ABSTRACT

This project is about the design and construction of 1KW 230volt solar panel

inverter at a frequency of 50Hz. The device is constructed with locally sourced

components and materials of regulated standard. The basic principle of its

operation is a simple conversion of 12V DC from a battery using integrated circuits

and semiconductors at a frequency of 50Hz, into a 230V AC across the windings

of a transformer. A solar panel is used to charge the battery using a solar charge

controller.

This project (device) offers a better alternative to Public Power Supply, Generators

as well as UPS considering it is cost effective, noiseless and easy maintainability.

 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

The solar inverter is a critical component in a solar energy system. It performs

the conversion of the variable DC output of the Photovoltaic (PV) module(s)

into a clean sinusoidal 50 or 60 Hz AC current that is then applied directly to

the commercial electrical grid or to a local, off-grid electrical network. A solar

cell (also called photovoltaic cell) is the smallest solid-state device that converts

the energy of sunlight directly into electricity through the photovoltaic effect. A

Photovoltaic (PV) module is an assembly of cells in series or parallel to enlarge

or increase voltage and/or current. A Panel is an assembly of modules on a

structure. An Array is an assembly of panels at a site.

Typically, communications capability is included so users can monitor the

inverter and report on power and operating conditions, provide firmware

updates and control the inverter grid connection. At the heart of the inverter is a

real-time microcontroller. The controller executes the very precise algorithms

required to invert the DC voltage generated by the solar module into AC. This

controller is programmed to perform the control loops necessary for all the

power management functions necessary including DC/DC and DC/AC. The

controller also maximizes the power output from the PV through complex

algorithms called maximum power point tracking (MPPT). The PV maximum

output power is dependent on the operating conditions and varies from moment

to moment due to temperature, shading, soilage, cloud cover, and time of day so

adjusting for this maximum power point is a continuous process. For systems

with battery energy storage, the controller can control the charging as well as

switch over to battery power once the sun sets or cloud cover reduces the PV

output power. (Aditee P. Bapat et al 2013)

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

If there is one factor that has perpetually maintained the status of Nigeria as a

less developed country, it is its electricity sector. Till date, many households

and businesses cannot be guaranteed of 24 hours supply of electricity from the

public grid. At this stage of Nigeria’s social and economic development, the

country cannot deliver adequate energy to the citizens despite huge financial

resources that have been expended in the sector. Rather, Nigerians have

continued to rely on electricity generators for their power supply, fuel marketers

are taking significant portion of households’ and businesses’ incomes to supply

power, noise pollution from regular humming generators have become integral
part of living for many Nigerians with imaginable consequences on their health.

Because of these problems, there is a need to design and construct the solar

panel inverter which will complement the electricity supply from the public

grid. It is less noisy and does not have any consequence(s) on human health.

(Lookman Oshodi 2014)

1.3 DESIGN AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this project is to design and construct a 1000Watt solar panel

inverter. The objectives of this project are;

 To provide efficiency, steadiness in the use of power appliances, by

ensuring continuous availability of power supply even in the absence of

mains.

 To eliminate all suspense from mains outage during the execution of an

important and urgent assignment as may be required.

 To design a simple and rugged technology; this will utilize the

appropriate use of home or local electrical appliances.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF PROJECT

The solar inverter is the second most important (and second most expensive)

component of a solar PV system.

  It converts the raw Direct Current (DC) solar power that is produced by

your solar panels into Alternating Current (AC) power that comes out of

the wall sockets.

 Inverters also have technology that maximizes the power output of that

DC energy. The use of solar power has many advantages. First, the

energy from the sun is free and readily accessible in most parts of the

world. Moreover, the sun will keep shining until the world's end.

 Silicon from which most photovoltaic cells are made is an abundant and

nontoxic element.

1.5 DESIGN METHODOLOGY

The design and simulation of this project was done using the proteus

application.

 The inverter is powered using solar panel that supplies direct current

 The direct current is controlled by the charge controller

 The direct current is converted to alternating current and stepped-up

using a step-up transformer

1.6 SCOPE OF STUDY

This solar power source makes it possible to provide a clean reliable supply of

alternative electricity free of sags or surges which could be found in the line
voltage frequency (50Hz). This project design aims at creating a 1000watts

power source which can be utilized as a regular power source by remote rural

industries and private individuals at home or in the office. This project involves

the design and construction of a 1000Watt Solar PV (photovoltaic) system

which involves a solar panel, car battery and an inverter. Furthermore, as a

consumer is generating his or her own electricity, they also will benefit from a

reduction in their electricity bills.

1.7 SUMMARY OF CHAPTERS

The various stages involved in the development of this project have been proper

put into five chapters to enhance comprehensive and concise reading. In this

project thesis, the project is organized sequentially as follows:

Chapter one of this work is on the introduction to a 1000W, 230volts solar

panel inverter at a frequency of 50Hz. In this chapter, the background,

statement of problem, research and methodology, significance, scope of a

1000W, 230volts solar panel inverter at a frequency of 50Hz were discussed.

Chapter two is on the literature review of a construction of 2KW 230volt solar

panel inverter at a frequency of 50Hz. In this chapter, all the literature

pertaining to this work was reviewed.

Chapter three is on design methodology and analysis. In this chapter, all method

involved during the design and construction were discussed.

Chapter four is on results and discussion. In this chapter, all testing that result

accurate functionality was analyzed and discussed.

Chapter five is on conclusion, recommendation and references.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The use of the sun’s energy is nothing new and dates back to the beginning

of time. In recent years however, the focus on energy consumption

worldwide rapidly encourages the research and development of an

alternative fuel source including the sun, wind, hydro, wave, geothermal,

hydrogen and other forms of energy. And today, because of that focus, the

use of solar energy is expanding by leaps and bounds especially since

sunlight is free, unlimited, readily available, clean and reliable. A solar

power system is one which is capable of converting the absorbed sun

energy; store it in a lead acid cell to be used on the load. In this part of the

world, where power supply is not effective and efficient, the use of solar

power supply is of immense value and advantage considering the fact that
we are blessed or rich in sun light i.e. high degrees of temperatures which is

the main thing that feeds a solar power supply unit for uses. It is low cost

compared to others alternative sources of power supply in this society e.g.

the use of generators which consume fuel or diesel and are really expensive,

and its life span is better and reliable when used under or within or above the

stipulated rating of the solar power device. (Ezugwu 2012)

Swagatam Majumdar, 2012 did a homemade 2000 VA power inverter

circuit. He explained that making a power inverter rated above 500 VA is

always difficult, mainly because of the involved transformer dimension

which becomes quite huge, unmanageable and difficult to configure

correctly. Power inverters in the range of KVA, requires huge current

transferring capabilities for implementing the required operations as per the

desired specifications of the unit.

Transformer being the main power making component of such an inverter,

requires high current handling secondary winding if the used battery voltage

is at the lower side, for example 12 or 24 volts. In order to optimize the

transformer at lower currents, the voltage needs to be pushed at higher levels

which again becomes a problem, because higher voltage means putting

batteries in series. The above problems can definitely demoralize any new

electronic hobbyists or anybody who might be planning to make a rather big

inverter design, may be for controlling the electrical parts of the house. An

innovative approach for making things simpler even with huge power

inverter designs has been discussed which uses smaller discrete transformers

with individual drivers for implementing a 2000 VA inverter circuit. He

studied the circuit diagram below and its operations with the following

points: Basically, the idea is to divide the power into many different smaller

transformers whose outputs can be fed to individual sockets for operating the

relevant electrical appliances. This method helped him to avoid the need of

hefty and complicated transformers, and the proposed design becomes

feasible even for an electronic novice to understand and construct. Four

IC4049s have been employed in this design. A single 4049 consists of 6

NOT gates or inverters, so in all 24 of them have been used here.

Two of gates are wired up for generating the basic required square wave

pulses and the rest of the gates are simply held as buffers for driving the next

relevant stages. Each transformer utilizes a couple of gates and the

respective high current Darlington transistors which function as the driver

transistors. The associated gates conduct alternately and drive the transistors

in accordance.

The MOSFETs which are connected to the driver transistors respond to the

above high current signals and start pumping the battery voltage directly into
the winding of the respective transformers. Due to this an induced high

voltage AC starts flowing through the complementary output winding of all

the involved transformers, generating the required AC 220 V or 120 V at the

respective outputs. These voltages become available in small sockets, so

only the relevant magnitude of power can be expected from each of the

transformers. The 555 section takes care of the square wave output

generated from the oscillator stage such that these are broken into sections

and optimized for replicating a modified sine wave output. All the parts after

POINT X in the circuit diagram below should be repeated for acquiring

discrete power output sections, the common input of all these stages must be

joined to POINT X. Each of the transformer may be rated at 200 VA, so

together, 11 stages (after pointX) would provide roughly outputs up to 2000

VA. Though using many transformers instead of a single transformer might

look like a small drawback, the actual need of deriving 2000 VA using

ordinary parts and concepts finally becomes easily achievable from the

above design. (SwagatamMajumdar2012)

Ezugwu (2012) designed and constructed a 200W solar system. The 200W

solar system was determined by load assessment, solar panel number

determination, battery requirement and then inverter sizing. A complete

solar panel rated at 200w was however purchased, together with 2 number
 150A solar battery, 1500W inverter and also 10A charge controller. These

were assembled together with necessary protective gadgets like cut out

switches; to give the 200W expected. The solar panel was mounted outside a

building to allow for maximum collection of sun energy. It is expected that

the system will help her department meet up with its office duties even when

central power is not available.

2.2 Components used for the design

For this project to be completed there is a need to know the components

used for the design. These include:

2.2.1 IC (CD4047)

The CD4047BC is a quad bilateral switch intended for the transmission or

multiplexing of analog or digital signals. It is pin-for-pin compatible with

CD4047BC, but has a much lower “ON” resistance, and “ON” resistance is

relatively constant over the input-signal range.

Features

 Wide supply voltage range 3V to 15V.

 High noise immunity 0.45 VDD.

 Wide range of digital and ±7.5 𝑉PEAK analog switching.

 “ON” resistance for 15V operation 80Ω.

 Matched “ON” resistance ∆RON =5Ω over 15V signal input.

  “ON” resistance flat over peak-to-peak signal range.

 High “ON”/“OFF” 65 dB output voltage ratio at F=10 kHz, RL=10 kΩ.

 Control Line Biasing: Switch On (Logic 1), VC=VDD; Switch Off (Logic

0), VC=VSS.

 High degree linearity 0.1% distortion.

 Extremely low “OFF” 0.1 nA switch leakage.

 Extremely high control input impedance 1012Ω.

2.2.2 Variable Resistor

Variable Resistor is an electronic component. It is applied in an electronic

circuit for adjusting circuit resistance to control voltage or current of that

circuit or part of that circuit. The electrical resistance is varied by sliding a

wiper contact along a resistance track. Sometimes the resistance is adjusted

at Preset value as required at the time of circuit building by adjusting screw

attached to it and sometimes resistance can be adjusted as when required by

controlling knob connected to it. The active resistance value of the variable

resistor depends upon the position of the slider contact on the resistance

track. It mainly consists of a resistance track and a wiper contact. The

wiper contact moves along the resistance track when adjustable component
is adjusted. There are mainly three different types of resistance track used in

this resistor they are carbon track, cermet (ceramic and metal mixture) track

and wire wound track. Carbon track and cermet track are used for high

resistance application whereas wire wound track is used for low resistance

variable resistor. The resistance tracks generally, are of circular shape but

straight track is also used in many cases. (Electrical4u 2014)

Variable Resistor Connection

It is used as a rheostat when one end of the resistance track and wiper

terminal is connected to the circuit and other terminal of resistance track

remains open. In this case the electrical resistance between connected

terminal and wiper terminal depends upon the position of the wiper (slider)

on the resistance track. A variable resistor can also be used as a

potentiometer when both ends of the resistance track are connected to the

input circuit and one of the said ends of resistance track and wiper terminal

is connected to the output circuit. In this case all three terminals are in use.

Sometimes in electronics circuit there may be requirement of adjustable

resistance but this adjustment is required only once or very often. This is

done by connecting preset resistors in the circuit. Preset resistor is one kind

of variable resistor whose electrical resistance value can be adjusted by

adjusting an adjustable screw attached to it. (John 2010).

Types of Variable Resistor

Resistance track wise there are mainly two types of resistance track

available one is linear track and other is logarithmic track. In linear track

the resistance value varies linearly with changing slider position on the

track. That means the resistance and the position of slider, form a straight-

line characteristics curve. When the resistance of variable resistor, varies

logarithmically with position of the slider contact on the resistance track,

the track is referred as logarithmic track. The resistance value and type of

track are marked on the resistor itself. For example; when a variable resistor

is marked as 5K9 LIN means it has maximum 5.9 kilo Ω resistance and has

a linear resistance track. Again, when a resistor is marked as 2M LOG, it

will have maximum 2megaΩ resistance and it has logarithmic track. Preset

resistors are linear track type. But the variable resistors used for volume

control in sound system are mainly LOG type as our ears have logarithmic

response to the loudness. In GOL resistor, the resistance changes slowly at

beginning and rapidly at towards end of the track. (John 2010)

Uses of variable Resistors

A variable resistor can be used mainly in two different ways. When one end

of resistance track and wiper terminal is connected with circuit then current

through the resistor limits according to the position of the wiper contact on
the resistance track. As the wiper contact slides away from the connected

end of the resistance track, the resistive value of the resistor increases and

current goes down through the circuit. That means the variable resistor

behaves like a rheostat. Another use is as potentiometer. In this case the two

ends of resistance track are connected with a voltage source. Hence voltage

drop across the resistance track is equal to the value of voltage source. Now

the output or load circuit is connected across one end of the resistance track

and wiped terminal. Hence voltage across the load terminals is the fraction

of source voltage and it depends upon the position of the wiper terminals on

the resistance track. This is another widely used application of variable

resistors. This is needless to say; potentiometers are used to control voltages

whereas rheostats are used to control electric currents. (John 2010)

Preset Variable Resistor

This is micro version of variable resistor. Preset resistors are directly

mounted on circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. There

is an adjustable screw attached to the resistor and a small screwdriver is

required to adjust this screw for desired resistance value. These resistors are

quite cheaper than standard variable resistor available in the market.

Fixed Resistor
A fixed resistor is part of an electric circuit and is used to reduce the flow of

electricity. Resistance is measured in Ohms and is typically shown as the

number and then the units; for example, a 750 Ohm resistor would be

written as 750-Ohm. The size of the resistor is based on the number of

Ohms, and it can range from pin to book size. Resistors come in two

classes: fixed and variable. A fixed resistor is set at a specific value and

cannot be changed. A variable resistor is able to manage flows at a specific

level and below. This is an important distinction and determines when and

where a resistor should be used. When selecting a resistor, it is important

for a person to consider three things: the value of the resistor, its tolerance,

and its power rating. The value is measured in Ohms. The tolerance

indicates the upper and lower bounds of actual performance, which is

measured in plus and minus percentage. For example, a tolerance of 10%

means that the resistor performs within a 10% range of the resistance value

listed in the specifications. Power rating shows the upper limit of power that

can be managed by the resistor and is measured in watts. To calculate the

power, a person can multiply the resistance value of the resistor by the

square root of the current. If the power rating is exceeded, the resistor will

fail. A rule of thumb is to use a resistor with a power rating two times

higher than the actual power needed. There are two kinds of fixed resistors:
 carbon and metal film. Carbon film resistors are designed for general use

and are fairly cheap to produce and purchase. These units have a tolerance

of 5%, with power ratings of 1/8 Watts (W), 1/4W, and 1/2W. The primary

issue with this type of resistor is the fact they generate electrical noise. A

metal film resistor is best used when a higher tolerance is required. These

units have a greater level of accuracy than carbon film resistors, due to the

nature of the materials used. There is a corresponding increase in price, but

it may be well worth the incremental cost to protect the other components

of the circuitry. When, reviewing the different types of resistors, individuals

should think about the intended use of the circuit. They should select a

manufacturer with a good reputation for quality and consistency, and take

the time to test the resistor and the circuit before installation to ensure all

the specifications are correct. (Carol Francois, 2015)

2.2.3 Diode IN4001

A diode is an electronic component with two electrodes (connectors). It acts

like a gate or a valve, allowing electricity to go in one direction, but eventually

some of the current will flow in the opposite direction, at the initial level of

operation. Diodes can be used to convert alternating current to direct current

(Diode bridge). They are often used in power supplies and sometimes to decode

amplitude modulation radio signals (like in a crystal radio). Light-emitting

 diodes (LEDs) are a type of diode that produce light and are used in many

places.

Today, the most common diodes are made from semiconductor materials such

as silicon or sometimes germanium. (Diodes incorporated, 2015) Features

 Diffused Junction.

 Surge Overload Rating to 30A Peak.

 Low Reverse Leakage Current.

 Low forward voltage drops.

 High forward surge capability.

Typical applications

For use in general purpose rectification of power supplies, inverters,

converters and freewheeling diodes application.

2.2.4 Capacitor

Capacitor is a device for the storage of electric charge. Simple capacitors

consist of two plates made of an electrically conducting material (e.g., a metal)

and separated by a non-conducting material or dielectric (e.g., glass, paraffin,

mica, oil, paper, tantalum, or air). The Leyden jar is a simple capacitor. If an

electrical potential (voltage) is applied to the plates of a capacitor (e.g., by

connecting one plate to the positive and the other to the negative terminal of a

storage battery), the plates will become charged, one positively and one
 negatively. If the externally applied voltage is then removed, the plates of the

capacitor remain charged, and the presence of the electric charge induces an

electrical potential between the plates. This phenomenon is called electrostatic

induction. The capacity of the device for storing electric charge (i.e., its

capacitance) can be increased by increasing the area of the plates, by decreasing

their separation, or by changing the dielectric. The dielectric constant of a

particular dielectric is the measure of the dielectric's unit capacitance. It

describes the ratio of the capacitance of a dielectric-filled capacitor to a

capacitor of the same size with a vacuum between the plates. Capacitors are

used in many electrical and electronic devices. The main capacitor

classifications are non-polarized (used for AC circuits) and polarized (used for

DC circuits). Capacitors can also be classified as fixed or variable. One type of

variable capacitor, formerly used in radio and television tuning circuits,

consisted of two sets of semicircular plates, one fixed and the other mounted on

a movable shaft. By rotating the shaft, the area of overlap of the two plates

increases or decreases, thus increasing or decreasing the capacitance. These

devices have largely been replaced by frequency synthesizers and a special type

of solid-state diode, known as a Varactor, whose capacitance changes with the

reverse-biased voltage across it.

2.2.5 Transistor
 These epitaxial planar transistors are mounted in the SOT-32 plastic package.

They are designed for audio amplifiers and drivers utilizing complementary or

quasi-complementary circuits. The NPN types are the BD135 and BD139, and

the complementary PNP types are the BD136 and BD140. (Elite Enterprises

H.K, 2015)

Features (BD139)

 It is a complement to BD136, BD138 and BD140 respectively.

 Products are pre-selected in DC current gain

Features (C1815)

 It has a power dissipation of 0.2W

 It has a collector current 0.15A

 It has a collector-base voltage 60V

Features (A1015)

 It has high voltage and high current.

 Excellent Linearity.

 Low noise.

 It is complementary to C1815

2.2.6 Regulator (LM117/LM317)

The LM117 series of adjustable 3-terminal positive voltage regulators is

capable of supplying in excess of 1.5A over a 1.2V to 37V output range. They

are exceptionally easy to use and require only two external resistors to set the

output voltage. Further, both line and load regulations are better than standard

fixed regulators. Also, the LM117 is packaged in standard transistor packages

which are easily mounted and handled. In addition to higher performance than

fixed regulators, the LM117 series offers full overload protection available only

in IC's. Included on the chip are current limit, thermal overload protection and

safe area protection. All overload protection circuitry remains fully functional

even if the adjustment terminal is disconnected. Normally, no capacitors are

needed unless the device is situated more than 6 inches from the input filter

capacitors in which case an input bypass is needed. An optional output

capacitor can be added to improve transient response. The adjustment terminal

can be bypassed to achieve very high ripple rejection ratios which are difficult

to achieve with standard 3-terminal regulators. Besides replacing fixed

regulators, the LM117 is useful in a wide variety of other applications. Since

the regulator is “floating” and sees only the input-to- output differential voltage,

supplies of several hundred volts can be regulated as long as the maximum

input to output differential is not exceeded, i.e., avoid short-circuiting the

output. Also, it makes an especially simple adjustable regulator, a

 programmable output regulator or by connecting a fixed resistor between the

adjustment pin and output, the LM117 can be used as a precision current

regulator. Supplies with electronic shutdown can be achieved by clamping the

adjustment terminal to ground which programs the output to 1.2V where most

loads draw little current. (Texas Instrument, 2014) Features

 Output-current excess of 1.5A.

 Output-Adjustable between 1.2v and 37v.

 Internal thermal overload protection.

 Internal short-circuit current limiting.

 Output-transistor safe operating area compensation.

2.2.7 MOSFET

Discrete power MOSFETs employ semiconductor processing techniques that

are similar to those of today's VLSI circuits, although the device geometry,

voltage and current levels are significantly different from the design used in

VLSI devices. The metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET)

is based on the original field-effect transistor introduced in the 70s. The

invention of the power MOSFET was partly driven by the limitations of bipolar

power junction transistors (BJTs) which, until recently was the device of choice

in power electronics applications. Although, it is not possible to define

absolutely the operating boundaries of a power device, we will loosely refer to

the power device as any device that can switch at least 1A. The bipolar power

transistor is a current controlled device. A large base drive current as high as

one-fifth of the collector current is required to keep the device in the ON state.

Also, higher reverse base drive currents are required to obtain fast turn-off.

Despite the very advanced state of manufacturability and lower costs of

BJTs, these limitations have made the base drive circuit design more

complicated and hence more expensive than the power MOSFET.

Another BJT limitation is that both electrons and holes contribute to

conduction. Presence of holes with their higher carrier lifetime causes the

switching speed to be several orders of magnitude slower than for a power

MOSFET of similar size and voltage rating. Also, BJTs suffer from thermal

runaway. Their forward voltage drops decreasing with increasing

temperature causing diversion of current to a single device when several

devices are paralleled. Power MOSFETs, on the other hand, are majority

carrier devices with no minority carrier injection. They are superior to the

BJTs in high frequency applications where switching power losses are

important. Plus, they can withstand simultaneous application of high current

and voltage without undergoing destructive failure due to second

breakdown. Power MOSFETs can also be paralleled easily because the

forward voltage drops increases with increasing temperature, ensuring an

even distribution of current among all components. (Duncan A. Grant,

2015)

CHAPTER THREE

DESIGN METHODOLOGY AND ANALYSIS

The designing and analysis of a 2KW solar inverter was done using the Proteus

simulation application to design and simulate the circuit of the system

3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SYSTEM

SOLAR CHARGE BATTERY

PANEL CONTROLLER

DC/AC
UTILITY INVERTER/
CHARGER

Figure 3.1 shows the Solar Panel Inverter Block Diagram

3.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

 Fig Circuit diagram of a solar panel inverter

3.3 SYSTEM OF OPERATION

The solar panel absorbs energy produced by the sun and converts it into

electrical energy. It does this by absorbing the sun rays into the modules of

the solar panel hence produced free electrical charge carriers in the

conduction and valence bands. The electricity produced by the solar panel

was then transferred to the charge controller as shown in fig 3.1 above. The

charge controller regulates the rate at which electric current were drawn in

and out of the battery. It turns off charge when the battery reaches the

optimum charging point and turns it on when it goes below a certain level. It

fully charges the battery without permitting overcharge. The regulated

voltage from the charge controller was then transferred to the solar battery.

The batteries were the key component in this solar power system. It provided
 energy storage for the system. The energy stored in the batteries was then

used to power the load but it was first converted to AC voltage by the use of

an inverter due to they were AC loads. The photovoltaic ally produced direct

current was commuted periodically by controlled oscillatory system and feed

to power electronic semiconductor switches such as transistors which were

connected the power transformer. Here the voltage was stepped up to the

desired ac voltage. The inverter could also charge the battery when there is

public power supply.

3.4 ANALYSIS OF THE SYSTEM

3.4.1 Types of Load

 Resistive Loads: Resistive loads are loads which consume electrical

energy in a sinusoidal manner. This means that the current flow is in

time with and directly proportional to the voltage. It is a load that

contains no inductance or capacitance, just pure resistance. Therefore;

when a resistive load is energized, the current rises instantly to its

steady-state value without first rising to a higher value. It includes loads

such as incandescent lighting and electrical heaters.

 Inductive Loads: An Inductive Load is a load that pulls a large amount

of current (an inrush current) when first energized. After a few cycles
 the current "settles down" to the full-load running current. Inductive

loads can cause excessive voltages to appear when switched. Examples

of Inductive Loads are motors, transformers, and wound control gear.

 Capacitive Loads: A Capacitive Load is an AC electrical load in which

the current wave reaches its peak before the voltage. Capacitive loads

are loads that capacitance exceeds inductance. Example of a Capacitive

Load is the flash of a camera, capacitors, wiring, cable. (TEPCO 2010)

3.4.2 Calculation of the Load

In other to determine the power use of each appliance and how long they

will be operated, the appliance datasheets or nameplates should be checked.

If their consumption is in amps, multiply by their voltage to yield their

power. If they are AC loads driven by an inverter, multiply the power by

1.1 to take into account the losses in the inverter. To calculate the total

Watthour (Wh) consumed in a 24hr period. Multiply the power

consumption of the appliance by the number of hours it runs per day and

sum together with all the other

appliances.

As an example – a large fridge that is rated at an average of 2.1A at

12V, an LED light rated at 0.5A at 12V that operates for 6hours per
 day, and an 240V AC television rated at 180W used for 12hours per

day.

Large fridge (Wh): 2.1 A × 12V × 24 h=604.8 Wh

LED Light (Wh): 0.5 A ×12 V × 6 h=36Wh

Television (Wh): 180 W ×1.1 ×12 h=2376 Wh

Total energy consumption over 24hr period:

604.8 Wh+36 Wh+ 2376 Wh=3016.8 Wh

3.4.3 Solar Charger

Solar charger is a device which uses solar energy in the form of

radiations to supply electricity to devices or to charge a battery. Lead

acid battery or Ni-Cd battery banks can be charged with the help of

solar charger circuit. For this at stationary locations series of solar

cells are installed. These solar cells can be directly connected to

battery banks to store energy for off peak hours. They can also be

used in peak hours for saving energy during daytime. The range of

charging voltage produced from solar panel depends upon the

intensity of the sun. Thus to protect the solar charger circuit from

with the solar charger circuit (Vikas Kulkarni and Rajesh Nehete,

2014).
 3.4.3.1 Circuit Diagram of Solar Charging Unit

Fig solar charging unit

3.4.3.2 Components used in solar charger circuit

 Solar Panel (18V)

Collection of solar cells is known as solar panel. Combination

of small solar cells together can be used for generating power

that can be used over a large area. The electricity produced by a

solar cell depends upon the amount of light that hits a cell. The

principal on which solar panel works is photovoltaic effect.

Photovoltaic effect is a physical and chemical phenomenon in

which voltage or current is created in a material when sunlight

falls on it (Paul Hersch and Kenneth Zweibel, 1982). The solar

 panel used in the project is of 37 Watts due to which current

flowing is 3 A when it charges.

 Diode (1N4001)

Diode is a rectifying device which conducts only from anode to

cathode. In case of current flowing from cathode to anode diode

behaves as open circuited. In this project, diode is used so that

current could flow from solar panel to battery and not from

battery to solar panel otherwise solar panel would get damaged.

These diodes have many features like low forward voltage

drop, high surge current capability and diffused PN junction

(Divakar Mani, 2013).

 IC (LM317T)

This IC is a voltage regulator IC which is capable of supplying

more than 1.5 A. To set its output voltage it requires only two

external resistors. It various features are that it could limit

current as well as provide thermal overload protection and safe

operating area protection (Manisha Ghodke, Sujata

Naduvinamni, Anusha Kanchagar, Chaitra Patil and Akshata

Miskin, 2015).

 BJT (BC548)
 BJT BC548 is a NPN silicon transistor. This transistor can be

used for both amplification and switching purpose (S. Jeneeth

Subashini, R. Gokula Krishnan, S. Karthick and V. Arun

Kumar, 2014). Its maximum DC current gain is 800. The

different transistors of this series are BC548A, BC548B and

BC548C which vary in terms of current gain and other

characteristics. This transistor requires biasing to operate in the

desired region i.e., a fixed DC voltage. This transistor is used in

common emitter configuration for amplifiers. It can be easily

turned off by removing base signal.

 Resistor (0.5 ohm, 100 ohms, 120 ohms, 470 ohm)

Resistor is a component that provides electrical resistance in a

circuit. It reduces the amount of current and voltage in the

circuit. Fixed resistors are the ones whose value changes

slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage and

variable resistors are the ones whose value changes which could

further be used as sensing device for light, heat, chemical

activity, humidity or force (Abdalla Obeidat, Maen Gharaibeh,

Manal Al-Ali and Akram Rousan, 2011). In this circuit various

 resistors of different ratings are used. Those are resistors of 0.5

ohm, 100 ohms, 120 ohms and 470 ohms.

 Potentiometer (1K)

A potentiometer is a kind of three terminal Resistor with sliding

or rotating contact used for adjustable voltage division. It is

used for measuring electric potential (Ray P. Teele and Shuford

Schuhmann, 1939). In this circuit potentiometer used is of 1K.

 Capacitor (0.22 µf)

Capacitor is a component which is used to store electrical

charge. Capacitor is mainly used for power factor correction.

Basically, a capacitor consists of two or more parallel

conductive plates which are separated from each other either by

air or some good insulating material. This insulating layer

between capacitor plates is known as dielectric which blocks

DC current but allows AC current to pass through it (M

Jayalakshmi and K Balasubramanian, 2008). The capacitor used

in this circuit is of 0.22 µf.

 Battery (12V)

A battery is a device that converts stored chemical energy into

electrical energy with the help of electrochemical cells. Battery

 is a collection of cells. Each cell has a positive and a negative

terminal. Terminal marked as positive is at higher potential

with respect to terminal marked as negative. When cell is

connected to an external circuit the terminal marked as positive

behaves as a source of electrons and when battery is connected

to an external circuit, electrolyte move as ions for completing

chemical reaction to deliver energy to external circuit. In this

project the battery used is AT12-7.6(12V7.6AH). It has many

applications like UPS system, solar lighting & LED lighting

(Andreas Oberhofer, 2012).

3.4.3.3 Working Principle of Solar Charger Circuit

When solar radiation falls on solar plate then it absorbs sun rays as a

source for generating electricity. These sun rays are the light energy

(photons) directly coming from the sun. In this circuit a diode of

series 1N4001 is placed which is used to give a unidirectional flow to

current flowing in the circuit i.e., current could only flow from solar

panel to battery and not from battery to solar panel. After the battery

an IC of series LM317T is used, which is working as a voltage

controlling device. It controls the voltage been generated. If the

 voltage generated is more than 18Volts then it will trip the resistor of

0.5 ohm due to which circuit will become incomplete and due to this

incomplete circuit current will stop flowing through the circuit. In this

the main motive behind tripping the resistor of 0.5 ohm was to protect

the battery used in the circuit. Further a potentiometer of 1K is used in

the circuit. It is only used to set voltage according to our requirement

by which battery would we charging. Here in this project, we are

adjusting the charging voltage as 12 Volt as the capacity of the battery

used is 12 Volt. In this circuitry a BJT is also used. Since a BJT is a

current controlling device, here it is used in this circuitry for same

purpose. Here the BJT of series BC548 is used to control the current

flowing due to conversion of solar radiations into electricity. Here a

capacitor of 0.22 µF is used to operate this BJT. The current flowing

through the circuitry depends upon solar watts. The solar panel used

in the project is of 37 Watts due to which current flowing is 3

Amperes when it charges.

3.4.4 Inverter

Inverter is a device that converts Direct Current (or DC) to

Alternating Current (or AC) using transformers, switching circuits and

 control circuits (Devyani K. Patil, Namrata N. Gupta, Rytuja M.

Bangale, Varsha D. Chordhari and Shalaka N. Chaphekar, 2015).

Home inverters or home UPS takes the DC power from the batteries

and converts it into AC power used by the load connected at home.

Similarly, an “Off Grid” solar inverter operates. In case of “Grid

Connected” solar inverter the DC power is generated from the solar

panels and AC power is given to the grid. In case of “Grid Connected”

solar inverter when the power is coming from the grid, the

UPS/inverter system charges the batteries using the power coming

from the grid. When the power coming from the grid is off, then the

inverter takes the DC power from the batteries and converts it into AC

to supply it to appliances. An automatic switch is used to sense

whether the power is coming from the grid and if not then it switches

the UPS into battery mode (Vikas Kulkarni and Rajesh Nehete, 2014).

3.4.4.1 Circuit Diagram of Inverter Circuit unit

 Fig inverter circuit unit

3.4.4.2 Components Used Inverter Circuit

 IC (CD4047)

It is a low power Monostable/Astable multivibrator. It can

operate in only one mode at a time. It requires an external

capacitor (between pin 1 & 3) and an external resistor (between

pin 2 & 3) to determine the output pulse width in the

monostable mode, and the output frequency in the as astable

mode. Its various features are wide supply voltage range: 3V to

15V, high noise immunity, low power compatibility, low power

consumption and only one external R and C required (Devyani

 K. Patil, Namrata N. Gupta, Rytuja M. Bangale, Varsha D.

Chordhari and Shalaka N. Chaphekar, 2015).

 MOSFET (IRFZ44)

MOSFET IRFZ44 is an n-channel MOSFET which is used for

both amplifying and switching purpose. MOSFET’s are the

most common transistors used because of its main advantage

that it requires lesser amount of current to turn on while it

delivers much higher amount of current to load. It has

maximum VDSS as 55 V and can handle continuous drain

current up to 49 A.

 Transformer (12-0-12)

A transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy

from one circuit to another through electromagnetic induction

without the change in frequency. Transformers are used in

circuits to increase or decrease the voltages value. In this

project the transformer used is of 12-0-12 Volt and 5 A. It has

240 V primary windings and centre tapped secondary winding.

This transformer act as a step down transformer reducing AC -

 240 V to AC - 12 V (Manisha Ghodke, Sujata Naduvinamni,

Anusha Kanchagar, Chaitra Patil and Akshata Miskin, 2015).

 Resistors (100 ohms, 1K ohm, 18K ohms)

In this circuit the resistors of different ratings are used. Those

are resistors of 100 ohms, 1K ohm and 18K ohms.

 Capacitor (0.22µF)

In this circuit the capacitor used is of 0.22 µF.

3.4.4.3 Working Principle of the Inverter Circuit unit

DC supply to this circuit is given by 12V battery. In this a

combination of ‘R’ & ‘C’ is used which works as an oscillating

circuit. This circuit decides the frequency of oscillation. Through this

oscillation circuit capacitor gets fully charged and thus triggers the IC

when it reaches at threshold voltage. Once the capacitor is completely

charged, it starts discharging through the resistor and the common

line. At pin 4, 5, 6 & 14 of IC positive supply comes and at pin 7, 8, 9

& 12 of IC negative supply comes. IC used in the circuit is such that

one time we get output at IC pin number 10 (Q) and second time we

get output at IC pin number 11 (Q’). Thus due to the output of IC,

MOSFET gets triggered.

When we get output at IC pin number 10 at that time MOSFET 1 gets

triggered. It will now act as a closed switch. Thus the primary circuit

of transformer will get completed due to which voltages would be

induced in the secondary of the transformer. When MOSFET 1 acts as

closed switch at that time the direction of flow of current in the

primary winding would be clockwise and at the same time the

direction of flow of current in the secondary would be anticlockwise.

The output obtained from secondary winding of transformer would be

square wave. This wave would be positive in nature.

When we get output at IC pin number 11 at that time MOSFET 2 gets

triggered. It will now act as a closed switch. Thus the primary circuit

of transformer will get completed due to which voltages would be

induced in the secondary of the transformer. When MOSFET 2 acts as

closed switch at that time the direction of flow of current in the

primary winding would be anticlockwise and at the same time the

direction of flow of current in the secondary would be clockwise. The

output obtained from secondary winding of transformer would be

square wave. This wave would be negative in nature.

 Thus, the net output obtained would be complete square wave. Since

this output obtained is an alternating output but not a smooth one thus

for it we use a capacitor with switch.

CHAPTER FOUR
IMPLEMENTATION, TESTING AND RESULTS
Successful operation of the system depends on a number of factors, proper
matching of the different stages, and strict adherence to component tolerance and
stable power supply are essential for proper operation of the system. Therefore, the
implementation and testing cover’s the varies steps taken in achieving this project.
The implementations of the system first done on a Veroboard.

4.1 IMPLEMENTATION
The implementation of the interface hardware was done in phases include testing
of the design, preparation of component layout, soldering of components and
packaging of casing.
The first stage was the Power supply unit. The unit was constructed first because of
its simplicity, after the necessary test has been carried out; the system was mounted
unto a Vero board. The size of the board is large enough to permit reasonable
spacing between components. Components used wires, battery, transistors,
capacitor and transformer. The figure below shows the first stage.

fig 4.1 Set up of 1kVA inverter

The second stage was the converter from DC to AC using MOSFET which is
stepped up by the step-up transformer to serve as output.
These were carefully soldered unto the Vero board with a low power soldering iron
(40w), after which continuity test carried out.
4.2 COUPLING AND SOLDERING
When the circuit has been tested and the component layout was ready, the
component then transferred to the Vero board and soldered. The original patter of
interconnection on the bread board was maintaining on the Vero-board. In the case
of electronic processor, the IC socket where soldered first before the ICs were
plugged into them. IC socket were used to avoid overheating and breaking of ICs
pins and also avoid overheating ICs which may lead to eventual breakdown of
components. It also makes soldering easier as the tension associated with soldering
may not be there to damage the expensive ICs. High fusion solder was used, and at
each point before soldering, the 40watt soldering iron was allow to heat very well
so that the lead will melt properly and stick to the board.

4.3 TESTING
4.3.1 TESTING OF INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS
The stage involves the testing of discrete electronics components, mechanical
components and the integrated circuit chips. This stage was carrying out to censure
proper functioning of components before interconnection with other components.
Valves of the components were measured using a digital multimeter.

fig 4.2 Testing of components with digital multimeter

4.3.2 TESTING OF THE CIRCUIT MODULES
During and after the construction of the solar panel 1kVA inverter some of the
following tests were conducted, these tests were conducted with a working digital
multi-meter and also and an analogue meter to ensure correctness in the values
measured.

 Continuity Test

This test is done to check the validity of an electrical path; this test was carried out
a lot during the assembling of the project components, particularly on the PCB.
The test is performed by simply selecting continuity test using the multi-meter dial,
and placing the probes on the points being tested. If connected the multi-meter
buzzes a high-pitched sound and reads a value, if not connected “1” which
signifies infinity is displayed on the screen.

 Voltage Test

Voltage tests were carried out severally to ascertain the voltages at different points
in the network. A multi-meter was also used in carrying out this test. To carry out
this test, the voltage type to be measured (AC or DC) is selected and the range of
the multi-meter was set to match the expected voltage to be measured. The red
probe was place on the positive terminal and the black probe on the negative
terminal.

 No Load Test
After the wounding of the transformer, no-load test was carried out. The purpose of
this test is to determine no-load or core loss. Which in turn can be used in
calculating the core loss and the iron loss. One of the winding; in our case the High
voltage side is connected to a supply and the other side is left open, then the
voltages and current is measured. The value of the no-load current we got was
0.3A, which was within reasonable limits, since the no-load current is within 2 –
10% of the rated current value.

4.4 PACKAGING AND CASING

The solar inverter is divided into two structures which include the solar panel and
the inverter unit. Battery terminals for positive and negative, power switch, handle
and output meter were fixed in their allotted slots and connected to their respective
points on the circuit. The casing was earthed and each unit carefully arranged
inside and connected together.

fig 4.1 Casing of the inverter unit

4.5 RESULTS
S/N Battery voltage AC output State of load
1. 15 230 ON

2. 14.5 220 ON

3. 14 220 ON

4. 13.5 200 ON
 5. 13 220 ON

6. 12.5 230 ON

7. 12 230 ON

8. 11.5 220 ON

9. 11 230 ON

table.1 Results

fig 4.2 Input output voltage graph

The graph above shows the voltage variations as the inverter is on at different
times. The supply from the solar panel varies so as the output voltage varies.

4.6 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

There were a lot of problems encountered during the costing and construction of
this project which includes:
 The materials were expensive
 During soldering, over heating damaged components
  During testing period, sensors were destroyed
 Calibration of the sensors required much time
 Uploading and deleting codes to fit the Arduino uno several times.

4.7 PRECAUTIONS
 All components were tested before mounted on the board
 All components were kept at room temperature in the dry dust free package.
 Components were laid to allow easy access.
 Soldering spikes were avoided.
 Bridges were avoided during soldering on the Veroboard.
 Short circuit and open circuit were avoiding where necessary.
 Too much soldering was avoided on each component.
 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSION
The objectives of this project is to design an inverter that will produce an output up
to 1 KVA with input from a 12 V battery and can be used to power AC loads.
Within the limit of correctness, the project worked as proposed in the objectives
and according to the results gotten in the preceding chapter. This proposed solar
panel inverter has various applications because of its key advantages such as
operation with very low harmonic distortion and clean power like utility-supplied
electricity, reduction in audible and electrical noise in Fans, fluorescent lights and
so on, faster, less noisy and cooler running of Inductive loads like microwaves and
motors.

5.2RECOMMENDATION
5.3An extra improvement could be made to allow for short circuit protection, so
that if there is a condition for a bridge in both the phase and neutral lines, the
microcontroller produces no oscillations. This would be important as a short
circuit conditions can lead to permanent damage to circuit components.
Secondly the board could be a printed circuit board that would ensure the
validity of connected links.