Definitions

 Elements: basic building blocks of all other forms of matter.

 Atoms: small particles derived from one the elements. All matter can be described in terms of
the interactions of atoms with each other.

 Molecules (compounds): combination of two or more atoms. Most common form for atoms.

1.2 Atomic Structure

All substances are made from atoms. There are just over one hundred different types of atom, called
elements. Atoms can join together in millions of different combinations to make all the substances
on Earth and beyond.

Structure of the atom

Every atom is made of a nucleus consisting of protons and neutrons. The nucleus is surrounded
by electrons. Protons and electrons are oppositely charged. Neutrons have no charge. This means
the nucleus of an atom is always positively charged. An atom has a neutral overall charge because it
has the same number of electrons as protons. Protons and neutrons have the same mass and
accounts for nearly all of the mass of the atom. Electrons have such a small mass that this can
usually be taken as zero. The atomic number (also called the proton number) is the number of
protons in an atom. The mass number (also called the nucleon number) is the total number of
protons and neutrons in an atom.

This information can be given simply in the form:

Atomic Number (Z) The # of protons

Mass Number (A) [The # of protons] + [the # of neutrons]

The number of neutrons in an atom can vary within small limits. For example, there are three kinds
of carbon atom 12C, 13C and 14C. They all have the same number of protons, but the number of
neutrons varies.

proton Neutrons mass number

 s

carbon-12 6 6 12

carbon-13 6 7 13

carbon-14 6 8 14

These different atoms of carbon are called isotopes. The fact that they have varying numbers of
neutrons makes no difference whatsoever to the chemical reactions of the carbon.

Isotopes are atoms which have the same atomic number but different mass numbers. They have the
same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

E.g. 2 Isotopes of chlorine

Isotope Proton Electron Neutrons

s s

17 17 35 - 17 = 18

17 17 37 - 17 = 20

Comparing the charge and mass of electrons, protons and neutrons

Proto Neutro Electron

n n

Charge +1 0 -1

Mass 1 1 0.0005 (almost

zero)

The negatively charged electron is attracted to the positively charged nucleus by a Coulombic
attraction. The protons and neutrons are held together in the nucleus by the strong nuclear force.
These two forces hold the atom together.

1.3 Electronic Configuration

The electronic structure of an atom is a description of how the electrons are arranged. It can be
shown as numbers or as a diagram.

Working out the number of electrons

Atoms are electrically neutral, and the ‘positivity’ of the protons is balanced by the ‘negativity’ of the
electrons. It follows that in a neutral atom:

number of electrons = number of protons

So, if an oxygen atom (atomic number = 8) has 8 protons, it must also have 8 electrons; if a chlorine
atom (atomic number = 17) has 17 protons, it must also have 17 electrons.
The arrangement of the electrons

The electrons are found at considerable distances from the nucleus in a series of levels called energy
levels. Each energy level (or shell) can only hold a certain number of electrons. The first level
(nearest the nucleus) will only hold 2 electrons, the second holds 8, and the third also seems to be
full when it has 8 electrons. The pattern gets more complicated after the third level. (Find out more
relating to the arrangement of electrons after the 3rd level)

These levels can be thought of as getting progressively further from the nucleus. Electrons will
always go into the lowest possible energy level (nearest the nucleus) - provided there is space.

To work out the electronic arrangement of an atom

 Look up the atomic number in the Periodic Table - making sure that you choose the right
number if two numbers are given. The atomic number will always be the smaller one.

 This tells you the number of protons, and hence the number of electrons.

 Arrange the electrons in levels, always filling up an inner level before you go to an outer one.

E.g. to find the electronic arrangement in chlorine

 The Periodic Table gives you the atomic number of 17.

 Therefore there are 17 protons and 17 electrons.

 The arrangement of the electrons will be 2, 8, 7 (i.e. 2 in the first level, 8 in the second, and 7
in the third).

The electronic arrangements of the first 20 elements

After this the pattern alters as you enter the transition series in the Periodic Table.

Two important generalizations

If you look at the patterns in this table:

 The number of electrons in the outer level is the same as the group number. (Except with
helium which has only 2 electrons. The noble gases are also usually called group 0 - not
group 8.) This pattern extends throughout the Periodic Table for the main groups (i.e. not
including the transition elements).
So if you know that barium is in group 2, it has 2 electrons in its outer level; iodine (group 7) has 7
electrons in its outer level; lead (group 4) has 4 electrons in its outer level.

 Noble gases have full outer levels meaning they are stable elements.

Electron configuration diagram for lithium

Take lithium for example. The diagram shows each energy shell as a circle around the nucleus, with
each electron represented by a dot. In the exam, do not worry about coloring in the electrons. Just
make them clear and ensure they are in the right place. Sometimes you will be asked to use a cross
rather than a dot.

The electronic configuration for lithium is written as 2.1 (showing that lithium atoms have three
electrons, two in the first shell and one in the second shell).

The table describes the electronic structures of four more elements.

Electronic structures of elements

Element Numeric Electrons Periodic

format table group

F 2.7 Fluorine atoms have nine electrons. Two Group 7

of these fit into the first energy shell. The
remaining seven fit into the second
energy shell.

Ne 2.8 Neon atoms have ten electrons. Two of Group 0 -

these fit into the first energy shell. The that is, the
remaining eight electrons fit into the eighth
second energy shell. Because its highest group
occupied energy shell is full, neon is
stable and unreactive.

Stable: Atoms are stable if their outer

shell contains its maximum number of
electrons.
 Na 2.8.1 Sodium atoms have 11 electrons. Two of Group 1
these fit into the first energy shell, eight
into the second energy shell. The last one
fits into the third energy shell.

Ca 2.8.8.2 Calcium atoms 1have 20 electrons. Two Group 2

of these fit into the first energy shell,
eight into the second energy shell,
another eight into the third energy shell.
The last two fit into the fourth energy
shell.

1.4 Atomic Spectra

When atoms are excited they emit light of certain wavelengths which correspond to different colors.
The emitted light can be observed as a series of colored lines with dark spaces in between; this series
of colored lines is called a line or atomic spectra. Each element produces a unique set of spectral
lines. Since no two elements emit the same spectral lines, elements can be identified by their line
spectrum.