Endocrinology

Prepared By: Mr.Jitendra Mehta Mo.9624860038 Email: jitmehtabiotech@gmail.com

• Introduction:
• For the regulation of continuous cellular functions, control & coordination are done by endocrine system.
• Endocrine system is meant for internal regulation & communication of the human body.
• Endocrine glands are ductless & secrete the chemicals termed as hormones into the surrounding blood,
which are then transported to the site of action, which is very far from the place of secretion.
• Hormones are special types of chemical messengers secreted by endocrine cells in one part of the body
& influence the activity of various organs of another part of the body.
• Hormones are effective in minute quantities to stimulate or inhibit specific physiological processes of the
body.
• Hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, testis & ovary are the
organised endocrine glands.
• In addition to these, hormones are secreted by some other organs, like heart, kidney & gastrointestinal
tract.

• Comparison of Nervous & Endocrine system:

Characteristic Nervous system Endocrine system
Process of regulation From nerves due to stimulation Hormones are supplied to
of nerve impulse neuro- tissues of whole body through
transmitters are released. blood.
Affected cells Muscle cells, glandular cells, All cells of the body
other nerve cells
Type of affected process Muscle contraction or glandular Change in processes of
secretion metabolism
Time period for starting of In mili second Not fixed
process
Period of process Generally short Seconds to hours or days,
Generally long

• Endocrine V/s Exocrine

Endocrine Gland Exocrine Gland
They are ductless. They are with duct.
Chemicals produced in endocrine glands are Chemicals produced in exocrine glands are
called Hormones. called exocrine or digestive juice-enzymes.
Hormones are directly poured into the blood. Digestive juices enriched with enzymes do not
directly mix with the blood but get secreted in
cavity of digestive tract through ducts.
Its secretion reaches through blood till Its secretion reaches till functional place
functional place. through ducts.
Example: Pituitary gland, Adrenal gland, Example: liver, Pancreas, Salivary gland, Sweat
Pancreas, Pineal body, thymus gland, testis, gland, etc.,
ovary, etc.,
• Differentiate between Hormone & Enzyme:

Hormone Enzyme
Chemicals produced in endocrine glands are Chemicals produced in exocrine glands are
called Hormones. called exocrine or digestive juice-enzymes.
Hormones are directly mixed with the blood & Enzymes function there only where they are
reach till their functional place. produced & also get conducted to organs with
cavities through their ducts.
Hormones reach to their definite organs & Enzymes make definite processes occurring in
stimulates the process occurring there or organ or cells fast, thus they are chemicals
inhibits, thus they are regulatory chemicals. inducing biological catalysis.
They are chemically derivatives of protein, All enzymes are generally made up of
steroid, iodothyronins or amino acid. proteins.
Examples: GH, TSH, ACTH, MSH, ADH, PRl, Amylase, Lipase, Protease, Nuclease, Maltase,
Oxytocin, testosterone, estrogen, etc., Sucrase, Lactase, etc.,

• Hypothalamus:
• It is the base of the diencephalon, a part of the fore-brain.
• It is composed of nervous tissue & it regulates a wide range of body functions.
• It is connected with the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland by hypophysial portal vessels & with
the posterior lobe of the gland by axon of its neurons.
• It contains several groups of neurosecretory cells which when stimulated, release hormones
termed as neurohormones, which regulate the synthesis and secretion of the pituitary
hormones.
• It produces two types of hormones:

• Pituitary Gland OR Master Gland:

• It is located just below the hypothalamus. It is situated in a depression of the sphenoid bone of
the skull called sella turcica.
• It is attached to hypothalamus by stalk of infundibulum.
• It is divided anatomically into:

• Anterior pituitary:
• This part produces following hormones:
• Growth Hormone(GH) or Somatotropic Hormone(STH):
• It stimulates growth & development of all tissues by increasing cell division & protein synthesis.
• In childhood low secretion of GH causes dwarfism while over secretion of GH in childhood causes
gigantism, which stimulates excess growth & abnormal height in childhood.
• In adult stage due to excess secretion of GH, bones of lower jaw & limbs become abnormally large which
develops Acromegaly.
• Prolactin Hormone(PH):
• It stimulates the growth of mammary gland & the secretion of milk after delivery.
• Thyroid Stimulating Hormone(TSH):
• It stimulates the thyroid gland for the production of thyroid hormones.
• Adrenocortico Tropic Hormone(ACTH):
• It stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoid & mineralocorticoid hormones.
• Gonadotrophic Hormones(GTHs):
• LH & FSH are together termed as gonadotrophic hormones.
• Leuteinising Hormone(LH):
• In male it induces sex hormones- androgens (testoste-rone) which make the male reproductive system
fully grown & functional.
• In female it causes ovulation of fully mature follicle (Graffian follicles) & forms corpus luteum in the
empty ovarian follicle.
• Follicle Stimulating Hormone(FSH):
• FSH & androgen in male regulate spermatogenesis.
• In female FSH regulates development of new ovarian follicle.
• Pars intermedia OR Intermediate lobe:
• It secretes a hormone name Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH) which stimulates the melanocytes
(black pigment in skin) & regulates pigmentation in skin.
• Posterior lobe OR Neurohypophysis:
• It releases oxytocin & vasopressin hormones.
• Oxytocin:
• It stimulates the contraction of smooth muscles of body.
• In female, it stimulates widening of uterus at time of the birth of child & milk secretion from the
mammary glands.
• Vasopressin OR Anti-diuretic Hormone(ADH):
• It stimulates the re-absorption of water & electrolytes by the distal tubules of kidney & reduces loss of
water through urine.
• The deficiency of ADH reduces re-absorption of water & increases urine output, is known as diabetes
incipidus.

• Pineal Gland:
• It is located under the corpus callosum between the two cerebral hemispheres of the brain.
• It is very small, solid, vascular, reddish grey & conical body.
• It secretes hormone called melatonin, which plays a very important role in the regulation of a 24-hour
rhythm of body. Hence it functions as a biological clock.
• It helps in maintaining the normal rhythm of body temperature & sleep-wake cycle.
• It regulates metabolism, menstrual cycle (in female), pigmentation & self defense capability.
• Thyroid Gland:
• It is bilobed & located on either side of the upper part of the trachea.
• Its two lobes are connected by a narrow connective tissue band called isthmus.
• It is composed of rounded follicles, which has a wall of cuboidal epithelium & is filled with a gelatinous
colloid secreted by epithelium.
• It secrets three hormones:

• Iodine is essential for the hormone of thyroid gland.

• Deficiency of iodine in our diet causes the enlargement of the thyroid gland, known as Goiter.

• Hypothyroidism:
• It is caused by less secretion of thyroid gland.
• During pregnancy, it causes defective development & maturation of infants leading to cretinism.
• A person with cretinism has stunted growth, mental retardation, abnormal skin & deaf mutism.
• In adult women the deficiency of hormone causes myxodema characterized by puffy appearance due to
accumulation of fat in the subcutaneous tissue.
• Hyperthyroidism:
• Over secretion of thyroid gland causes this disorder.
• In adult women may cause irregular menstrual cycle.
• Over secretion of thyroxine causes Exophthalmic goiter, in which bulging of eyeballs, quick heart beat,
rise in blood pressure & body temperature occure.
• Thyroid hormone plays an important role to control the general metabolism of carbohydrate by
regulating the oxidation & ATP production.
• It maintains the basal metabolic rate (BMR) of the body.
• It stimulates the process of RBC formation.
• It also maintains water & electrolyte balance,
• Thyrocalcitonin(TCT):
• It acts upon osteoblast of bones and decreases the calcium level in blood.

• Parathyroid:
• The four lobes of parathyroid glands are located on the ventral surface of the thyroid gland.
• It secretes only one hormone called Parathyroid hormone or Parathormone (PTH).
• It increases the Ca+2 level in blood.
• It acts on bone & activates the process of bone re-absorption.
• It increases Ca+2 absorption from the digested food & also activates re-absorption of Ca+2 by renal
tubules.
• PTH along with Thyrocalcitonin (TCT) plays a significant role in maintenance of calcium balance in the
body.

• Thymus:
• It is located in upper dorsal side of the heart & aorta.
• It is a soft & bilobed mass of lymphoid tissue.
• It plays a major role in the development of the immune system.
• It secretes hormone thymosin, which stimulates the development & differentiation of T-lymphocytes,
provide cell mediated immunity (CMI).
• Besides this, it stimulates the production of antibodies to provide humoral immunity.
• In children it is a prominent gland, but it is gradually degenerates in the adult, resulting in a decreased
secretion of thymosin. Due to this, the immune responses of old persons become weak.
• Adrenal Gland:
• A pair of adrenal glands is present one on the anterior part of each kidney.
• It is yellowish & conical in shape.
• Each gland has two distinct regions:
• Adrenal medulla:
• It secretes catecholamines.
• At the time of danger or stress or emergency, the CNS stimulates the medulla to secrete adrenaline &
nor adrenaline.
• These hormones play an important role to overcome ‘flight or fight’ situation hence they are called
emergency hormones.
• Due to these hormones increase, alertness & warm red face, pupilary dilation, rising of hairs, faster heart
beats & sweating like symptoms are often noticeable.
• Catecholamine also activates the breakdown of glycogen resulting in an increased level of glucose in
blood.
• They also stimulate the breakdown of protein & lipid.
• Adrenal cortex:
• It is divided into three layers: Inner layer Zona reticularis, middle layer Zona fasciculata & outer layer
Zona glomerulosa.
• Each layer produces its own set of steroid hormones called corticoids.
• The adrenal cortex is important for life, because its destruction or removal causes death.
• Mineralocorticoids are secreted by outer layer, which regulate mineral metabolism & the balance of
water & Na+.
• Glucocorticoids are secreted by middle region, which regulate carbohydrate, protein & fat metabolism.
• They have anti-allergic & anti-inflamatory effects & suppresses the immune responses.
• The main glucocorticoid is cortisol.
• Sexcorticoids are hormones secreted by both, middle & inner parts of the cortex, which include male and
female sex hormones.
• The male sex hormone, testosterone stimulates the development of male secondary sexual characters
such as deepening of voice & distribution of hairs on body.
• The female sex hormones are estrogen & progesterone.
• The estrogen stimulates secondary sexual characters such as enlargement of breast & menstruation.
• Disorders of Adrenal Gland:
• Addision Disease:
• It is caused by deficiency of mineralo-corticoid, characterized by ion imbalance.
• The symptoms include weakness, weight loss, nausea, vomiting & diarrhea.
• Cushing’s syndrome:
• It is caused by excess secretion of cortisol.
• The symptoms include high blood sugar, obesity and rise in blood pressure & blood volume.

• Pancreas:
• It is an elongated yellowish & lobulated gland.
• It acts as both exocrine as well as endocrine gland.
• The endocrine part of pancreas contains of about 1 – 2 million islets of Lengerhans, which contain three
main types of cells namely α-cells, β-cells & delta cells.
• The α-cells secrete a hormone called glucagon which increases blood glucose level. Glucagon is a peptide
hormone & is secreted in response to a fall in the blood glucose level. It acts mainly on liver cells &
 stimulates glycogenolysis resulting in an increased blood sugar (hyperglycemia). It also stimulates the
process of gluconeogenesis which results in rise of blood glucose level.
• Thus glucagon is a hyperglycemic hormone.
• Secretion of insulin from β-cells is stimulated by increased blood glucose level.
• It acts mainly on liver cells & adipose tissue & increases cellular glucose uptake & utilisation.
• As a result there is a transfer of glucose from blood to liver cells & adipose tissue resulting in decreased
blood glucose level (hypoglycemia).
• Insulin stimulates conversion of glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis).
• The glucose level is thus maintained by opposite effect of above both the hormones.
• Deficiency of insulin causes diabetes mellitus.
• It can cause damage to kidney, blood circulation and vision.
• Symptoms are excessive urination, excessive thirst, greater hunger, etc.,
• This disease can be controlled by proper diet-control, physical exercise & external introduction of insulin.
• Delta cells are about 5% & secrete somatostatin, which inhibits growth hormone.

• Testis:
• They are situated in the scrotum (outside abdomen) of male.
• They secrete male sex hormones known as androgens, mainly testosterone from the group of Leydig’s
cells.
• Testosterone stimulates the development, maturation & functions of the male accessory sex organs like
epididymis, vas deference, seminal vesicle, prostate gland & urethra.
• These hormones stimulate the development of male accessory sex characters like beard, moustaches,
muscular growth, axillary hair, low pitch of voice, aggressiveness & broadening of shoulders.
• Androgens play a main stimulatory role in the process of spermatogenesis.
• It also acts on the CNS & influences the male sexual behavior and sex urge.

• Ovary:
• A pair of ovary lies in the abdomen of female.
• Ovary secretes three steroid female sex hormones: estrogen, progesterone & relaxin.
• Ovary is composed of ovarian follicle & stromal tissues.
• Growing ovarian follicles secrete estrogen and after ovulation, the ruptured follicle is converted to
corpus luteum which secretes progesterone.
• Estrogen:
• Estrogen stimulates the female reproductive system to grow to full size & becomes functional.
• It also stimulates the secondary sex characters like enlargement of breast, broadening of pelvis, growing
axillary hair, etc.,
• It also stimulates development of ovarian follicles in the ovary.
• Progesterone:
• It supports embryo & foetal development & suspends ovulation, implantation of the foetus in the uterine
wall and helps in placental formation.
• It also acts on the mammary glands to stimulate milk secretion & storage of milk.
• Relaxin:
• It is secreted by corpus luteum at the end of the gestation period.
• It relaxes the cervix of the uterus for easy birth of the young one.
 Male sex hormone Female sex hormone
Origin from middle & internal layer of adrenal Origin from middle & internal layer of adrenal cortex &
cortex & group of Leydig’s cells present in testis. ovarian follicles of ovary & corpus luteum.
Main male sex hormone is Androgen which is Main female sex hormone is Estrogen (from developed
secreted from Leydig’s cells of testis. ovarian follicles), progesterone & relaxin (corpus
luteum).
Testosteron in male stimulates accessory sex Estrogen in females stimulates secondary sex
characters like beard, moustaches, muscular characters like enlargement of breast, broadening of
growth, axillary hair, low pitch of voice, pelvis, growing axillary hair, etc.,
aggressiveness & broadening of shoulders.
Testosterone stimulates the development, Estrogen stimulates the female reproductive system to
maturation & functions of male accessory sex grow to full size & becomes functional.
organs.
It plays a main stimulatory role in the process of Estrogen stimulates development of ovarian follicles in
spermatogenesis & acts on the CNS & influences the the ovary.
male sexual behavior and sex urge. Progesterone supports embryo and foetal
development & suspends ovulation, implantation of
the foetus in the uterine wall and helps in placental
formation.
Relaxin relaxes the cervix of the uterus for easy birth of
the young one.
Testosterone is secreted during whole life span Estrogen is secreted during 13 days of menstruation
after the adolescence. period, while progesterone is secreted during 15-28
days after it.
In mother after fixation of embryo progesterone & in
the last stage of pregnancy relaxin is produced &
secretion is stopped after menopause.

• Hormones of Heart, Kidney & GIT:

• Hormones are also secreted by some tissues which are not endocrine glands.

Endocrine organ Hormone Function

Heart (Atrial wall) ANF (Atrial Natriuretic Decreases blood pressure, when blood pressure is
Factor) - Peptide increased.
It causes dilation of the blood vessels, which
reduces the blood pressure.
Kidney (Juxtaglomerular cells) Erythropoietin Erythropoiesis (formation of RBCs)
Gastro-Intestinal tract:
Stomach wall Gastrin Stimulates gastric glands to secrete pepsinogen &
HCl.
Wall of Duodenum Pancreozymine Stimulates pancreas & induces pancreatic juice.
Under the combined effect of secretin helps in
secretion of intestinal juice.
Wall of duodenum Secretin It acts on the exocrine gland of pancreas &
stimulates the secretion of bicarbonate ions &
water.
Under the combined effect of pancreozymine
induces pancreatic juice & intestinal juice.
Cholycystokinin (CCK) It acts on pancreas and gall bladder to stimulate
for secretion of pancreatic juice & bile respectively.
Enterogastron OR Gastric It inhibits gastric secretion
Inhibitory Peptide (GIP
• Many non endocrine tissues secrete hormones known as growth factors, which are important for normal
growth of tissues & their repairing and regeneration.
• Mechanism of Hormone Action:
• Hormones exhibit their effects on target cells by binding to specific proteins known as hormone
receptors proteins, found only in the target cells.
• These hormone receptors, found on the cell membrane of the target cells are known as membrane-
bound receptors.
• Receptors found inside the target cells are known as intracellular receptors.
• Binding of a hormone to its receptors leads to formation of hormone receptors complex.
• Each receptor is specific to one specific hormone only & hence receptors are specific.
• Formation of hormone receptor complex creates certain biochemical changes in the target cells.
• Metabolic & physiological processes in target cells are regulated by hormones.
• On the basis of their chemical nature, hormones can be divided into following groups:

• Mechanism of peptide hormones action:

• This type of hormones interacts with membrane bound receptor and forms hormone receptor complex
but generally do not enter the target cells & generate second messengers. E.g. cyclic AMP, Ca++, IP
(Inositol tri phosphate), etc., which in turn regulate cellular metabolism.
• Mechanism of steroid hormones action:
• Hormones which bind with intracellular receptors such as steroid after entering into target cells.
• Steroids mostly regulate gene expression by the interaction of hormone receptor complex with the
genome.
• As a result of many biochemical reactions physiological reactions & development are affected.