% of alumina nanoparticles, as the SEM in Figure 6, heat flow (w/g). The higher heat flow indicates an exothermic
the weight% of oxygen (O) along with potassium (K) and alu- reaction during curing, suggesting that the nanoparticles act as
minum (Al) increases their energies peaks from 29.69–0.13% to catalysts, enhancing the cross-linking density and thermal sta-
32.39–1.87% by weight, respectively. The term energy peak bility of the resin and leading to improved performance of the
here refers to the peak intensities observed in the EDS ana- panels.
lysis, indicating the presence and concentration of these ele- After this initial stage, nanoparticle boards are fabricated
ments. Additionally, as depicted in Figure 7, the presence of with a specific timeline, curing temperature, and pressure,
4.5% concentration Al–O nanoparticles in the UF resin shows a followed by physical and mechanical tests to determine their
peak intensity at 21.25, 61.25, and 66.5°C (a) with a heat flow use and grade according to different board standards [31].
peak at 120°C in 1.5% alumina is formed due to the creation of In fact, this research summarizes ten studies high-
bonding in UF at the interface (b). This increased intensity lighting different nanoparticles used to improve the boards’
(counts/s) suggests a more ordered structure, which can physical and mechanical properties, including the TS, WA,
improve the mechanical properties of the composite. The MOR, and MOE. These nanoparticles are derived from dif-
alumina nanoparticles exhibit Lewis acidity, acting as a cat- ferent molecules such as nano-clay (4–7) [84,85], nano-silver
alytic agent due to the presence of hydroxyl groups, which (3) [37], nano-silicate (2) [86], nano-wollastonite (5–6) [23,87],
polymerize the UF resin, as reported by Kumar et al. [83]. calcium carbonate nanoparticle (8) [88], nano-alumina (9)
The differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) curves reveal [89], and copper (10) [90]. Figure 8 and Table 1 show the
that adding alumina nanoparticles does not significantly variation in the effect of nanoparticles on the dimensional

Figure 7: (a) XRD of different concentrations of alumina nanoparticles in urea formaldehyde resin and (b) differential scan calorimetry of UF resin with
different concentrations of alumina nanoparticles [80].
10  Derrick Mirindi et al.

Figure 8: WA and TS of panels (own elaboration).

Table 1: Typical TS, MOR, and MOE stability of the particleboards with the maximum require-
ment of TS of 8% specified by the American National Stan-
Standard Board type TS (%) MOR (MPa) MOE (MPa) dard Institute (ANSI A208.1-1999) [91]. However, according to
EN 312 P4 15 15 2,200 ANSI A208.1, panels for commercialization may exhibit a TS
P6 14 16 2,400 of up to 35% after being immersed in water for 24 h (Figure 8),
ABNT P4 19 16 2,300 while the EN 312-2005 standard states that panels should
ANSI M1 8 11 1,725 not exceed a TS of 8 and 15% after being immersed in water
M2 14.5 2,250
for 2 and 24 h, respectively [92]. While Figure 9 highlights the
Min. 3 (min) 550 (min)
minimum requirement of grade M1 for the MOR and MOE

Figure 9: MOR, and MOE of panels (own elaboration).

 Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement  11

Table 2: Physical and mechanical properties of selected inorganic nanoparticles (own elaboration based on [98–103])

Inorganic Particle Compressive Hardness (Mohs Thermal resistance (°C) at Density (kg/m3)
nanoparticle size (nm) strength (MPa) scale) melting point

Silver 2–100 200–250 2.5–3 961 10,490

Clay 1–100 Varies widely 1–2.5 Varies widely 1,800–2,600
Wollastonite 20–100 300–400 4.5–5 1,540 2,900
Calcium carbonate 20–50 30–250 (as limestone) 3 825 2,710
Alumina 20–50 3,000 9 2,072 3,950–4,100
Copper 20–100 220 2.5–3 1,084 8,960

These results surpassed the minimum requirements for M1 and M2 particleboards according to ANSI A208.1-1999 and P4 and P6 specified by EN 312,
indicating their suitability and sustainability for building construction. The improved mechanical properties and dimensional stability make these
nanoparticle-modified boards a viable option for various construction applications, particularly in dry conditions.

with 11.5 and 1,725 MPa, respectively. In addition, the Eur- the agglomeration of nanoparticles, creating weak points in
opean Standards EN 312 (2003) establish a minimum MOR the composite structure, the insufficient dispersion or concen-
of 14 MPa for P4 applications, which is raised to 15 MPa for tration to effectively improve moisture resistance, and the
P6 for structural purposes. These standards also specify a potential interference with the curing process of the adhesive.
needed MOE of 1,600 MPa. Conversely, the Brazilian Stan- Furthermore, the results demonstrated that lower TS
dard, ABNT BNR 14810-2 [93], sets the maximum acceptable and WA percentages were associated with higher bending
TS to be 19% minimum required value for MOR at 16 MPa and strength and stiffness, with values reaching up to 28 MPa
MOE at 2,300 MPa (Table 1) for P4 boards [94]. and 2.4 GPa, respectively. This suggests that the overall
quality of the board, influenced by various parameters
including the adhesive system and nanoparticle addition,
leads to better mechanical properties. Furthermore, the
incorporation of nanoparticles such as alumina was found
5 Performance of nanoparticle- to enhance the structural performance, resulting in MOR
modified panels and MOE values of 41 MPa and 3.4 GPa, respectively [89].
This is because alumina as a molecule has a high strength-
The performance of nanoparticle-modified particleboards to-weight ratio, superior hardness (9 on the Mohs scale),
and MDF was evaluated through an analysis of the physical compressive strength (it can reach 3 GPa), excellent thermal
and mechanical properties of board samples. Experimental resistance (high conductivity and a melting point that exceeds
values of TS and WA for MDF samples incorporating clay, 2,000°C) and chemical stability [98] (Table 2). Its small particle
calcium carbonate, silver nanoparticles, and wollastonite size (typically 20–50 nm [99]) allows for uniform dispersion
exhibited varying ranges, with the highest values recorded and strong interfacial bonding with the matrix, effectively
for wollastonite at 85% for WA [87] and for silver at 62% for transferring loads and restricting crack propagation. Com-
TS [37]. pared to copper or calcium carbonate, with MOE board
However, according to ANSI A208.1, the superior per- values of 2 and 1.4 GPa (Figure 9), alumina’s covalent bonding
formance of nanoclay [95], alumina [89], and calcium and crystalline structure contribute to its superior mechan-
carbonate [40] nanoparticles in reducing TS up to 6% com- ical properties.
pared to the control can be attributed to several factors.
Their high aspect ratio and platelet structure (especially
for nanoclay) create a path for water molecules. The strong
interactions with the wood matrix and adhesive reduce void 6 Conclusion
spaces where water can accumulate. Additionally, they may
contribute to a more tightly crosslinked network within the The investigation into nanoparticle-modified panels has
composite. However, the other nanoparticles (e.g., nano-silver demonstrated their potential to meet or exceed industry
[37], chitosan [78], chitin [96], silicate [86], nano-wollastonite standards, particularly in terms of their MOE, MOR, IB,
[87], nano-copper [97]) show much higher TS values, some- WA, and TS. The formaldehyde emission levels are a cru-
times exceeding 25%. This poor performance could be due to cial property that has also shown improvement with the
the incompatibility with the wood matrix or adhesive system, incorporation of nanoparticles. For instance, adding
12  Derrick Mirindi et al.

alumina nanoparticles has been shown to reduce formal- Funding information: The authors state no funding involved.
dehyde emissions, contributing to the overall performance
and safety of the panels. Furthermore, some nanoparticle Author contributions: Derrick Mirindi: writing – review
panels have exhibited reduced electrical resistance, which and editing, writing – original draft, visualization, valida-
can help avoid static charge buildup. For example, CNCs tion, software, methodology, investigation, formal analysis,
and CNFs exhibit low thermal conductivity (0.1–0.5 W/m·K) data curation, and conceptualization. James Hunter: writing
and electrical insulation properties. This property, com- – review and editing, writing – original draft, supervision,
bined with the inherent fire resistance and protection resources, project administration, and conceptualization.
against biological degradation provided by certain nano- David Sinkhonde: writing – review and editing and writing
particles, enhances the safety and durability of the boards. – original draft. Frederic Mirindi: writing – review and
This research demonstrates the potential of these nanopar- editing and writing – original draft. Fatemeh Yazdandoust:
ticle-modified panels in manufacturing environmentally Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing, Writing – ori-
eco-friendly and versatile materials for structural applica- ginal draft. All authors have accepted responsibility for the
tions such as partition walls, bathroom countertops, and entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.
floors. The eco-friendly nature of these panels is attributed
to the reduced formaldehyde emissions and the use of sus- Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.
tainable raw materials, aligning with sustainable develop-
ment goals. To further advance this field, future research
should focus on diversifying the use of nanoparticles (nano- References
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Appendix
Test Sections based on the ASTMD 1037-96a: the sample MOR/MOE (M):
is divided into the following labeled sections (ANSI A-208 • M1, M2, M3, M4, M5, M6: These sections are used to
1999): determine the MOR (bending strength) and MOE (stiff-
Hardness (H): ness) of the particleboard.
• H1, H2: Used to determine the hardness or resistance to TS (T):
indentation of the particleboard surface. • T1, T2: Measure the thickness swell or expansion of the
IB (I): board after exposure to moisture.
• I1, I2: These specimens are used to measure the IB or Concentrated Load (C):
tensile strength perpendicular to the board surface. • C: Required only for certain higher grades like D-2 and
Linear Expansion (L): D-3, this section tests the board’s resistance to concen-
• L1: Evaluates the linear expansion or dimensional stabi- trated loads or point loads.
lity of the material.

Figure A1: ANSI A208.1-1999 Test Sections based [91].