CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The need for electricity in the modern society especially in the operation of all its

activities is highly becoming insatiable by the public power supply system of Nigeria. In this

our contemporary world, almost every activity makes use of electrical and electronic device,

whether it is general household use or specialized industrial use. The operation of these devices

requires continuous supply of electrical power, to enhance the efficient delivery of power to

these devices. This supply should not experience spikes or noise otherwise it will damage the

device. In developed countries, the power supply is of good quality and is highly reliable

without any of the problems highlighted above (Chukwuka, 2017).

However, in developing countries like Nigeria there appear to be problems associated

with provision of power supply by electricity companies including earthing problem,

transformer overloading and bridging of powerlines resulted in power outage. These problems

are experienced more during the raining season due to thunderstorm and too much breeze that

occurs during rainfall. Also, during dry season, the insufficient water affects power generation

due to its inability to drive the turbine at very high speed in a hydro power generation system.

The insufficient power supply experienced in developing country most especially in Nigeria

necessitates an uninterruptible power supply as an alternative source of power supply. Standby

generator initially used as an alternative source of power suffers from noise, air pollution and

high maintenance cost which make it to be less efficient (Omotoso, et al., 2017).

Since the utility company cannot provide uninterrupted power needed at present and

standby generator is less efficient, an alternative source of power using an inverter with solar

backup will be most appropriate. Inverters are devices that convert electrical energy of Direct

Current (DC) form into Alternating Current (AC) required by most electronic device. DC

power is simply the application of a steady constant voltage across a circuit resulting in a

1
constant current. A battery is the most common source of DC transmission as current flows

from one end of a circuit to the other. Alternating current, unlike DC, oscillates between two

voltage values at a specified frequency, and its ever changing current and voltage makes it easy

to step up or down the voltage (Ghalib et al., 2015).

In high voltage and long-distance transmission situations all that is needed to step up

or down the voltage is a transformer. An Inverter is a device capable of converting a D.C power

source to A.C output at a desired output voltage and frequency. It makes use of one or more

batteries in conjunction with electronic circuit to supply power to the load. It offers a better

additional power source to standby generator considering its long duration, cost effectiveness

and maintainability. It is classified into three based on the output waveform namely: square

wave, modified sine wave and pure sine wave. Pure sine wave inverter provides better

performance when compared with other two waveforms but at the expense of high cost

(Alumona et al., 2016; Jim et al., 2007).

Modify sine wave inverter is common and mostly use in household due to its ability to

simulate a sine wave since the generation of sine wave is expensive. However, the system

suffers from excessive burning when it is loaded beyond the normal rating. Therefore, this

work proposed design and construction of a modified sine wave inverter with overload

protection that short down inverter when it is loaded beyond the normal rating.

1.2 Problem Statement

Stability of electricity most especially in developing country particularly in Nigeria has

been major challenges in the society. Several works have been done by researchers to solve

this problem by design and constructing an uninterrupted power supply popularly known as

inverter with battery back-up. But most of the systems constructed suffer from overload when

a square wave inverter is used and this result in damage of the system when it is loaded beyond

the normal rating. The pure sine wave inverter constructed is too expensive and many people

that needed inverter cannot avoid it. Therefore, this work is based on design and construction

2
of 2.5 kVA modified sine wave solar powered inverter with surge protective device that protect

the system when it signal high voltage or current providing the system with a maximum

effectiveness of operation.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this project is to design and construction of 2.5 kVA/24V modified sine

wave solar powered inverter with surge protective device.

The objectives of this project are to:

i. Design of 2.5 kVA inverter to generate power corresponding to the main supply at a

voltage of 230V with a frequency of 50Hz.

ii. Design surge protective circuit for the system.

iii. To incorporate the surge protective circuit with 2.5 kVA inverter.

iv. To test and evaluate the effectiveness of the whole system.

1.4 Significance of the Study

In this our contemporary world, almost every activity makes use of electrical and

electronic device, whether it is general household use or specialized industrial use. The

operation of these devices requires continuous supply of electrical power, to enhance the

efficient delivery of power to these devices. This supply should not experience spikes or noise

otherwise it will damage the device. In recent years, there has been a shortage of power supply

from the public power in Nigeria, which has posed power problem industrially, commercially

and domestically.

This problem arises because of the consumption of power which is growing faster

compared to the generation and supply of power. This is proving a major impediment to the

operation and growth of technologies in the country. Since a power failure of one minute can

cause losses that can run into millions of naira or even loss of life. This brought about the

3
necessity to construct an alternative source of power such as power inverter which can provide

instantaneous back up when there is power or generator failure.

1.5 Scope of Study

This project work is limited to design and construction of 2.5 kVA/24V modified sine

wave solar powered inverter with surge protective device.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Power Inverter

An electrical circuit known as a power inverter converts Direct Current (DC) to
Alternating Current (AC). The resulting AC frequency obtained depends on the particular
device employed. Inverters do the opposite of rectifiers which were originally large electron-
mechanical devices converting AC to DC. The design affects the input voltage, output voltage,
and frequency. Inverters are essentially divided into three categories based on the output
waveform: square-wave inverters, modified sine-wave inverters, and pure sine-wave inverters.

2.1.1 Square Wave Inverter

These are usually used to support motors alone. Sine wave inverters are used to support

household appliances such as refrigerator ovens, computers, laptops, etc. Overall safety level

square wave inverters are less reliable and also unsafe to use for appliances.

2.1.2 Modified Sine Wave Inverters

Modified Sinewave inverters are a cost-effective choice to run appliances and
equipment that is less sensitive to power fluctuations such as, light and some tools. Modified
Sinewave inverters simulate AC power inverted from DC batteries. In most cases, applications
like motors, pumps, and heater are only midly inefficient using this type of power. Other loads
that charge batteries, produce audio and videos, or operate computers or processors will not
operate properly or maybe damaged on this wave form as the power supply cannot adequately
filter the improper AC voltage.

5
 Fig 2.1a Square wave form

Figure 2.1b: Modified Sine Wave Inverter

6
2.1.3 Pure Sine Wave Inverter

Pure sine wave inverter produces a sine wave output with a very little harmonic

distortion. Sine wave inverters are more complex and cost higher than a modified square wave

type of the same size. Sine wave can be generated by using a Wien bridge oscillator, Bubba

oscillator and phase shift oscillator as shown in Figure 2.2. Pure sine wave inverters also

implement the PWM technology, but a different and more advanced than that of a modified

sine wave inverter. The method used is called SPWM (Sine Pulse Width Modulation), the

SPWM is generated by feeding a reference and carrier signals to a comparator which creates

output signals based on the difference between the two input signals. The reference signal is

sinusoidal and at the frequency of the desired output signal, while the carrier signal is often

either a saw-tooth or triangular wave at a frequency significantly greater than the reference.

2.2 Component of Power Inverter

The primary parts of a power inverter fall into one of two categories: passive parts

(such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors), which do not require an external power source to

function, and active parts (such as transistors and integrated circuits). The primary distinction

between active and passive parts is that active parts need to be powered in some way in order

to function.

2.2.1 Transistors

A transistor is a type of electronic component used to switch and amplify electrical and

electronic signals. It controls the passage of current or voltage and serves as a gate or switch

for electrical signals. A transistor is a three-terminal device whose input current regulates its

output current, voltage, and power. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) and Field Effect

Transistors are the two fundamental types of transistors (FET).

7
(a) Bipolar Junction Transistor

Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a two junction, three terminal devices consisting of

a thin layer of n-type or p-type materials sand-witched between two layers of opposite material

and each of the three layers of transistor is an electrode of the transistor. In bipolar junction

transistor, a small input signal current causes a larger output signal current controlled device.

However, in field effect transistor, a small input signal voltage causes a large output signal

current to flow and this current develops an output signal voltage and hence it is called an

active voltage-controlled device. There are two types of BJT include NPN and PNP. NPN

transistor consists of a thin layer of P-type material sand-witched between two layers of N-type

material. PNP transistor consists of a thin layer of N-type material sand-witched between two

layers of P-type material as shown in Figure 2.3.

Transistors can be biased in common base, common emitter, and common collector.

The configuration also has VCC as positive and electron flow from the base to the emitter.

Signal enters the base and is recovered at the emitter called voltage follower. The emitter

follower has current gain through it but has no voltage gain and has power gain. Its main

advantage is that it requires less power from the signal source to drive a given load that would

be the case if the signal were to drive the load directly.

8
 Fig 2.2: Output waveform of a pure sine wave inverter

C C

B B

E E

Figure 2.3:

(a). NPN bipolar junction transistor (b). PNP bipolar junction transistor

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(b) Field Effect Transistor (FET)

Field effect transistors (FET) are special type of semi-conductor device although the

FET is similar to the bi-polar transistors, it differs in many ways. The most important of these

differences is the high input impedance found in the (FET) compared with the low input

impedance of the bipolar transistor. This means that the input signal for the FET can be closed

to zero power and also gives an output signal. The FET, like the bipolar junction transistors,

operates on low DC supply voltages. It also operates by sending current carried through a solid

material. The FET has three terminals which are gate (g) the source (s) and the drain (d). It can

be categories into two include Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFET) and Metal-oxide

Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFET).

MOSFET is sometimes refers to as the insulated gate FET (IGFET). The MOSFET

contains the same three terminals as the JFET, that is, Source, drain and gate. The voltage still

controls the drain current and the input impedance of the MOSFET is of larger ohms value

than the JFET. It can be used as a switch, since the gate to source voltage that is n-channel

enhancement mode device controls the conduct in the drain or source path. The main difference

between the JFET and the MOSFET is that, MOSFET have positive voltage applied to the gate

and still develop zero gate current as shown in Figure 2.4.

2.2.2 The Relay Switch

A mechanical switch known as a relay is used to alternate between two or more sources.

It allows for the simultaneous switching of many circuits or the control of considerably bigger

currents in one circuit from much smaller currents in another.

According to Figure 2.5, there are three contacts: usually open (NO), normally closed

(NC), and common (COM). Furthermore, it might be single pole or double pole. The soft iron

armature is drawn to the coil of the relay, which transforms into an electromagnetic switch

when a tiny current pass through it. The coil stops, the magnetic field collapses, and the

10
armature is able to return to its original position, which in turn enables the contact to return to

their initial states. This movement is transferred through the pivot to the contact operating the

coil. A relay has a maximum current rating and a nominal working voltage. However, in actual

use, its coil can only operate within a certain voltage range.

2.2.3 Resistors

An electrical resistance is implemented in a circuit element by a resistor, a passive two-

terminal component. Resistors work to lower voltage levels in circuits while also reducing

current flow. Ohm's law, which states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to

the current (I), with the resistance serving as the constant of proportionality, governs the

behavior of an ideal resistor (R).

𝑉 = 𝐼R 2.1

Resistors are used as part of an electrical network and electronic circuits as well. They

are also used in voltage division for input into some part of a circuit where not much voltage

is needed.

11
Figure 2.4: (Q1) N- channel (Q2) P- channel

Figure 2.5: Relay Switch

Figure 2.6: Fixed and Variable Resistor

12
There are two types of resistors namely variable resistors and the fixed resistors as shown in

Figure 2.6. In selecting resistors some factors must be considered which are tolerance, power

ratings and stability. Some resistors have their own value written on it while some resistors

value have to be known by color code that is different color representing different values.

Resistor can be arranged either in series or in parallel depending on the usage.

2.2.4 Capacitors

An electrical component with two terminals used to store energy electrostatically in an

electric field is referred to as a capacitor (formerly known as a condenser). Practical capacitors

come in a broad variety of shapes, but they all have at least two electrical conductors (plates)

that are separated by a dielectric (insulator). The capacitors used in this work carry out tasks

such signal decoupling, coupling, generating resonant frequencies, and filtering. Rectification

must include smoothing in order to eliminate ripples and produce a constant direct current;

reservoir capacitors can help with this. They are of three types namely variable, polarized and

non-polarized capacitors as shown in Figure 2.7.

2.2.5 Diodes

P-N junctions, which can be constructed of silicon or germanium crystal and are known

as the anode and cathode, respectively, are the basic building blocks of semiconductor devices

known as diodes. In electronics, a diode is a two terminal electronic component with

asymmetric conductance. It has low (ideally zero) resistance to current in one direction, and

high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. Diodes have two active electrodes between which

the signal of interest may flow, and most are used for their unidirectional electric current

property. The directionality of current flow most diodes exhibit is sometimes generally called

the rectifying property.

13
2.3 Operational Amplifiers

An operational amplifier (op-amp) is a DC-couple high-gain electronics voltage

amplifier with a different input and usually, a single-ended output. They are originated from

analogue computers, but are now applied in amplification, instrumentation and control and

signal control. It has characteristics such as, Infinite voltage gain, Infinite input impedance and

Infinite bandwidth as shown Figure 2.8.

2.4 Comparator
Comparator is a device that compares two voltages or currents and output a digital

signal is indicating which is larger the analogue input terminals V+ and V- and one digital

binary output

V0. Its circuit symbol is shown in Figure 2.9.

In Figure 2.9, Vn is compared with VO which is the reference

When Vn > 𝑝, then VO VCC
When Vn < 𝑝 then VO VCC
When Vn Vp then VO 0

14
 Figure 2.7: Types of capacitor

Vn

VO

Vp

Figure 2.8: Operational amplifier Figure 2.9: Comparator

15
2.5 Buffer Amplifiers

Electrical impedance transformation from one circuit to another is provided by a buffer

amplifier. It converts two incompatible circuits into compatible ones. The input voltage is given
by Vp Vs since the output is fed back into the input as shown Figure 2.10. Therefore, the
voltage gain of the buffer is unity.

VO 1
AV
VS
Where:
AV = voltage gain

VS = input voltage

VO= output voltage

2.6 Oscillators
An oscillator is a mechanical or electronic device that works on the principles of

oscillation: a periodic fluctuation between two things based on changes in energy. Computers,

clocks, watches, radios, and metal detectors are among the many devices that use oscillators.

There are three basic types of multi-vibrator namely: A stable, Mono-stable and Bi-stable.

However, Oscillators are a stable and can be external-clocked oscillators which involve the use

of an external clock such as 555 Timer or self-clocked oscillators which generate pulses on

their own like SG 3524 IC as shown in Figure 2.11.

16
Figure 2.10: Buffer Amplifier

C R

2
1 Vcc
3

R R

Figure 2.11: Oscillator

17
2.7 Integrated Circuit (SG 3524 IC)

An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to an IC, a chip, or

a microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on one small plate (chip) of semiconductor material,

normally silicon. An inverter based on Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technology and

MOSFET device involves the use of this IC. The pin configuration of SG3524 IC is shown in

Figure 2.12. All the above sections are employed in the operation of the IC and are explained

based on the pin configuration. The pin description of the SG 3524 IC is given below:

Pin 1 – this is the inverting input pin for the error amplifier. This pin is given feedback for

output regulation.

Pin 2 – This is the non-inverting input for the error amplifier and is given constant reference

voltage from Pin 16 of the same IC.

Pin 3 - This is the output pin for the oscillator section.

Pin 4 – This pin is related to the amplifier section.

Pin 5 - This pin is related to the amplifier section.

Pin 6 – This pin is related to the oscillator section. Resistor at this pin sets the frequency of

oscillation according to the relation.

1.8
F

100H
z RC

Where:

F is the frequency

R is the resistance

C is the capacitance

Which is required so that it is divided into two at pins 11 and 14 with 50Hz frequency at
each pin.

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 Inverting input 1 16 Vcc

Non-Inverting input 2 15 Vref

Synchronous input 3 14 Emitter 2

+ Current sense 4 13 Collector 2

- Current sense 5 12 Collector 1

SG3524

Frequency Resistor control 6 11 Emitter 1

Frequency Resistor control 7 10 Shutdown

Ground 8 9 Compensation

Figure 2.12: Pin configuration of SG 3524 IC

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Pin 7 – This pin is related to the oscillator sector Capacitor at this pin sets the frequency of

oscillation.

Pin 8 – Ground.

Pin 9 – It is the compensation input pin. The width of the drive signal of PWM IC output

depends on the voltage at this pin. This produce a soft start and stability when there is time

delay of t = RC.

Pin 10 – Shutdown input a voltage more than 0.6V to this pin shuts down oscillation in the IC

Pin 11- oscillator section output for MOSFET

Pin 12 – Positive supply for the oscillator section which is 2/3 of the power supply Vcc (i.e.
2/3 of Vcc) that will quickly charge up the capacitor connected to pin 9.

Pin 13 – Positive supply for the oscillator section.

Pin 14 – Oscillator section output for MOSFETs.

Pin 15 – Positive supply for the Ic.

Pin 16 – Output of voltage regulator, constant + 5V is output at this pin.

2.8 Battery
A device made of electrochemical cells, an electric battery transforms chemical energy

that has been stored into electrical energy. Each has a cathode and an anode, or positive and

negative terminals, respectively. Ions can migrate between electrodes and terminals thanks to

electrolytes, allowing current to leave the battery and do work. The DC electricity is generated

by a battery through a chemical reaction. It may be a primary battery or a secondary battery.

Primary batteries are for single use as the chemical reaction that produce electric current in

them is irreversible and they are cheap and easy to use. Secondary batteries, however, are

rechargeable battery type also include dry Lead – acid batteries which are maintenance-free

and Wet Lead-Acid batteries which require maintenance. The choice of battery depends on the

intended time duration for a given power output and the charging capability of the charger

inside the inverter. Below is a typical dry lead acid battery as shown in Figure 2.13.

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For 2500VA inverter to work at maximum load, the required current is then:

2500
I= = 104.2A
24

where;

P = the power of the inverter

V= total voltage of batteries
used
I = current flow in the battery.

21
Figure 2.13: Tubular secondary battery Transformer ratio

22
2.9 Transformer

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another

through inductively coupled conductors (coils). The conductors are usually wound around

separate but integrated magnetically coupled cores. A varying current in the primary or first

winding induces a varying magnetic field in the secondary winding, which induces voltage by

a process known as mutual induction. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the

secondary winding (Vs) is proportional to the primary voltage (Vp) and is given by the ratio of

the number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to that in the primary (Np).

𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
𝐾= =
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝

If K > 1, the transformer is a step-up transformer

If K < 1, the transformer is a step-down transformer

For current transformation,

𝐼1 N1
=
𝐼2 N2
For voltage transformation,
𝑉1 N1
=
𝑉2 N2

Where, N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding

N2 is the number of turns in the secondary winding

V1 is the voltage in the primary winding

V2 is the voltage in the secondary winding

2.10 Solar Energy

Solar energy, radiation from the Sun capable of producing heat, causing chemical

reactions, or generating electricity. The total amount of solar energy incident on Earth is vastly

23
in excess of the world’s current and anticipated energy requirements. If suitably harnessed, this

highly diffused source has the potential to satisfy all future energy needs.

In the 21st century solar energy is expected to become increasingly attractive as a

renewable energy source because of its inexhaustible supply and its nonpolluting character, in

stark contrast to the finite fossil fuels coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

The Sun is an extremely powerful energy source, and sunlight is by far the largest source of

energy received by Earth, but its intensity at Earth’s surface is actually quite low. This is

essentially because of the enormous radial spreading of radiation from the distant Sun.

A relatively minor additional loss is due to Earth’s atmosphere and clouds, which

absorb or scatter as much as 54 percent of the incoming sunlight. The sunlight that reaches the

ground consists of nearly 50 percent visible light, 45 percent infrared radiation, and smaller

amounts of ultraviolet and other forms of electromagnetic radiation.

The potential for solar energy is enormous, since about 200,000 times the world’s total

daily electric-generating capacity is received by Earth every day in the form of solar energy.

Unfortunately, though solar energy itself is free, the high cost of its collection, conversion, and

storage still limits its exploitation in many places. Solar radiation can be converted either into

thermal energy (heat) or into electrical energy, though the former is easier to accomplish.

Producing solar cells using high efficiency processing sequences with high energy conversion

efficiency are thus favor provided they do not increase the complexity of the solar cells.

Theoretical limit on efficiency for single junction silicon solar cells and is also being reached

very rapidly. The materials generally used in this thin film technology are cadmium, copper

indium, gallium arsenide, amorphous silicon and micro-mophors silicon. These materials

reduce mass and therefore cost by forming substrates for supporting glass and ceramics. Not

only do they reduce cost but also promise very high energy conversion efficiency (Balaji,

2008).

24
 However, the most basic analyses are the same and the Florida study determined

photovoltaic to be an adequate and acceptable alternative to standard electrical power (Kivalov

el al., 2001). In another excellent look at the evaluation of output, it examined thermal

efficiency of solar panels, in a factor not being considered in this study, but still presents sound

examples of useful graphics, aptly demonstrated analyses equations, and a good explanation of

what it all means. A scatter plot with a linear regression was displayed and used to determine

the thermal efficiency coefficient, which was then compared to calculated values of the same.

These are sound statistical techniques that can be applied to a variety of situations.

For a photon to be absorbed, the energy it provided must exceed the semi-conductor

bandgap energy. However, the closer the photon’s energy is to the band gap maximizes the

cells efficiency and reduces the energy lost to heat. The addition of heat increases the internal

resistance of the semiconductor and this increases the amount of energy needed for the

electrons to escape the valence band and thereby decreasing output power (Joshua, 2007). The

flow of electrons is equivalent to the amount of ambient light absorbed by the panel. The flow

of electrons to the load stops when the light provided does not generate enough energy to allow

the electrons to break from their bands. The more cells connected in series, the higher the

voltage and to maximize the current, the cells will be connected in parallel.

2.11 Photovoltaic Cell

A photovoltaic (PV) cell, commonly called a solar cell, is a nonmechanical device

that converts sunlight directly into electricity. Some PV cells can convert artificial light into

electricity. Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy. These photons

contain varying amounts of energy that correspond to the different wavelengths of the solar

spectrum.

A PV cell is made of semiconductor material. When photons strike a PV cell, they may

reflect off the cell, pass through the cell, or be absorbed by the semiconductor material. Only

25
the absorbed photons provide energy to generate electricity. When the semiconductor

material absorbs enough sunlight (solar energy), electrons are dislodged from the material's

atoms. Special treatment of the material surface during manufacturing makes the front

surface of the cell more receptive to the dislodged, or free, electrons so that the electrons

naturally migrate to the surface of the cell.

2.12 Surge Protector

The surge detector will incorporate advanced surge protection technologies such as

Metal Oxide Varistors (MOVs), gas discharge tubes, and silicon avalanche diodes. These

components will divert excess voltage to ground during surges to protect the inverter.

2.13 Sensor Integration

Voltage and current sensors will be integrated into the surge detector to monitor both

the input and output sides of the inverter. These sensors will provide continuous and accurate

measurements of voltage and current values, allowing for real-time monitoring.

2.14 Review of Previous Related Work

Olaniyan (2010) created a 1kVA solar power inverter. The project involved designing

and building a solar power inverter with a capacity of 1 kVA that receives electricity from a 12

V D.C car battery and outputs 220 AC at a 50 Hz frequency. Either the solar panel or the power

grid is used to recharge the battery. The power supply unit, the inverter unit, and the battery

charger unit are the three main components of the project. The inverter unit comprises of

oscillator using SG3524, which generate pulse width signal that switches ON and OFF a set of

power MOSFETs, thus producing a square wave at the output. The output of the inverter unit

amplified with the aid of a center-tapped power transformer. The shortcoming of this work is

that low battery short down circuit was not included and this makes the battery to be over

26
drained and thereby reducing the life span of the battery. It also suffers from overload that

damage the system when it is loaded beyond normal rating.

Chukwuka (2016) designed and constructed a 5kVA solar powered inverter to generate

a voltage correspond to the load. The project designed was based on improvement of existing

square wave inverter to increase the load handling capacity of the inverter and to display the

load placed on the inverter at any time. In this work SG3524 was used as oscillator to generate

a Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) that is required to drive a MOSFET. The voltage output was

amplified using buffer amplifier and used to drive the MOSFET connected in push pull

arrangement. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and PIC 16F6789 was used to display the load on

the inverter in wattage. The design successfully gave 220V/50Hz required by the load and the

power of load placed on the inverter was display on the LCD. However, the system gave a

square wave as output waveform which is affect some gadget placed on the inverter. Also, the

system suffers from excessive burning when the system is loaded beyond normal rating

Alumona et al., (2016) presented a paper on design and construction of an RF remote

control 5 kVA inverter system to solve the problem of power epileptic. A 5-kVA inverter was

designed using a push pull arrangement of MOSFET. The voltage output of solar module

connected in both series and parallel was used as input to charge controller rated 40A to

regulate the flow of current to the battery. Output of charge controller was used to charge the

bank of battery connected in series. The DC voltage from the battery was used as input to IC

3524 to convert the DC voltage to its Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) required by MOSFET.

PWM voltage output of SG3524 was amplified and used to drive the MOSFET connected in

push pull arrangement to generate AC voltage required by the load.

The remote section of the project was built using Radio Frequency (RF) transmitter and

receiver module operating at the frequency of 434 MHz. The purpose of RF remote control is

to have access to the control of inverter when the user is not in the vicinity of the inverter

system and also to assist the disable to be able to control the inverter without any stress. The

27
inverter system was designed in such a way that it can be operated manually using a switch or

automatically using a remote but not both at the same time. The RF remote controlled designed

was incorporated with the inverter by connecting it in series with the inverter switch. The

project was able to produce an inverter that can be controlled anywhere, anytime due to RF

remote control used. However, the system suffers from output waveform of square wave and

also, the system suffers from excessive burning when the system is loaded beyond normal

rating

Olubakin (2018) worked on design and construction of a pure sine wave solar power

Inverter. The purpose of this project is to design a pure sine wave inverter that solve the

problem of square wave inverter which happened to be the output waveform of inverter initially

constructed. A H-bridge MOSFET configuration was used in this design instead of push pull

used in the square wave form inverter. The H-bridge MOSFET was drive using two IR2110 to

amplified the pure sine wave waveform generated by PIC16F777. The power of inverter

constructed is 3 kVA and the number of MOSFET used was based on the maximum current

flows in the inverter. The designed successfully gave output voltage with a pure sine wave

waveform which can be used by any electronic gadget. However, the system is too expensive

and most people that needed solar powered inverter cannot avoid to get such system.

Past works on solar powered inverter shows that the major problem of the existing

inverter is poor output waveform, lack of protection and high cost of production when square

wave and pure sine wave inverter is used, respectively. Hence, this project proposed a 3kVA

modified sine wave solar power inverter with overload protection.

28
 CHAPTER THREE

DESIGN METHODOLOGY

3.1 Design Principle of the Inverter

A block diagram showing the stages involved in the design of conversion of Direct

Current (DC) to Alternating Current (AC) is show in Figure 3.1. When the AC mains supply

is available, the supply goes to the relay and battery charging section of the inverter. AC mains

activate a relay and this relay will directly pass the AC mains to the Load. Also, the voltage is

used in changing the 24V battery until it is fully charged. The charge controller stops the battery

from further charging so as to prevent over-charging.

When the AC mains power supply is not available, the oscillator circuit inside the inverter

produces a 50Hz MOS drive signal. This MOS drive signal will be amplified by the driver

section and sent to the output section. MOSFETs are used for the switching operation. These

MOSFETs are connected to the primary winding of the inverter transformer. When these

switching devices receive the MOS drive signal from driver circuit, they start switching ON

and OFF at a rate of 50Hz. This switching action of the MOSFETs will drive primary of the

inverter transformer and this result to 230V AC at the secondary of inverter transformer. This

voltage is made available to the Load by the changeover relay.

3.2 Oscillator Section

As shown in Figure 3.1, the capacitor to be used at pin 7 should be within the range of

0.001µF – 0.1F according to the data sheet and 0.1µF was chosen.

1.8
𝐹=
𝑅𝐶

And a frequency of 50Hz needs to be generated from both outputs at pin11 and pin 14.

29
 Oscillator Power Switching
Buffer Amplifier Transformer
Section (Driver
) Section

AC Mains
Relay or Change
Load
over Section
AC
Suppl
Mains
y

Battery Charging Low Battery

Battery
Section Control Circuit

Charge
Solar Cells Controller

Figure 3.1: Block diagram of power inverter

30
Figure 3.2: Oscillator Section

31
 𝐹 = (50 + 50) 𝐻𝑧 = 100𝐻𝑧

1.8
𝑅=
𝑓𝐶
Therefore,

𝑅= = 180𝑘Ω

But a fixed 100kΩ resistor and a variable 100kΩ resistor was chosen to make the frequency

adjustable.

3.3 Buffer Amplifier Section

The section consists of two C1815NPN transistors connected in common-emitter mode

as shown in Figure 3.3. The transistors compensate for the voltage loss across the diodes. A

voltage of 4.5V appears across pin 14, it is divided by two 1kΩ resistors i.e. × 4.5𝑉

= 2.25𝑉

Therefore, the 2.25V which flows into the base of the transistors and a current of

4.5V = 0.0045𝐴

which the 1000Ω transistor can withstand. For the C1815NPN transistor, the cut-off

voltage is 5V.

𝐼𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏𝑅−𝑏𝑉𝑏𝑒

Where Vb = 4.5V, Vbe = 0.6V, Rb = 1kΩ

4.52𝑉 − 0.6𝑉
𝐼𝑏 = = 3.92𝑚𝐴
1
𝑘Ω Since: Ic = βIb

And β = 100 of C1815NPN transistors

𝐼𝑐 = 100 × 3.92𝑉 = 0.392𝐴

32
The output is used to drive the MOSFETs

T11
NPN
TO OSCILLATOR D1
OUTPUT(Q1)
TO MOSFET
R13 GATE
100K

R15
100K

T12
NPN

R14
100k TO MOSFET
D2 GATE

TO OSCILLATOR R16
OUTPUT(Q2) 100K

Figure 3.3: Buffer Amplifier section

33
3.4 Power Supply Unit

The DC supply employed for this project was a 24V lead acid rechargeable battery.

This voltage is supplied to the primary of the step-up transformer; giving a 230V output voltage

on the secondary side.

3.5 Automatic Changeover Switch

The inverter employs automatic changeover switch in switching its operation from the

AC mains to the inverter power and vice-versa. The inverter live and the 24V battery are

connected in a normally close configuration and the mains AC and the charger circuit are

connected in normally open configuration of the relay. When there is AC supply from the

mains, the switch will be at normally open position of the automatic changeover switch hence

supplying the outlet socket. Then, the charger will keep on charging the battery until the battery

is fully charged. When there is power failure from the mains, the relay moves from normally

open to normally closed position making the inverter to switch on. The same thing with the

temperature sensor, immediately, the heater temperature hit the rated max, the inverter will

open and vice-versa as shown in Figure 3.4.

3.6 Power Switching Stage

Power switching MOSFETs are employed in the power driver stage since they have

high switching speed. The input to the power MOSFETs is fed from the buffer amplifier

through a parallel path. IRFP250 MOSFETs are selected for the design of this stage and they

give power dissipation 250W. To determine the number of MOSFETs required and the current

they can withstand;

𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 3.2

𝑃 2500
𝐼= = = 104.17𝐴
𝑉 24

34
Which is the current that will flow through the MOSFETs, since each of the MOSFETs has a

current rating of 30A, the numbers required is then calculated.

𝐼 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑂𝑆𝐹𝐸𝑇𝑠 3.3

𝐼𝑀𝑂𝑆𝐹𝐸𝑇 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔

From the calculation, five MOSFETs is required at each segment of the power

switching stage but in order to prevent the MOSFETs from burning and to boost the

performance of this stage, a total of fourteen of power MOSFETs (IRFP250) seven each for

the two segments are used for the project in order to meet the project specification. In this

stage, the power MOSFETs alternately switches the 24V battery supply across the windings of

a center-tapped transformer thereby producing 220V A.C at a frequency of 50Hz as shown in

Figure 3.4. It should be noted that 10KΩ resistors are used in the circuit to create high input

impedance when no load is applied to the output socket. This is to prevent the MOSFETs from

burning while resistors.

𝑅1, 𝑅2, 𝑅3, 𝑅4, 𝑅5 protect the MOSFETs from inrush current and also allow all MOSFETs to

switch ON and OFF at the same time.

As shown in Figure 3.5, MOSFETs 𝑄1, 𝑄2, 𝑄3, 𝑄4, 𝑄5 and 𝑄6, 𝑄7, 𝑄8, 𝑄9, 𝑄10 switch

alternately at regular interval of time. At the first half of the cycle, MOSFETs 𝑄1, 𝑄2, 𝑄3, 𝑄4,

𝑄5 switches ON while MOSFETs 𝑄6, 𝑄7, 𝑄8, 𝑄9, 𝑄10 is OFF, therefore, the D.C source voltage

is impressed across the primary side of the transformer. At the second half of the cycle,

MOSFETs

𝑄6, 𝑄7, 𝑄8, 𝑄9, 𝑄10 switches ON while MOSFETs 𝑄1, 𝑄2, 𝑄3, 𝑄4, 𝑄5 is OFF and also the DC

source voltage is applied to the primary side of the transformer.

35
Figure 3.4 Automatic Change-over Circuit

Figure 3.5: Power Switching Circuit

36
 The continuous switching of the MOSFETs alternatively generate an A.C voltage

across the primary winding of the transformer, which induces a 220V A.C at 50Hz at the

secondary side of the transformer. The secondary voltage is therefore connected to the load

through an outlet socket.

3.7 Charging Section

The battery charging section is made up of a sensing circuit that automatically shut down

the charger when the battery is fully charged. The charger circuit is got from a constant

regulated DC voltage output. The choice of the battery depends on the time duration for a given

power output of an inverter as shown in Figure 3.6. It is necessary to find the time taken for

the battery to discharge.

Therefore, for the charger:

Input voltage = 230V

Charging voltage = 24V

For 3000VA inverter, the required current is then:

𝑃 3000
I= = 125
𝑉 24

3.8 Power Supply Unit

The Power supply unit is required to produce a desired unidirectional direct current

from the mains power supply, the 220V from the mains is step-down through a transformer to

12V; it is then rectified to D.C through an arranged set of diodes as shown in Figure 3.7, which

is the required voltage for the comparator.

37
 + C E +
B

1k 10k

- 7
2 RL
Unregulated Op Amp
Supply 6
3 + 4

Zener Diode 10k

- -

Figure 3.6: charging circuit

L
D1 D4
7812
220V A.C
D3 D2
100µF
To charging stage

Figure 3.7 Power Supply Unit

38
3.9 Operation of the Complete Circuit of Solar Power Inverter
An inverter works on the principle of push-pull amplifier. The battery bank supply

24V to the Oscillator via a voltage regulator which is used to generate a desired frequency of

50Hz at each of the output. The output of the oscillator stage is fed to the Buffer amplifier

stage; to drive the base current of the bipolar junction transistor which amplifies the signal to

the power switching stage. Power switching stage comprises of MOSFETs which serves as

switches for the 24V battery supply alternately across the winding of a center-tapped

transformer thereby, producing a regulated output voltage of 220V A.C at a frequency of 50Hz.

The regulated output is therefore applied to the load through the outlet socket. When

there is utility power outage, the relay switches from the mains supply to the inverting circuitry,

this is achieved through the automatic charge-over switch. When there is utility power supply,

the relay will cut off the D.C supply from the battery and switches to the mains and finally to

the load. During this period, the charger will keep charging the 24V battery until the batteries

are fully charged thereby cutting off the charging supply as shown in Figure 3.8.

39
Figure 3.8 Complete Circuit of Solar Power Inverter

40
3.10 Surge Detector Design

The surge detector will incorporate advanced surge protection technologies such as

Metal Oxide Varistors (MOVs), gas discharge tubes, and silicon avalanche diodes. These

components will divert excess voltage to ground during surges to protect the inverter.

Voltage and current sensors will be integrated into the surge detector to monitor both

the input and output sides of the inverter. These sensors will provide continuous and accurate

measurements of voltage and current values, allowing for real-time monitoring.

41
Figure 3.9 Surge Protector Circuit

42
43
 CHAPTER FOUR

CONSTRUCTION, TESTING AND RESULTS

4.1 Construction of different units of the project

The various sub units which make up the entire system includes the regulated

power supply unit, the pre-amplification or oscillating circuit, the power amplifier

MOSFET, the power transformer and the load battery level monitor circuit. All these

were carefully constructed using locally sourced materials. In order to allow proper

signal coordination and control, each units were carefully coupled and mounted on the

casing. Locally sourced materials were used most in this work and due consideration

was given to rigidity, compatibility, portability, heat transfer and cost of production so

as to achieve optimum results.

4.1.1 The External Construction

This consists of a metal case with a rectangular structure in which the circuit component

was placed. It also consists of a connector through which the input and output cables

are connected to the inverter.

4.1.2 The internal Construction

This involves the soldering and coupling of circuit components used such as

MOSFETs and resistors. Seven MOSFETs were screwed to a heat sink to make the first

half cycle of the switching stage and another set of five MOSFETs were also screwed

on another heat sink to form the second half cycle of the switching stage of the inverter,

making a total of ten

MOSFETs on both heat sinks. Resistors of resistance 100Ω which limit the current

entering the gate of inverter and 100kΩ which prevent the rush inn voltage were

soldered to each gate of the MOSFETs and gate to drain of MOSFETs respectively on

both cycles. The driver and the buffer stages were constructed on a printed circuit board

44
(PCB) known as oscillator board and were carefully placed in the inverter case. A

cooling fan was placed very close to set of MOSFETs to cool the heat generated during

switching as well as heat that can be generated from the transformer. Fan serves as

cooling system for the inverter.

Also, the drain of each MOSFETs used were soldered to a single copper strand and the

heat sinks were carefully tightened to the body or the case of the inverter. The primary

side of the center tap transformer has three terminals in which the center tap was

connected to the positive terminal of the dc source (batteries) and the other two extreme

terminals were connected to each of the heat sink respectively. The negative terminal of

dc source was connected to the copper strand connecting all the source terminal of

MOSFETs for the two cycles. The output of this stage was square wave and this was

used as input to full H-bride configuration to convert square wave to sine wave required

for this project. The switching state of H-bride was tasted and the result of the switching

is shown in Fig 4.1.

The mains supply from PHCN or generator was connected to the protecting fuse

and from which it is connected to the normally open terminal of a relay. The output of

H-bridge was also fed into the normally closed of the relay, the common terminal of

relay was then feed into the output connector outlet. Relay switches between the mains

and the inverter supply, when there is power supply from the PHCN or generator, the

relay supply the mains as output and when there is failure in PHCN or generator supply,

the relay switches to normally closed which connect the load to inverter.

45
Table 4.1: Test Result of H Bridge Switch States

High side left High side right Low side left Low side Right Voltage across
load

ON OFF OFF ON Positive

OFF ON ON OFF Negative

ON ON OFF OFF Zero

potential

OFF OFF ON ON Zero

potential

46
4.2 Material Consideration

Locally sourced materials were used mostly in this project and due consideration was

given to rigidity, corrosive action, heat transfer and cost of production to achieve

optimum results.

4.3 Testing and Result

Having construct this project, testing of it was carried out in order to check for

the efficient of the system. The following tests were carried out to check the

effectiveness of the project.

4.3.1 Transformer Test

The electrical transformer is an integral part of the inverter. As a result, the

performance of the inverter largely depends on the efficiency of the transformer. The

performance of a transformer can be calculated on the basis of equivalent circuit which

contain four parameters. This result is very economical because they give the required

information without actually loading the transformer. Also, various tests were carried

out during the progress of the work to ensure conformity with the design specifications.

The output of the inverter voltage is a square wave, altered with a 4µF capacitor and

serve as input to H-bridge to convert square wave to sine wave. Some of this test are as

fellow:

1. Supply of voltage to the various stages of the circuit during the

breadboard test before the power supply circuit was built and also during the

soldering process and the final completion. This involves the use of bench power

supply.

2. Measurement of point voltage, current, resistance continuity, frequency

and temperature using a multi-meter. The above parameters was measured

47
 during the implementation. The meter was further used in testing voltage levels

and current of the stages in the circuit.

3. Oscillator outputs voltage from pins 10 and 11 of the pulse width

Oscillator were tested with a voltmeter and the voltage were 5.9V and 5.9V from

the corresponding outputs respectively

4. Frequency meter was used to confirm a frequency of 50Hz each which

is acceptable in

Nigeria.

5. Battery power outputs were measured and the balanced voltages of 25.8

volts were observed on digital voltmeter. This voltage of 25.8 volts serves as the

input to the primary side of the inverter transformer.

6. The change-over circuit was tested by switching on and off the main

supply and the relay was confirmed clicking. During the test, the system proved

the effectiveness of time delay circuit incorporated in it.

4.3.2 Test Results

Here are the results carried out on the inverter circuit on no load.

Oscillator Output voltage = 5.9V

Battery Output voltage = 25.5V

Output Voltage of the inverter transformer without feedback = 280V

Output Voltage of the H-bridge = 230V

Frequency = 50Hz

Charger Voltage = 36V

Floating Voltage = 27.2V

Arduino ATMEG 328 input voltage = 5.0v

48
4.3.3 Effect of loading

The duration at which the inverter discharges under load condition depends on

the total power of the load connected to its output terminal and the power rating of the

battery connected to its input terminal, bearing in mind that the total applied load must

not exceed 2.5kVA. After coupling of the inverter, the load test was carried out on the

inverter with tools/gadgets such as

Bulbs (60Watts and 100Watts), Soldering Iron (60Watts), Fluorescent lamp (40 Watts)

and Table fan (40 Watts).

During the load test, there should be reduction in the output voltage of the

inverter as a result of addition of load but due to automatic regulating action of the

CD4047 IC used, there was a feedback control from the output of the transformer to the

CD4047 IC that either increase the oscillator output voltage or reduce it as the case may

demand. Therefore, the output of the inverter made from CD4047 IC remain constant

with variation in load in as much as the battery is still supplying the required voltage.

Battery power rating = Voltage x ampere hour rating of the battery) = 24 x 200 =

4,800VAH

For a total load of 200W,

Duration = Battery power output hour/Total load power

= 24hrs.

The CD4047 IC has a way of providing feedback control on the system, hence

regulating the system automatically preventing deviation from the original output
voltage.

49
4.4 Problem Encountered

The design and construction of this project work was quite interesting, though with

some challenges like unavailability of some components whose characteristics deviate

from normal, overheating of MOSFET. These challenges were properly managed and

the project was completed successfully.

4.5 Implementation

Project implementation cannot be overlooked in any project work. The

implementation of this project was originally done on the breadboard. Also, bench

power supply, multi-meter and oscilloscope were used to carry out the tests for each

circuit on breadboard. The circuit on the breadboard were later sold on a printed circuit

board. The various circuits and stages were soldered one after the other to ensured

desired workability of the project work. The circuits were latter couple to the casing of

the project.

50
Table 4.2: BILL OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION (BEME)
S/N PART DESCRIPTION QTY UNIT COST TOTAL COST

(N) (N)

1. MOSFET IREP 350 10 500 5000

2. IC PIC 2 2000 4000

3. LM7812 2 250 500

4. IC CD4047 1 600 600

5. TIP 122 TRANSISTOR 2 180 360

6. 12V, 30A RELAY 2 500 1000

7. VERO BOARD 1 200 200

8. IC SOCKET 6 50 300

9. CONNECTION WIRES 3 30 90

(YARDS)

10. BRIDGE RECTIFIERS 3 300 900

11. A.C FAN 1 700 700

12. POWER SWITCH 1 200 200

13. 13A PLUG 1 400 400

14. 12V, 150AH BATTERY 2 78,000 156,000

17. BATTERY CLIP 2 150 300

18. SOLDERING LEAD 3 30 90

(YARD)

20. 10mm COPPER WIRE 20 100 2000

(YARD)

21. 12V TRANSFORMER 2 600 1,200

51
22. 2.5kVA TRANSFORMER 1 25,000 25,000

23. HEAT SINK 2 800 1600

25. A.C. CORD 1 300 300

26. 100Ω ¼W RESISTOR 11 5 55

27. 1kΩ ¼W RESISTOR 8 5 40

28. 10kΩ ¼W RESISTOR 4 5 20

29. 20Ω ¼W RESISTOR 1 5 5

30. 220Ω ¼W RESISTOR 2 5 10

32. 390kΩ RESISTOR 1 5 5

33. 100kΩ RESISTOR 1 20 20

34. 20kΩ RESISTOR 1 20 20

35. 22kΩ RESISTOR 1 20 20

36. 5V ZENER DIODE 1 10 10

37. 3.1V ZENER DIODE 1 10 10

38. 47µF, 16V CAPACITOR 3 40 120

39. 1000µF CAPACITOR 3 40 120

40. 0.001µF CAPACITOR 1 50 50

42. CASING 1 4,000 4000

43. SCREWS 10 50 500

52
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

As the need for power supply increasing every day and problems encountered

with the use of generating sets such as noise pollution, environmental pollution and the

need for regular servicing. The need for a system that eliminates all of these issues is

necessary. The design was done using the PIC16F77 to generate the desired pulse that

is employed to switch the power MOSFETs in two different ON and OFF. The

MOSFETs performs the function of inversion by supplying current alternately to each

half of the primary winding of a center tap transformer. As a result, alternating voltage

is produced in the secondary winding of the transformer. The transformer produces a

square wave which was rectified switch ON and OFF using H bridge configuration of

MOSFET to generate pure sine wave that is the desired output.

Due to current situation of the public power supply, which is unreliable and

inconsistent and also hike in price of generator’s fuel, the noise and maintainability of

the generator, a highly efficient inverter with output waveform of sine wave serves as

an alternative to other source of power supply.

5.2 Recommendations

Since electricity requirement of the modern society is highly insatiable by the

public power supply system, the following recommendations are made for high

efficiency and reliable inverter with pure sine wave as output waveform.

1. The batteries should not be used more than 25% of its total capacity. The

battery should be charged when it is about (25%) discharged to improve life

span of the battery

53
2. Higher capacity inverters can be constructed that will be able to
withstand more loads.

3. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) charge controller should be

used in place of PWM in order to maximize the voltage generate by the solar

panel and thereby improve charging rate.

4. Liquid Crystal Display (DCD) should be included in the battery level

monitor circuit for proper monitoring of battery voltage level.

54
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