Lecture V Noise

Noise in instruments
Measurement Noise
Noise is a random fluctuation in an electrical

signal and is a characteristic of all electronic
circuits. It can be an interruption or interference
of a wanted signal from an unwanted signal.
• Errors are often created in measurement systems
when electrical signals from measurement
sensors and transducers are corrupted by
induced noise.
• This induced noise arises both within the
measurement circuit itself and also during the
transmission of measurement signals to remote
points.
• The aim when designing measurement systems is
always to reduce such induced noise voltage
levels as far as possible. However, it is usually not
possible to eliminate all such noise, and signal
processing has to be applied to deal with any
noise that remains.
Causes of Measurement Noise
• Mechanical interference
• Electrical interference
• Fluctuations in the electromagnetic field
• Fluctuations in electron movement.
• How can these causes be limited?
Major sources of Noise
• Noise voltages can exist either in serial mode
or common mode forms
• Serial mode noise voltages act in series with
the output voltage from a measurement
sensor or transducer, which can cause very
significant errors in the output measurement
signal.
• Common mode noise voltages are less
serious, because they cause the potential of
both sides of a signal circuit to be raised by
the same level, and thus the level of the
output measurement signal is unchanged.
• However, common mode voltages do have to

be considered carefully, since they can be
converted into series mode voltages in certain
circumstances.
• The extent to which series mode noise
corrupts measurement signals is measured by
a quantity known as the signal-to-noise ratio.
This is defined as:
• Signal-to-noise ratio = 20log10(Vs/Vn)
• where Vs is the mean voltage level of the
signal and Vn is the mean voltage level of the
noise.
• In the case of a.c. noise voltages, the root-
mean squared value is used as the mean.
• Noise can be generated from sources both
external and internal to the measurement
system.
• Induced noise from external sources arises in
measurement systems for a number of
reasons that include:
• proximity to mains-powered equipment and
cables (causing noise at the mains frequency)
• proximity to fluorescent lighting circuits
(causing noise at twice the mains frequency),
• Proximity to equipment operating at audio
and radio frequencies (causing noise at
corresponding frequency)
• Switching of nearby d.c. and a.c. circuits
• Corona discharge (both of the latter causing
induced spikes and transients).
Note:
• Internal noise includes thermoelectric
potentials, shot noise and potentials due to
electrochemical action.
Forms of electronic noise
• Inductive coupling
• Capacitive (electrostatic) coupling
• Electrochemical potentials
• Shot noise
• Noise due to multiple earths
• Thermoelectric potentials
Inductive coupling
• The primary mechanism by which external
devices such as mains cables and equipment,
fluorescent lighting and circuits operating at
audio or radio frequencies generate noise is
through inductive coupling.
• If signal-carrying cables are close to such external
cables or equipment, a significant mutual
inductance M can exist between them, and this
can generate a series mode noise voltage of
several millivolts given by Vn=MI where I is the
rate of change of current in the mains circuit
Capacitive (electrostatic) coupling
• Capacitive coupling, also known as
electrostatic coupling, can also occur between
the signal wires in a measurement circuit and
a nearby mains-carrying conductor
• The magnitude of the capacitance between
each signal wire and the mains conductor is
represented by the quantities C1 and C2
Electrochemical potentials
• These are potentials that arise within
measurement systems due to electrochemical
action.
• Poorly soldered joints are a common source.
Shot noise
• Shot noise occurs in transistors, integrated
circuits and other semiconductor devices.
• It consists of random fluctuations in the rate
of transfer of carriers across junctions within
such devices.
Noise due to multiple earths
• As far as possible, measurement signal circuits are isolated
from earth.
• However, leakage paths often exist between measurement
circuit signal wires and earth at both the source (sensor)
end of the circuit and also the load (measuring instrument)
end.
• This does not cause a problem as long as the earth
potential at both ends is the same.
• However, it is common to find that other machinery and
equipment carrying large currents is connected to the same
earth plane.
• This can cause the potential to vary between different
points on the earth plane.
• This situation, which is known as multiple earths, can cause
a series mode noise voltage in the measurement circuit.
Thermoelectric potentials
• Whenever metals of two different types are
connected together, a thermoelectric potential
(sometimes called a thermal e.m.f.) is generated
according to the temperature of the joint.
• This is known as the thermoelectric effect and is the
physical principle on which temperature-measuring
thermocouples operate.
• Such thermoelectric potentials are only a few
millivolts in magnitude and so the effect is only
significant when typical voltage output signals of a
measurement system are of a similar low magnitude.
Noise in the form of voltage transients
• When motors and other electrical equipment
(both a.c. and d.c.) are switched on and off, large
changes of power consumption suddenly occur in
the electricity supply system.
• This can cause voltage transients (‘spikes’) in
measurement circuits connected to the same
power supply. Such noise voltages are of large
magnitude but short time duration.
• Corona discharge can also cause voltage
transients on the mains power supply. This occurs
when the air in the vicinity of high voltage d.c.
circuits becomes ionized and discharges to earth
at random times.

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Noise in instruments

Noise is a random fluctuation in an electrical

• However, common mode voltages do have to

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