Unit 1:

ENVIRONMENT:

Environment is the surroundings or conditions in which a person,

animal, or plant lives or operates. The word 'environment’ is
derived from the French word 'environ' – which means 'surround,
enclose, and encircle. It can be living (biotic) or non-living (biotic)
things. It includes physical, chemical and other natural forces.

Environment mainly consist of Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere

and Biosphere

LITHOSPHERE:

A lithosphere ( Greek: lithos for "rocky", and sphaira for "sphere") it is

the rigid, outermost shell of the earth.The lithosphere is subdivided into
tectonic plates.

EARTH: Parts:
• Crust
• Mantle
• Core
Crust: This is the outside layer of the earth and is made of solid rock,
mostly basalt and granite. There are two types of crust: oceanic and
continental. The oceanic crust of the Earth is different from its
continental crust. Oceanic plates make up the ocean floor. Continental
plates make up the continents. The oceanic crust is 5 km to 10 km thick
and is composed primarily of basalt, diabase, and gabbro. The
continental crust is typically from 30 km to 50 km thick, and it is
mostly composedof less dense rocks than is the oceanic crust.
Mantle: A mantle is a layer inside a planetary body bounded below by
a core and above by a crust. The mantle is divided into upper and lower
mantle separated by a transition zone. The mantle lies below the crust
and is up to 2900 km thick. It consists of hot, dense, iron and
magnesium-rich solid rock. The temperature is vastly greater in the
lower mantle and can melt rocks; the greater pressure prevents much
melting. The upper mantle is more solid than the lower mantle.

The lowest part of the mantle next to the core-mantle boundary is

known as the D″ (D-double-prime) layer.

Core: The core is the center of the earth. Earth’s core is the very hot,
very dense center of our planet. Temperatures here can reach up to
50,000 C. The core is found about 2,900 kilometers below Earth's
surface and has a radius of about 3,485 kilometers. Core is made up of
two parts: the liquid outer core and solid inner core. The outer core is
made of nickel, iron and molten rock. The inner core is believed to be
composed of an iron–nickel alloy with some other elements. It is
composed mainly of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) and hence it is also called
NIFE.

Geothermal gradient is the rate of change in temperature with respect

to increasing depth in Earth's interior.

Earth's lithosphere includes the crust and the uppermost mantle, which
constitutes the hard and rigid outer layer of the Earth. The lithosphere
is underlain by the asthenosphere which is the weaker, hotter, and
deeper part of the upper mantle.
The asthenosphere ( Greek: asthenos meaning "without strength", and
thus "weak", and sphaira meaning "sphere") is the highly viscous,
mechanically weak and ductile region of the upper mantle of Earth. It
lies below the lithosphere, at depths between approximately 80 and
200 km below the surface. The lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary is
usually referred to as LAB. The asthenosphere is a part of the upper
mantle just below the lithosphere that is involved in plate tectonic
movement. The upper part of the asthenosphere is believed to be the
zone upon which the great rigid and brittle lithospheric plates of the
Earth's crust move about.

HYDROPSHERE:

Hydrology: The branch of science concerned with the properties of the

earth's water, and especially its movement in relation to land. It is the
study of occurrence, distribution and circulation of water.

Hydrogeology (hydro- meaning water and geology meaning the study

of the Earth) is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and
movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust
(aquifers). It’s a study of water flow and characteristics of aquifers. (An
aquifer is a body of rock that holds groundwater)
Hydrological cycle (Water cycle): of the earth is the sum total of all
processes in which water moves from the land and ocean surface to the
atmosphere and back in form of precipitation. The water cycle is a
phenomenon where water moves through the three phases (gas,
liquid and solid) over the four spheres (atmosphere, lithosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere) and completes a full cycle.

Water cycle steps:

Step 1: Evaporation/Evapotranspiration

The water cycle starts with evaporation/evapotranspiration. It is a

process where water at the surface of water body turns into water
vapors. Water absorbs heat energy from the sun and turns into vapors.
Water bodies like the oceans, the seas, the lakes, and the river bodies
are the main source of evaporation. Through evaporation, water moves
from hydrosphere to atmosphere. As water evaporates it reduces the
temperature of the bodies. Evapo-transpiration is a process similar to
evaporation where liquid water is turned into water vapor by the
plants. The roots of the plants absorb the water and push it toward
leaves where it is used for photosynthesis. The extra water is moved
out of leaves through stomata.

Step 2: Condensation

As water vaporizes into water vapor, it rises in the atmosphere. At high

altitudes the water vapours changes into very tiny particles of ice
/Water droplets because the temperature at high altitudes is low. This
process is called condensation. These particles come close together and
form clouds and fogs in the sky.
Step 3: Precipitation

The clouds (condensed water vapors) then pour down as precipitation

due to wind or temperature change. Also, when the air cannot hold any
more water, it precipitates. These water droplets fall as rain. If the
temperature is very low (below 0 degrees), the water droplets fall as
snow. Water also precipices in the form of drizzle, sleet, and hail. Hence
water enters lithosphere.

Step 4: Runoff/Infiltration

As the water pours down, it leads to runoff(flow). Runoff is the process

where water runs(flows) over the surface of earth. When the snow
melts into water it also leads to runoff. As water runs over the ground it
displaces the topsoil with it and moves the minerals along with the
stream. This runoff combines to form channels and then rivers and
ends up into lakes, seas, and oceans. Here the water enters
hydrosphere.

Some of the water that precipitates does not runoff/flow into the rivers
but is absorbed by the soil which is taken up by the plants and then
evapotranspiration occurs. Water which moves deep into the soil. This
is called infiltration. The water seeps down and increases the level of
ground water table. It is called pure water and is drinkable. The
infiltration is measured as inches of water-soaked by the soil per hour.

ATMOSPHERE:

The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air.

The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by
creating pressure allowing for liquid water to exist on the
Earth's surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the
surface through heat retention and reducing temperature extremes
between day and night . The study of Earth's atmosphere and its
processes is called atmospheric science (aerology). The atmosphere is
comprised of layers based on temperature. These layers are the troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere thermosphere and exosphere.

Troposphere:
This is the lowest part of the atmosphere - the part we live in. It
contains most of our weather - clouds, rain, and snow. In this part of
the atmosphere the temperature gets colder as the distance above the
earth increases. The actual change of temperature with height varies
from day to day, depending on the weather. The troposphere contains
about 75% of all the air in the atmosphere, and almost all the water
vapor (which forms clouds and rain). If a parcel of air moves upwards it
expands (because of the lower pressure) and absorbs less heat. When
air expands it cools. So, air higher up is cooler than air lower down. This
decrease in temperature with increasing altitude in the atmosphere is
Earth's Environmental Lapse Rate(ELR). The
ELR (Environmental Lapse Rate) is the actual rate at which the ambient
temperature changes with height. (6.5 °C per kilometer) The lowest
part of the troposphere is called the boundary layer. The top of the
troposphere is called the tropopause, layer which separates the
troposphere and the stratosphere. This region is also called a cold trap,
because it traps ascending gases with high melting points, forcing them
to drop back into Earth. In this layer evaporated water is condensed,
clouds are formed, which comes back to the earth.

Stratosphere:
This extends upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km. It contains
much of the ozone in the atmosphere. The temperature increases with
height in the stratosphere. The increase in temperature with height
occurs because of absorption of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun
by this ozone layer.
By absorbing dangerous UV radiation, the ozone in the stratosphere
protects us from skin cancer and other health damage. However,
chemicals (called CFCs or Freon’s, and halons) which were once used in
refrigerators, spray cans and fire extinguishers have reduced the
amount of ozone in the stratosphere, particularly at polar latitudes,
leading to the so-called "Antarctic ozone hole").

Stratopause is a layer which separates the stratosphere and

mesosphere. The lower most layer of the stratosphere, just above the
tropopause is called Isothermal layer. This is the layer were the
temperature is constant. Temperature increases only from the
isothermal layer.

Mesosphere:
The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere. It extends
upward to a height of about 85 km above our planet. Unlike the
stratosphere, temperatures once again becomes colder as you rise
through the mesosphere. It is the coldest layer in the Earth's
atmosphere, here the temperature decreases with height, reaching a
minimum of about -90°C at the "mesopause”. There are very few gas
molecules in the mesosphere. This means that there is little matter to
absorb the sun’s rays and heat the air. Mesopause is a layer which
separates the mesosphere and thermosphere.

Most meteors burn up in the mesosphere. Meteors are space rocks and
dust that enter the Earth's atmosphere and fall to Earth. The meteors
make it through the exosphere and thermosphere without much
trouble because those layers don’t have much air. But when they hit
the mesosphere, there are enough gases to cause friction and create
heat.

(NOTE: Meteoroids are objects in space that range in size from dust
grains to small asteroids. Think of them as “space rocks."

When meteoroids enter Earth’s atmosphere at high speed and burn up,
the fireballs or “shooting stars” are called meteors.

When a meteoroid survives a trip through the atmosphere and hits the
ground, it’s called a meteorite.)

Thermosphere and Ionosphere:

The thermosphere lies above the mesopause and is a region in which
temperatures again increase with height. “Thermo” means heat, and
the temperature in this layer can reach up to 4,500 degrees Fahrenheit.
Because it is getting close to the sun UV rays are very high and, in this
region, even absorbing small amounts of solar energy can significantly
increase the air temperature, making the thermosphere the hottest
layer in the atmosphere. The thermosphere is the largest layer of the
earth's atmosphere.
The region of the atmosphere above about 80 km is also caused by the
"ionosphere", since the energetic solar radiation knocks electrons off
molecules and atoms, turning them into "ions" with a positive charge.
The temperature of the thermosphere varies between night and
day.
and between the seasons, as do the numbers of ions and electrons
which are present. The ionosphere reflects and absorbs radio waves.
Thermo pause/Ionopause is a layer which separates
thermosphere/Ionosphere and exosphere. Thermosphere greatly helps
in protecting the Earth and making complete exploration of space and
making space communication possible.
The thermosphere is home to the International Space Station (ISS) as it
orbits Earth. (400 kilometers above Earth)
The Karman line is a boundary between Earth's atmosphere and outer
space. It is 80 - 100 kilometers above sea level. There is a sudden
increase in temperature of the atmosphere and solar radiation just
below the line.

Exosphere:
The region above about 500 km is called the exosphere.
The exosphere is derived from Greek “Exo”: outside, external, beyond
and “Sphaira”: sphere. The exosphere is the outermost layer of the
Earth's atmosphere.
PBL/ABL: Planetary boundary layer, also known as the Atmospheric
boundary layer or peplosphere, is the lowest part of the atmosphere
above the surface of the ground.
Temperature inversion, also called thermal inversion, a deviation from
the normal change of an atmospheric property with altitude. It the
inversion of the lapse rate. Normally, air temperature decreases with
an increase in altitude, here it increases with the altitude.
Ex: Stratosphere and Thermosphere
ECOLOGY:
The branch of biology that deals with the relations of organisms to one
another and to their physical surroundings. Ecology is a term
derived from Greek Logy from “logos” the study, where “eco” from
“oikos” meaning “home”. The word "ecology" was coined in 1866 by
the German scientist Ernst Haeckel.
Scientists who study those relationships are called ecologists.
Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with one another and
with their physical environment. The distribution and abundance of
organisms on Earth is shaped by both biotic- living-organism, and
abiotic- nonliving or physical, factors.
ECOSYSTEM: is that it is a community or group of living organisms that
live in and interact with each other in a specific environment.
An ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology.
Organisms are grouped as producers, consumers and
decomposers based on the way they obtain their sustenance from the
environment. Example: desert, forest, aquatic ecosystem (pond, lake,
river), Grassland.

Ecosystems have lots of different living organisms that interact with

each other. The living organisms in an ecosystem can be divided
into three categories: producers, consumers, and decomposers. They
are all important part of an ecosystem.

1. Producers: are also called autotrophs/converters/ Transducers.

All organisms which can prepare their own food by photosynthesis
using the radiant energy of the sun absorbed by the chlorophyll of
the leaves are called producers.
Autotrophs are organisms that can produce their own food, using
materials from inorganic sources. The word “autotroph” comes from
the root words “auto” for “self” and “troph” for “food.” They
synthesize energy via process of photosynthesis and this energy is
transferred to next trophic level(primary consumers). During the
process of photosynthesis, they absorb light or radiant energy and
 eventually convert them into thechemical form of energy.
Producers are referred to as transducers because they absorb light
energy and eventually convert them into the chemical form of
energy.

CO2 + H2O ---------- → C6H12O6 + O2.

Sunlight

2. Consumer: also called Heterotrophs (hetero-others; trophs-

feeders). The organisms which consume the food produced either
directly or indirectly are called consumers. Consumers can be
classified into primary, secondary and tertiary consumers based on
their mode of nutrition (herbivores are animals that eat
plants, carnivores are animals that eat herbivores and sometimes
other carnivores and omnivores are animals that eat plants and
other animals). All herbivores and some parasites are primary
consumers.

3. Decomposer: also called saprotrophs (sapro-rotten; trophs-

feeders) is an organism that decomposes, or breaks down, organic
material such as the remains of dead organisms.
Decomposers include bacteria and fungi. These organisms carry out
the process of decomposition, which all living organisms undergo
after death. Decomposers break down the complex organic
substances into simple inorganic substances in the soil which is used
by the plants. Decomposition is an important process because it
allows organic material to be recycled in an ecosystem.
Without decomposers, dead organisms would not be broken down
and recycled into other living matter. Decomposers are also called
recyclers of biosphere. Because they convert organic material to
inorganic forms (nutrients) that go into the soil and are once again
used up by the plants.
Classification of ecosystem:

The term lentic (from the Latin lentus, meaning slow or motionless),
refers to standing waters such as lakes and ponds or swamps and
marshes. Lentic ecosystem also called the lacustrine ecosystem or the
still water ecosystem.
The term Lotic (from the Latin lotus, meaning washing), refers to
running water habitats such as rivers and streams. Lotic ecosystem also
called the riverine ecosystem.
Classification of aquatic ecosystems according to light and
temperature:
Light:
1. Euphotic zone
a. Littoral zone
b. Limnetic zone
2. Aphotic zone
Euphotic zone is a surface layer of the water body that receives
sunlight. Euphotic zone is further divided into Littoral and Limnetic
zone.
The topmost zone near the shore of a lake or pond is the littoral zone.
This zone is the warmest since it is shallow and can absorb more of the
Sun’s heat. The near-surface open water surrounded by the littoral
zone is the limnetic zone. The limnetic zone is well-lighted (like the
littoral zone) and is dominated by plankton.
The bottommost, or aphotic zone or profundal zone is a
deep zone located below where the sunlight does not penetrate.
Temperature:
1. Epilimnion: or surface layer is the top-most layer. This is the
portion of water that receives sunlight. Here the temperature is
very hot.
2. Hypolimnion: is the coldest layer where sunlight penetration is
very less.
3. Thermocline: A thermocline is the transition layer between
surface water and cooler deep water below. In the thermocline,
temperature decreases rapidly from the mixed upper layer of the
water body (epilimnion zone) to much colder deep water in
the thermocline (hypolimnion zone).
Food Chain:
Transfer of energy and nutrients from one trophic level to another
trophic level.
There are two types of food chain: Grazing Food Chain and Detritus
Food Chain.
Grazing Food Chain: Energy flow starts with green plants, which are
consumed by herbivores, followed by carnivores.
Detritus Food Chain: Energy flow begins with dead organic matter
broken down by decomposers, then consumed by detritivores.
Common in decomposition processes.
Food web: Interconnected food chain is called food web.
Ecological Pyramid: is a graphical representation of each trophic
level in an ecosystem.
Three types of ecological pyramid:
• Pyramid of Number
• Pyramid of biomass
• Pyramid of Energy
Pyramid of Number: this represents the number of organisms in
each trophic level. The pyramid of numbers is usually upright.
Pyramid of biomass: This indicates the total mass of organisms at
each trophic level.

Pyramid of Energy: The ecological pyramid which is formed by

determining the flow of energy from one trophic level to
another. Pyramid of Energy is always upright as the energy flow in a food
chain is always unidirectional.