Department of Mechanical Engineering

ME6404 THERMAL ENGINEERING

Nothing worth having comes easy

-Anonymous

By
P.Purushothaman M.E,
Assistant professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
ME6404 THERMAL ENGINEERING LTPC
3003
OBJECTIVES:
integrate the concepts, laws and methodologies from the first course in thermodynamics
into analysis of cyclic processes

Turbines, Compressors and Refrigeration and Air conditioning systems.

UNIT I GAS POWER CYCLES 8

Otto, Diesel, Dual, Brayton cycles, Calculation of mean effective pressure, and air standard
efficiency - Comparison of cycles.
UNIT II INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 10
Classification - Components and their function. Valve timing diagram and port timing diagram –
actual and theoretical p-V diagram of four stroke and two stroke engines. Simple and complete
Carburettor. MPFI, Diesel pump and injector system. Battery and Magneto Ignition System -
Principles of Combustion and knocking in SI and CI Engines. Lubrication and Cooling systems.
Performance calculation.
UNIT III STEAM NOZZLES AND TURBINES 9
Flow of steam through nozzles, shapes of nozzles, effect of friction, critical pressure ratio,
supersaturated flow. Impulse and Reaction principles, compounding, velocity diagram for simple
and multi-stage turbines, speed regulations –Governors.
UNIT IV AIR COMPRESSOR 9
Classification and working principle of various types of compressors, work of compression with
and without clearance, Volumetric efficiency, Isothermal efficiency and Isentropic efficiency of
reciprocating compressors, Multistage air compressor and inter cooling –work of multistage air
compressor
UNIT V REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 9
Refrigerants - Vapour compression refrigeration cycle- super heat, sub cooling – Performance
calculations - working principle of vapour absorption system, Ammonia –Water, Lithium
bromide –water systems (Description only) . Air conditioning system - Processes, Types and
Working Principles. - Concept of RSHF, GSHF, ESHF- Cooling Load calculations.

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
completion of this course, the students can able to apply the different gas power cycles
and use of them in IC and R&AC applications.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Rajput. R. K., “Thermal Engineering” S.Chand Publishers, 2000
2.Kothandaraman.C.P., Domkundwar. S,Domkundwar. A.V., “A course in thermal
Engineering", Fifth Edition, ”Dhanpat Rai & sons , 2002
REFERENCES:
1. Sarkar, B.K,”Thermal Engineering” Tata McGraw-Hill Publishers, 2007
2. Arora.C.P, ”Refrigeration and Air Conditioning ,” Tata McGraw-Hill Publishers 1994
3. Ganesan V..” Internal Combustion Engines” , Third Edition, Tata Mcgraw-Hill 2007
4. Rudramoorthy, R, “Thermal Engineering “,Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi,2003
 Unit 1-Gas Power cycles

Otto cycle

1. S.I engine working on ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 7, initial pressure and
temperature of air are 1 bar and 270C. Maximum pressure is limited to 30 bar. Find the
pressure, volume and temperature at various points and ratio of heat supplied to heat
rejection.
2. A gas engine operating on the ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 6:1. The Pressure
and temperature of the commencement of compression are 1 bar and 300C. Heat added at the
end of compression is 2650 kJ/kg k. Determine the peak pressure and temperature, work
output per kg of air , Mean effective pressure and air standard efficiency. Assume Cp=1.004
kj/kg k and Cv =0.717 kJ/kg k, γ =1.4 for air. (Nov 2017)
3. For an ideal otto cycle, the following data are available: compression ratio=8, P 1=1 bar,T1=
280C, Qs= 2500kJ/kgK. Determine i) cycle efficiency ii) work done iii) Mean effective
pressure, if air flow rate is 0.25 kg/s.
4. An engine working on otto cycle has a cylinder diameter 100mm and stroke length 110mm
respectively. The clearance volume is 0.25 litres. Determine air standard efficiency.
5. In a constant volume otto cycle the pressure at the end of compression is 15 times that at the
start, the temperature of air at the beginning of compression is 380C and maximum
temperature attained in the cycle is 19500C Determine i) compression ratio ii) Thermal
efficiency iii)work done.
6. An engine of 250mm bore and 375 mm stroke works on otto cycle. The clearance volume is
0.00263 m3. The initial pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 50 0C. If the maximum
pressure is limited to 25 bar. Find the following i) The air standard efficiency ii)Mean
effective pressure. Assume the ideal conditions.
7. An engine working on constant volume cycle has the following data: clearance
volume=0.04m3, swept volume=0.13 m3, pressure and temperature at the beginning of cycle
are 1.15 bar and 120C. Maximum pressure of the cycle is limiyed to 23 bar. Calculate the air
standard efficiency, maximum temperature of the cycle and mean effective pressure.
8. A six cylinder petrol engine has a compression ratio of 5:1. The clearance volume of each
cylinder is 110CC. It operates on the four stroke constant volume cycle and indicated
efficiency ratio referred to air standard efficiency is 0.56. At the speed of 2400 rpm, it
consumes 10 kg of fuel per hour. The calorific value of fuel is 44000kJ/kg. Determine the
indicated mean effective pressure.

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Diesel cycle

7. An air standard diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18. The pressure at the beginning of
compression stroke is 1 bar and the temperature is 30 0C. The heat supplied is 1800 kJ/kg.
Determine

(i) The efficiency

(ii) Pressure and temperature at salient points
(iii) Heat rejected
(iv) Mean effective pressure assume the Cp, Cv, R suitably. (Nov 2013) (Apr 2014)

8. An engine with 200mm cylinder diameter and 300 mm stroke works on theoretical diesel
cycle. The initial pressure and temperature of air used are 1 bar and 27 0C. The cut - off is
8% of the stroke. Determine i) pressure and temperature at all salient points. ii) Theoretical
air standard efficiency iii) Mean effective pressure iv) Power of the engine if working cycles
per minute are 380. Assume compression ratio is 15 (Apr 2015)
9. An ideal diesel cycle operates on 1 kg of standard air with an initial pressure of 0.98 bar and
a temperature of 350C. The pressure at the end of compression is 33 bar and cut off is 6% of
the stroke. Determine i) compression ratio ii) The percentage clearance iii) Heat supplied iv)
heat rejected v) Thermal efficiency vi) Mean effective pressure.
10. In an air standard diesel cycle, the pressure and temperature of air at the beginning of cycle
are 1 bar and 40C. The temperature before and after the heat supplied are 4000C and 15000C.
Find the air standard efficiency and mean effective pressure of the cycle. What is the power
output if it makes 100 cycles per min?
11. The stroke and cylinder diameter of a CI engine are 250mm and 150mm respectively. If the
clearance volume is 0.0004m3 and fuel injection takes place at constant pressure for 5% of
the stroke. Determine the efficiency of the engine. Assume engine working on diesel cycle.
12. In an engine working on diesel cycle, inlet pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 17 0C
respectively. Pressure at the end of adiabatic compression is 35 bar. The ratio of expansion
is 5. Calculate the heat addition, heat rejection, efficiency and mean effective pressure.
13. The volume ratios of compression and expansion for a diesel engine as measured from an
indicator diagram are 15.3 and 7.5 respectively. The pressure and temperarure at the
beginning of compression are 1 bar and 270C. Assuming an ideal engine, determine the
mean effective pressur , the ratio of maximum pressure to mean effective pressure and cycle
efficiency.
Also find fuel consumption per kWh if indicated thermal efficiency is 0.5 of idea efficiency,
mechanical efficiency is 0.8 and calorific value of oil is 42000kJ/kg.
14. Calculate the percentage loss in the ideal efficiency of a diesel engine with compression
ratio 14 if the fuel cut off is delayed from 5% to 85%.

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 Dual cycle

15. An air standard dual cycle has a compression ratio of 10. The pressure and temperature at
the beginning of compression are 1 bar and 27o C. the maximum pressure reached is 42 bar
and maximum temperature is 1500 oC. Determine
a)The temperature at the end of constant volume heat addition
b)Cut off ratio
c)Work done per kg of air
d)The cycle efficiency
Assume Cp=1.004 kj/kg k and CV=0.717 kj/kg k for air. (Nov 2015)
16. An oil engine works on the dual cycle, the heat liberated at constant pressure begin twice
that liberated at constant volume. The compression ratio of the engine is 8 and the expansion
ratio is 5.3. But the compression and expansion processes follow the law Pv1.3=C. the
pressure and temperature at beginning of compression are 1 bar and 27 0C respectively.
Assuming Cp=1.004 kJ/kg k and Cv =0.717 kJ/kg k for air, standard efficiency and the mean
effective pressure. (Nov 2017)
17. The swept volume of a diesel engine working on dual cycle is 0.0053m3 and the clearance
volume is 0.00035m3. The maximum pressure is 65 bar. Fuel injection ends at 5%of the
stroke. The temperature and pressure at the start of the compression are 80 oC and 0.9 bar.
Determine the air standard efficiency of the cycle. Take for air γ=1.4. (Nov 2016)

17. The compression ratio for a single cylinder engine operating on a dual cycle is 9. The
maximum pressure in the cylinder is limited to 60 bar. The pressure and the temperature at
the beginning if the cycle are 1bar and 30 oC. Heat is added during constant pressure process
up to 4 percent of the stroke. Assuming the cylinder diameter and stroke length are 250 mm
and 300 mm. Determine the air standard efficiency, the power delivered if the number of
cycles is 3 per second. (May 2016)
18. A four stroke limited pressure cycle engine or dual fuel cycle engine operates on 10 litres of
air at 1 bar and 270C per cycle. The addition of heat at constant volume is adjusted for a
maximum pressure in the cycle of 70 bar. The heat addition at constant pressure continues
for 5% of the stroke. Calculate i) pressure ratio and cut off ratio ii) Heat addition iii) Heat
rejected iv)Work done v) Thermal efficiency vi) indicated power developed if engine runs at
1200 rpm. Assume Cp = 1 kJ/kgK, γ = 1.4
[Hint: V1= 10 lit=10/1000 m3; P1 V1 = mRT1; m=?]

19. In an engine working on dual cycle, the temperature and pressure at the beginning of cycle
are 900C and 1 bar. The compression ratio is 9. The maximum pressure is limited to 68 bar
and total heat supplied per kg of air is 1750kJ. Determine air standard efficiency and mean
effective pressure.

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20. The initial pressure and temperature before the start of compression of a dual cycle engine
are 1 bar and 250C respectively. The compression ratio is 9 and maximum pressure is limited
to 40 bar. The temperature after the end of expansion is 170C. Determine i) workdone ii)Air
standard efficiency iii)Mean effective pressure.
21. A diesel engine working on dual combustion cycle has a stroke volume of 0.0085m3 and a
compression ratio 15:1 The fuel has a calorific value of 43890 kJ/kg. At the end of suction,
the air is at 1 bar and 1000C. The maximum pressure in the cycle is 65 bar and air fuel ratio
is 21:1. Find for ideal cycle, the thermal efficiency.
22. An air standard dual cycle has a compression ratio of 16. The pressure and temperature at
the beginning of compression are 1 bar and 50 o C. The maximum pressure reached is 70 bar.
The heat transferred to air at constant pressure is equal to that at constant volume. Estimate
pressure and temperature at various points of the cycle and the cycle efficiency. (May 2013)
[Hint: Qs2 = Qs1; Qs= 2x Qs1; sub. T4 = xT3]

Brayton cycle

23. In a gas turbine plant working on the brayton cycle the air at the inlet is at 27 o C, 0.1 MPa.
The pressure ratio is 6.25 and the maximum temperature is 800 0C. the turbine and
compressor efficiencies are each 80%.Find,
(a) Compressor work per kg of air,
(b) Turbine work per kg of air,
(c) Heat supplied per kg of air,
(d) Cycle efficiency, and
(e) Turbine exhaust temperature. (Nov 2016)

24. Air enters the compressor of a gas turbine plant operating on Brayton cycle at 1 bar, 27 0C.
The pressure ratio in the cycle is 6. If WT = 2.5 WC. Calculate maximum temperature and
cycle efficiency.(Apr 2015)
25. In a gas turbine plant working on the brayton cycle the air at the inlet is at 25 o C, 1 bar. The
maximum pressure and temperature are limited to 3 bar and 650 0C. Determine heat supplied
and heat rejected per kg of air, Cycle efficiency and work output.(May 2013) (Nov 2014)

Derivations
1. Otto cycle
2. Diesel cycle
3. Dual cycle
4. Brayton cycle

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 TWO MARKS Q&A

Unit 1 Gas power cycles

1. For a given compression ratio otto cycle is more efficient than diesel cycle. Justify.
(Nov 2013)
Area under P-V diagram is more that the diesel cycle. When the area is more, workdone
for that cycle is more. So, the efficiency for otto cycle will be higher than diesel cycle.
2. What is meant by mean effective pressure? (Nov 2013) ( May 2016) (Nov 2017)
(Nov 2014)
It is hypothetical pressure which is acting on the piston during the power stroke.
Mean effective pressure = workdone /stroke volume
3. Mention the ranges of compression ratio for SI and CI engine.(May 2013)
SI engine 6-10
CI engine 16-20
4. What is relative efficiency? (May 2013)
It is defined as the ratio between actual thermal efficiency and air standard efficiency

5. What is meant by Air standard efficiency.(May 2014)(Apr 2017)

It is defined as the ratio of work done by the cycle to the heat supplied to the cycle.

6. Define compression ratio and cut off ratio. (May 2014)

Compression ratio:
It is defined as the ratio between total cylinder volumes to the clearance volume.
Cut off ratio:
It is defined as the ratio of volume after the heat addition to volume before the heat
addition.
7. Draw the actual PV diagram of two stroke engine.(Nov 2014)

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8. Draw the brayton cycle on p-v and T-s diagram. (May 2015)(Apr 2017)

9. When compression ratio is kept constant , what is the effect of cut off ratio on the efficiency
of diesel cycle. (Nov 2015)

When cut off ratio of diesel cycle increases, the efficiency of cycle is decreased when
compression ratio is kept constant.

10. Differentiate any three major differences between otto and diesel cycle.
(Nov 2015,2016)
S.No Otto cycle Diesel cycle
1 Efficiency is less due to low Efficiency is more due to low
compression ratio compression ratio
2 Fuel is admitted into the cylinder Air alone is admitted in to the cylinder
during suction stroke during suction stroke
3 Spark ignition system is used for Compression ignition system is used for
ignition. ignition.

11. What are the assumptions made in the air standard cycle.( May 2016) (Nov 2016)
(May 2015)
 The work medium is a perfect gas throughout.
 The working medium does not undergo chemical change through the cycle.
 Kinetic and potential energies of the working fluid are neglected.
 The operation of the engine is frictionless

12. Write down the air standard efficiency for otto and diesel cycle. (Nov 2017)

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13. Write an expression for mean effective pressure for an Otto cycle interns of
compression ratio and other parameters

14. For the same compression ratio and heat supplied, state the order of decreasing of Otto,
diesel and dual cycle.

15. What are the effects of introducing regeneration in the basic gas turbine cycle?
The fuel economy is improved the quantity of the fuel required per unit mass of
air is less.
The work output from the turbine, work required to the compressor will not
change.
Pressure drop will occur during regeneration.
It increases the thermal efficiency when the low pressure ratio reduces.
16. Sketch the dual cycle on P-V and T-S co-ordinates.

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17. Define Expansion ratio.
It is the ratio of volume after the expansion to the volume before expansion.
18. What is the expression for optimum pressure ratio for maximum specific work output
in brayton cycle.

19. What is meant by work ratio?

It is defined as the ratio of net work output to the work done by the turbine.

20. Name the factors that affect air standard efficiency of diesel cycle.
Compression ratio
Cut off ratio
21.State the Reasons for actual thermal efficiency being different from the theoretical
value.
 In theoretical cycle working substance is taken air whereas in actual cycle air with fuel
acts as working substance.
 The fuel combustion phenomenon and associated problems like dissociation of gases,
dilution of charge during suction stroke, etc. have not been taken into account.
 Effect of variable specific heat, heat loss through cylinder walls, inlet and exhaust
velocities of air/gas etc. have not been taken into account.

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Calculate the percentage loss in the ideal efficiency of a diesel engine with compression ratio 14
if the fuel cut-off is delayed from 5% to 8%.

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Comparison of cycles
Efficiency Versus Compression Ratio
Fig. shows the comparison for the air standard efficiencies of the Otto, Diesel and Dual
combustion cycles at various compression ratios and with given cut-off ratio for the Diesel
and Dual combustion cycles. It is evident from the that the air standard efficiencies increase with
the increase in the compression ratio. For a given compression ratio Otto cycle is the most
efficient while the Diesel cycle is the least efficient. (ηotto > ηdual > ηdiesel).

For the Same Compression Ratio and the Same Heat Input
A comparison of the cycles (Otto, Diesel and Dual) on the p-v and T-s diagrams for the same
compression ratio and heat supplied is shown in the Fig.

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Since all the cycles reject their heat at the same specific volume, process line from state 4 to 1,
the quantity of heat rejected from each cycle is represented by the appropriate area under the
line 4 to 1 on the T-s diagram. As is evident from the efficiency eqn. the cycle which has the
least heat rejected will have the highest efficiency. Thus, Otto cycle is the most efficient and
Diesel cycle is the least efficient of the three cycles.

Open Cycle Gas Turbine—Actual Brayton Cycle

The fundamental gas turbine unit is one operating on the open cycle in which a rotary
compressor and a turbine are mounted on a common shaft. Air is drawn into the compressor and
after compression passes to a combustion chamber. Energy is supplied in the combustion
chamber by spraying fuel into the air stream, and the resulting hot gases expand through the
turbine to the atmosphere. In order to achieve net work output from the unit, the turbine must
develop more gross work output than is required to drive the compressor and to overcome
mechanical losses in the drive. The products of combustion coming out from the turbine
are exhausted to the atmosphere as they cannot be used any more. The working fluids (air and
fuel) must be replaced continuously as they are exhausted into the atmosphere.

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Methods for Improvement of Thermal Efficiency of Gas Turbine Plant
The following methods are employed to increase the specific output and thermal efficiency of the
plant :
1. Intercooling 2. Reheating 3. Regeneration.
1. Intercooling. A compressor in a gas turbine cycle utilises the major percentage of power
developed by the gas turbine. The work required by the compressor can be reduced by
compressing the air in two stages and incorporating an intercooler between the two.

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Reheating. The output of a gas turbine can be amply improved by expanding the gases
in two stages with a reheater between the two as shown in Fig. The H.P. turbine drives the
compressor and the L.P. turbine provides the useful power output.

3. Regeneration.
The exhaust gases from a gas turbine carry a large quantity of heat with them since their
temperature is far above the ambient temperature. They can be used to heat the air coming from
the compressor thereby reducing the mass of fuel supplied in the combustion chamber. Fig.
shows a gas turbine plant with a regenerator. Point 6 represents the temperature of exhaust gases
at discharge from the heat exchanger. The maximum temperature to which the air could be
heated in the heat exchanger is ideally that of exhaust gases, but less than this is obtained in
practice because a temperature gradient must exist for an unassisted transfer of energy.

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 Unit 2 -Internal combustion Engines

1. A four cylinder four stroke oil engine 1o cm in dia and 15 cm in stroke develops a
torque of 185 Nm at 2000 rpm. The oil consumption is 14.5 lit/hr. the specific gravity of oil
is 0.82 and calorific value of oil is 42000 KJ/Kg. If the Imep taken from indicated diagram is
6.7 bar find
I. Mechanical efficiency
II. Break thermal efficiency
III. Break mean effective pressure
IV. Specific fuel consumption in litres on break power basis. (Nov 2015)

2. A six cylinder four stroke petrol engine having a bore of 90mm and stroke 100mm has a
compression ratio of 7. The the relative efficiency with respect to indicated thermal
efficiency is 55% when the indicated specific fuel consumption is 0.3 kg/kWhr. Estimate the
calorific value of fuel and fuel consumption given that imep is 8.6 bar and speed is 2500
r.p.m
3. A four stroke four cylinder gasoline engine has a bore of 60mm and a stroke of 100mm. on
test it delivers a torque of 66.5 Nm when running at 3000 rpm. If the clearance volume in
each cylinder is 60 cc, the relative efficiency with respect to break thermal efficiency is 0.5
and the calorific value of the fuel is 42 MJ/kg, determine the fuel consumption in Kg/h and
the break mean efficiency pressure. (May 2016)
4. In a constant speed CI engine operating on four stroke cycle and fitted with band: brake , the
following observations were taken: Brake wheel diameter- 60cm band thickness-5mm
speed-450 rpm Load on band-210N, spring balance reading 30N, Area of indicator diagram-
4.15cm2 length of indicator diagram-6.25cm, spring index-11bar/cm, Bore-10cm, stroke-
15cm,specific fuel consumption-0.3kg/kW-hr, Heating value of fuel- 41800kJkg.
Deterrmine the brake power, Indicated power, mechanical efficiency, indicated thermal
efficiency and brake thermal efficiency.
5. An eight cylinder, four stroke engine of 0.09m bore and 0.08 m stroke with a compression
ratio of 7 is tested at 4500 rpm on a dynamometer which has 0.54m arm. During a 10min
test the dynamometer scale beam reading was 42kgf and the engine consumed 4.4kg of
gasoline having a calorific value of 44000kJ/kg. Air 300k and 1 bar was supplied to the
carburettor at the rate of 6kg/min. Find the brake power delivered , brake mean effective
pressure, brake specific fuel consumption, brake specific air consumption, brake thermal
efficiency. Volumetric efficiency and air fuel ratio.

6. A four cylinder four stroke oil engine 10cm in diameter and 15 cm in stroke develops a
torque of 185 Nm at 2000 rpm. The oil consumption is 14.5 lit/hr. The specific gravity of oil
is 0.82 and calorific value is 42MJ/kg. If IMEP is 6 find i)Mechanical efficiency ii)Brake
thermal efficiency iii) B.M.E.P iv) S.F.C

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7. Following data relate to 4 cylinder four stroke petrol engine. Air fuel ratio by weight=16:1,
calorific value of the fuel=42500kJ/kg, mechanical efficiency=82%, air standard
efficiency=52%, relative efficiency=70%, volumetric efficiency =78%, stroke/bore
ratio=1.25, suction condition=1 bar 25C, rpm=2400 and power at brakes =72 kw. Calculate
i) compression ratio ii) Indicated thermal efficiency iii) Brake specific fuel consumption iv)
Bore and stroke
8. Air consumption for a 4 stroke petrol engine is measured by means of a circular orifice of
diameter 3.5 cm . The coefficient of discharge for the orifice is 0.6 and the pressure across
the orifice is 14cm of water. The barometer reads 760mm of hg. The temp of air in the room
is 240CThe piston displacement volume is 1800 cm3. The compression ratio is 6.5.The fuel
consumption is 0.13kg/min and the calorific value is 44000 KJ/kg. The brake developed at
2500rpm is 28 KW. Determine
a) Air fuel ratio,
b) Volumetric efficiency on the basis of air alone,
c) Brake mean effective power,
d) Relative efficiency on brake thermal efficiency basis. (Nov 2016)
9. During a Morse test on four stroke diesel engine, the following B.P measurements were
obtained.
With all cylinder working = 13kW
With 1 st cylinder cutoff = 9.3 kW
With 2 nd cylinder cutoff =9.4kW
With 3 rdcylinder cutoff = 9.05kW
With 4 th cylinder cutoff =9.15kW.

10. A six cylinder four stroke engine of 340mm bore and 390 mm stroke was tested and the
following information: Engine speed = 360 rpm; Brake power=180 kW;mf= 0.77 kg/min,
calorific value= 45000kJ/kg; I.M.E.P = 3.8 bar.Flow of cooling water=6.4 kg/min with a
temperature rise of 9C. Draw the heat balance for the engine.
Theory questions

 Ignition system
 Cooling system
 Lubrication system
 Carburettor
 MPFI
 Pump and injector
 Knocking

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 TWO MARKS Q&A

1. What are the advantages of four stroke cycle engine over two stroke cycle?
(May 2015)
Advantages:
1. Higher volumetric efficiency
2. Thermal efficiency is higher
3. Emission is less.
2. What do you meant by short circuiting in two stroke engine? (Nov 2013)
In two stroke engines, all the burnt gases are not exhausted. Some portion of it will
remain in the cylinder. When the piston moves to BDC, the some amount of fresh air fuel
mixture from crankcase enters in to the cylinder to sweep out the burnt gases. The process of
sweeping out the exhaust gases with the help of fresh air fuel mixture is known as short
circuiting.
3. Name the four stages of combustion in a CI engine. (May 2013)
 Ignition delay period
 Period of rapid combustion
 Period of controlled combustion
 Period of after burning

4. What is the effect of supercharging on the power output of the IC engine?

(May 2013)

Supercharging increases the power output of the engine due to the increased induction of air.
This makes more oxygen available for combustion.

5. What is a carburettor? State any two functions of carburettor. (May 2014)

Carburetor is a device used to mix of petrol and air in correct proportions.
Functions of carburetor
It maintains a small reserve of petrol in the float chamber at a constant head

6. What are the advantages of MPFI system?(Apr 2017)

1) More uniform A/F mixture will be supplied to each cylinder, hence the difference in power
developed in each cylinder is minimum.
(2) No need to crank the engine twice or thrice in case of cold starting as happens in the
carburetor system.
(3) Immediate response, in case of sudden acceleration / deceleration.
(4) Since the engine is controlled by ECM* (Engine Control Module), more accurate amount of
A/F mixture will be supplied.

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7. What is a unit injection system? (Nov 2013)
In this system, each cylinder of the engine is provided with an individual injector, high
pressure pump and a metering device.

8. What is octane number in I.C engine? (Apr 2017)

It indicates the ignition quality of gasoline. Higher this number, the less susceptible is the
gas to 'knocking' when burnt in a standard spark-ignition engine. Octane number denotes the
percentage (by volume) of iso-octane in a combustible mixture (containing iso-octane and
normal-heptane) whose 'anti-knocking' characteristics match those of the gas being tested.

9. What is meant by valve overlapping period? (Nov 2014)

Valve overlap is the period during the valve timing where both the intake and exhaust
valves are open. Occurring towards the end of the exhaust stroke, the intake valves are opened
just before all the exhaust gases are released, providing more time for the intake air to enter the
engine.
10. What do you understand by ignition delay? (Nov 2014)
It is a time period between the starting of injection and combustion, during this period,
the fuel is atomized, vapourized and mixed with air which is raised to itself ignition temperature.

11. What are the functions of a flywheel? (May 2015) (Nov 2017)
The function of flywheel is to store energy received during the power stroke and to return
the energy during the other stroke when the power is not produced.

12. Write the important requirements of fuel injection system (Nov 2015)
 The beginning as well as the end of injection should takes place sharply.
 The injection of fuel should occur at the correct movement, correct rate and correct quantity as
required by the varying engine load.
 The fuel should be injected in a finely atomized condition and should be uniformly distributed
inside the combustion chamber.

13. State the purpose of thermostat in an engine cooling system (Nov 2015)
A thermostat is used in the water cooling system to regulate the circulation of water in system to
maintain the normal working temperature of the engine parts during the different operating
conditions.
14. Show the valve overlapping period of a typical four stroke petrol engine on valve timing
period. ( May 2016)

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15. Define knocking in S.I engine. ( May 2016)
If the temperature of the unburnt mixture exceeds the self ignition temperature of the fuel
and remains at or above this temperature during the period of preflame reactions, spontaneous
ignition occurs at various pin point locations. This phenomenon is called knocking.
16. What is the antifreeze solutions used in water cooling systems. (Nov 2016)
Water and ethylene glycol
Water and propylene glycol

17. What is meant by motoring test. (Nov 2016)

Motoring test determine the friction power at conditions very near to the actual operating
temperatures at the test speed and load.

18. Draw the actual pv diagram of a four-stroke diesel engine and indicate all the processes.
(Nov 2017)

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19. Define the term brake power. (May 2014)
The power developed at the output shaft (crank shaft) is called the brake power.

B.P=2πNT
N=speed in rpm
T=Torque in KN.m

20. What are the major losses in an I.C engine?

Heat loss due to cooling water.
Heat loss due to exhaust gases
Heat loss due to radiation
Heat loss due to friction

21. What are the various methods to find the friction power?
 Willan’s line method
 Morse test
 Motoring test
 Retardation test

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1. Draw the valve timing diagram and port timing diagram and explain the salient points.

Valve timing diagram

A valve timing diagram is a graphical representation of the exact moments, in the sequence of
operations, at which the two valves (i.e. inlet and exhaust valves) open and close as well as firing
of the fuel. It is, generally, expressed in terms of angular positions of the crankshaft.
Valve timing diagram for four stroke petrol engine

 Inlet valve opens before the piston reaches TDC. Now the piston reaches the TDC and the
suction stroke starts. The piston reaches the BDC and then starts moving up. The inlet
valve closes, when the crank has moved a little beyond the BDC. This is done as the
incoming charge continues to flow into the cylinder although the piston is moving
upwards from BDC.

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  Now the charge is compressed (with both valves closed) and then ignited with the help
of a spark plug before the end of compression stroke. This is done as the charge requires
some time to ignite. By the time, the piston reaches TDC, the burnt gases (under high
pressure and temperature) push the piston downwards with full force and the expansion
or working stroke takes place.
 Now the exhaust valve opens before the piston again reaches BDC and the burnt gases
start leaving the engine cylinder. Now the piston reaches BDC and then starts moving up,
thus performing the exhaust stroke.
 The inlet valve opens before the piston reaches TDC to start suction stroke. This is done
as the fresh incoming charge helps in pushing out the burnt gases. Now the piston again
reaches TDC, and the suction stroke starts. The exit valve closes after the crank has
moved a little beyond the TDC. This is done as the burnt gases continue to leave the
engine cylinder although the piston is moving downwards.
 It may be noted that for a small fraction of a crank revolution, both the inlet and outlet
valves are open. This is known as valve overlap.
Port timing diagram

Port timing diagram for two stroke petrol engine

Port Timing diagram for two stroke diesel engine

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  Expansion of the charge (after ignition) starts as the piston moves from TDC towards
BDC. First of all, the exhaust port opens before the piston reaches BDC and the burnt
gases start leaving the cylinder. After a small fraction of the crank revolution, the transfer
port also opens and the fresh fuel-air mixture enters into the engine cylinder. This is done
as the fresh incoming charge helps in pushing out the burnt gases.
 Now the piston reaches BDC and then starts moving upwards. As the crank moves a
little beyond BDC, first the transfer port closes and then the exhaust port also closes. This
is done to suck fresh charge through the transfer port and to exhaust the burnt gases
through the exhaust port simultaneously. Now the charge is compressed with both ports
closed, and then ignited with the help of a spark plug before the end of compression
stroke. This is done as the charge requires some time to ignite.
 By the time the piston reaches TDC, the burnt gases (under high pressure and
temperature) push the piston downwards with full force and expansion of the burnt gases
takes place. It may be noted that the exhaust and transfer ports open and close at equal
angles on either side of the BDC position.

2. Explain the working of battery coil ignition system and draw the magneto ignition circuit
diagram.
Battery or Coil Ignition System

It mainly consists of a 6 or 12 volt battery, ammeter, ignition switch, Ignition coil, contact
breaker, capacitor, distributor rotor, distributor contact points, spark plugs, etc.
The ignition system is divided into 2-circuits :
(i) Primary Circuit : It consists of 6 or 12 V battery, ammeter, ignition switch, primary winding
it has 200-300 turns of 20 SWG (Sharps Wire Gauge) gauge wire, contact breaker, capacitor.

(ii) Secondary Circuit : It consists of secondary winding. Secondary winding consists of about
21000 turns of 40 (S WG) gauge wire. Bottom end of which is connected to bottom end of
primary and top end of secondary winding is connected to centre of distributor rotor. Distributor
rotors rotate and make contacts with contact points and are connected to spark plugs which are
fitted in cylinder heads (engine earth).
Working: When the ignition switch is closed and engine in cranked, as soon as the contact
breaker closes, a low voltage current will flow through the primary winding. It is also to be noted
that the contact beaker cam opens and closes the circuit 4-times (for 4 cylinders) in one
revolution. When the contact breaker opens the contact, the magnetic field begins to collapse.
Because of this collapsing magnetic field, current will be induced in the secondary winding. And
because of more turns (@ 21000 turns) of secondary, voltage goes up to 22000 volts. This high
voltage current is brought to centre of the distributor rotor. Distributor rotor rotates and supplies
this high voltage current to proper stark plug depending upon the engine firing order. When the
high voltage current jumps the spark plug gap, it produces the spark and the charge is ignited-
combustion starts-products of combustion expand and produce power.

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Magneto Ignition system

It has the same principle of working as that of coil ignition system, except that no battery is
required, as the magneto acts as its own generator. It consists of either rotating magnets in fixed
coils, or rotating coils in fixed magnets. The current produced by the magneto is made to flow to
the induction coil which works in the same way as that of coil ignition system. The high voltage
current is then made to flow to the distributor, which connects the sparking plugs in rotation
depending upon the firing order of the engine.

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3. What are the different types of cooling systems and explain it.
There are mainly two types of cooling systems :
(a) Air cooled system, and
(b) Water cooled system.
Air Cooled System
Air cooled system is generally used in small engines. In this system fins or extended surfaces are
provided on the cylinder walls, cylinder head, etc. Heat generated due to combustion in the
engine cylinder will be conducted to the fins and when the air flows over the fins, heat will be
dissipated to air.
The amount of heat dissipated to air depends upon :
(a) Amount of air flowing through the fins.
(b) Fin surface area.
(c) Thermal conductivity of metal used for fins.

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Water cooling system
In this method, cooling water jackets are provided around the cylinder, cylinder head, valve seats
etc. The water when circulated through the jackets, it absorbs heat of combustion. This hot water
will then be cooling in the radiator partially by a fan and partially by the flow developed by the
forward motion of the vehicle. The cooled water is again recirculated through the water jackets.

Thermo Siphon System

In this system the circulation of water is due to difference in temperature (i.e. difference in
densities) of water. So in this system pump is not required but water is circulated because of
density difference only.

Water cooling system mainly consists of :

(a) Radiator,
(b) Thermostat valve,
(c) Water pump,
(d) Fan,
(e) Water Jackets

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Radiator
It mainly consists of an upper tank and lower tank and between them is a core. The upper tank is
connected to the water outlets from the engines jackets by a hose pipe and the lover tank is
connect to the jacket inlet through water pump by means of hose pipes.
When the water is flowing down through the radiator core, it is cooled partially by the fan which
blows air and partially by the air flow developed by the forward motion of the vehicle. It is to be
noted that radiators are generally made out of copper and brass and their joints are made by
soldering.
Thermostat Valve
It is a valve which prevents flow of water from the engine to radiator, so that engine readily
reaches to its maximum efficient operating temperature. After attaining maximum efficient
operating temperature, it automatically begins functioning. Generally, it prevents the water
below 70C.
Water Pump
It is used to pump the circulating water. Impeller type pump will be mounted at the front end.
The pump is driven by means of engine output shaft only through belts. When it is driven water
will be pumped.
Fan
It is driven by the engine output shaft through same belt that drives the pump. It is provided
behind the radiator and it blows air over the radiator for cooling purpose.
Water Jackets
Cooling water jackets are provided around the cylinder, cylinder head, valve seats and any hot
parts which are to be cooled. Heat generated in the engine cylinder, conducted through the
cylinder walls to the jackets. The water flowing through the jackets absorbs this heat and gets
hot. This hot water will then be cooled in the radiator.

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4. Mention the various methods of lubrication system and explain it.
Types of Lubrication system
The function of lubrication system is to provide sufficient quantity of cool, filtered oil to give
positive and adequate lubrication to all the moving parts of an engine. The various systems used
for internal combustion engine may be classified as:-
 Mist lubrication system
 Wet lubrication system
 Dry lubrication system

Mist lubrication system

In two-stroke engines, the charge is compressed in the crankcase, and as such it is not
suitable to have the lubricating oil in the sump. Therefore, such engines are lubricated by adding
3 % to 6 % oil in the fuel tank itself. The oil and fuel mixture is inducted through the carburetor.
The fuel gets vaporized and the oil, in the form of mist, goes into the cylinder through the
crankcase. The oil that impinges the crankcase walls lubricates the main and connecting rod
bearings, and the rest of the oil lubricates the piston, piston rings and cylinder. The main
advantage with this system lies in the simplicity and low cost as the system does not require any
oil pump, filter etc

Wet Lubrication System

In the wet sump lubrication system, the bottom of the crankcase contains an oil pan or sump
from which the lubricating oil is pumped to various engine components by a pump. After
lubrication these parts, the oil flow back to the sump by gravity. Again it is picked by a pump
and re-circulated through the engine lubricating system.

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The main types of wet sump lubrication system are
 splash lubrication system.
 Pressure lubrication system

SPLASH SYSTEM
In this system, there is an oil trough, provided below the connecting rod. Oil is maintained at a
uniform level in the oil trough. This is obtained by maintaining a continuous flow of oil from the
oil sump or reservoir into a splash pan, which has a depression or a trough like arrangement
under each connecting rod. This pan receives its oil supply from the oil sump either by means of
a gear pump or by gravity. A dipper is provided at the lower end of the connecting rod. This
dipper dips into to oil trough and splashes oil out of the pan. The splashing action of oil
maintains a fog or mist of oil that drenches the inner parts of the engine such as bearings,
cylinder walls, pistons, piston pins, timing gears etc.

FORCED FEED SYSTEM(Pressure lubrication sytem)

In this system, the oil is pumped directly lo the crankshaft, connecting rod, piston pin, timing
gears and camshaft of the engine through suitable paths of oil. Usually the oil first enters the
main gallery, which may be a pipe or a channel in the crankcase casting. From this pipe, it goes
to each of the main bearings through holes. From main bearings, it goes to big end bearings of

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connecting rod through drilled holes in the crankshaft. From there, it goes to lubricate the walls,
pistons and rings. There is separate oil gallery to lubricate timing gears. Lubricating oil pump is a
positive displacement pump, usually gear type or vane' type. The oil also goes to valve stem and
rocker arm shaft under pressure through an oil gallery. The excess oil comes back from the
cylinder head to the crankcase. The pump discharges oil into oil pipes, oil galleries or ducts,
leading different parts of the engine. This system is commonly used on high speed multi-cylinder
engine in tractors, trucks and automobiles.

Dry sump lubrication system

In this, the supply of oil is carried in an external tank. An oil pump draws oil from the supply
tank and circulates it under pressure to the various parts of engine. Oil dripping from the
cylinders and bearings in to the sump is removed by a scavenging pump which in turn the oil is
passed through a filter and is fed back to the supply tank. Thus oil is prevented from
accumulating in the base of the engine.

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5. Explain the working of diesel injection pump and injector.

The function of fuel injection pump is to measure and deliver the correct quantity of fuel at high
pressure to the injector.
Construction:
It is a plunger type pump. It has a reciprocating plunger which reciprocates inside the barrel. The
plunger has a helical groove. The groove extends as vertical groove to the top. The plunger is
operated by cam mechanism.

Working:
The plunger is moved up by a cam and return back to its initial position by tension spring
The can also be rotated by the rack and valve is seated in its seat by the force of the spring. Two
ports are provided in the barrel. One is known as supply port and the other is known as spill port.
This port is opened and closed by the moving planer. The fuel passage is connected to fuel
injector.
When the supply port is opened, the fuel is filled in the barrel. When the cam rotates, it
will lift the plunger up. The moving plunger first closes the supply and spill ports. Then the fuel
above the plunger is compressed and high pressure is developed. Due to this high pressure, the
delivery valve is lifted off and the fuel flow through the fuel passage to the atomizer.

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 When the plunger moves further, the top portion of plunger is connected to the spill port
by helical groove. The remaining fuel in the barrel comes out through the helical groove when
the plunger moves up. So the fuel pressure falls in the barrel. Due to this, the delivery valve is
brought back to its seat by the spring force. This cycle is repeated again and again and thus it
flows to the atomizer.
The quantity of fuel delivered is controlled by the rack and pinion arrangement. when the
rack moves, the pinion is rotated. The plunger is rotated inside the barrel. It alters the effective
stroke of the plunger. Thus the amount of fuel supplied is varied.

Injector

The function of fuel injector is to deliver finely atomized fuel into the combustion
chamber. It also assists in bringing each droplet of fuel in contact with air.

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Construction:
The injector has housing. A nozzle is connected with the housing by a nozzle cap. There
is a plunger with valve. It is connected with a spindle .There is a spring against the spindle. The
valve is on its seat by this spring force. There is a fuel passage. It connects the nozzle and pump.

Working:
High-pressure fuel from the pump comes to the nozzle end through the passage. Due to
fuel pressure, the valve is lifted up against the spring force. Therefore, the hole in the nozzle is
opened. The fuel is injected into the combustion chamber through the hole and gets atomized.

When the fuel pressure falls, the valve comes to its seat by spring force. Thus, it closes
the hole of the nozzle. The injection pressure can be adjusted by adjusting the provided above the
spring. A small quantity of fuel is made to leak out through valve stem for lubrication.

Carburetor

The main parts of a simple carburetor are:

Float chamber: The level of fuel in the float chamber is maintained slightly below the tip of the
nozzle. If the level of petrol is above then the petrol will run from the nozzle and drip from the
carburetor. If the petrol level is kept low than the tip of the nozzle then part of pressure head is
lost in lifting the petrol up to the tip of nozzle. Generally it is kept at 5mm from the level of
petrol in the float chamber. The level of the fuel is kept constant with the help of float and needle

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valve.
Venturi: When the mixture passes through the narrowest section its velocity increases and
pressure falls below the atmospheric. As it passes through the divergent section, pressure
increases again.
Throttle valve: It controls the quantity of air and fuel mixture supplied to the engine through
intake manifold and also the head under which the fuel flows.
Choke: It provides an extra rich mixture during to the engine starting and in cold weather to
warm up the engine. The choke valve is nearly closed during clod starting and warming. It
creates a high vacuum near the fuel jet which causes flow of more fuel from the jet.

The function of a carburetor is to vaporize the petrol (gasoline) by means of engine suction and
to supply the required air and fuel (petrol) mixture to the engine cylinder.

Working:
During the suction stroke, vacuum is created inside the cylinder. This causes pressure
difference between the cylinders and d outside the carburetor. Due to this, the atmospheric air
enters into the carburetor. The air flows through the venturi. The venturi increases the velocity of
air enters into the carburetor. The flows through venturi. The venturi increases the velocity of air
and reduces the pressure. This provides the partial vacuum at the tip of the nozzle. Because of
this vacuum, the fuel comes out from the nozzle in the form of fine spray. These fine fuel
particles mix with the incoming air to form air –fuel mixture. Thus, it gives homogeneous
mixture of air- fuel to the engine. The quantity of fuel supplied to the engine depends upon the
opening of throttle valve which is governed by the governor.

Complete carburetor

A simple carburetor is capable to supply a correct air fuel mixture to the engine only at a
particular load and speed. In order to meet the engine demand at various operating conditions,
the following additional systems are added to the simple carburetor.
Idling system:

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 During starting or idling, engine runs without load and the throttle valve remains in
closed position. Engine produces power only to overcome friction between the parts, and a rich
mixture is to be fed to the engine to sustain combustion.
The idling system as shown consists of an idling fuel passage and an idling port. When
the throttle is partially closed, a depression past the throttle allows the fuel to go into the intake
through the idle tube. The depression also draws air through the idle air bleed and mixes with
fuel. The fuel flow depends on the location of the idle nozzle and the adjustment of the idle
screw.
Power Enrichment system:

In order to obtain maximum power, the carburetor must supply a rich mixture. This additional
fuel required is supplied by a power enrichment system that contains a meter rod economizer that
provides a larger orifice opening to the main jet as the throttle is opened beyond a certain point.
Accelerating pump system
During sudden acceleration of an engine an extra amount of fuel is momentarily required to
supply a rich mixture. This is obtained by an accelerating pump system. It consists of a spring
loaded plunger and the necessary linkage mechanism. A linkage mechanism is provided so that
when the throttle is rapidly opened the plunger moves into the cylinder and forces an additional
jet of fuel into the venturi.

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MPFI
A multi-point injection system, also called port injection, has an injector in the port (air-
fuel
passage) going to each cylinder. Gasoline is sprayed into each intake port and toward each intake
valve. Thereby, the term multi-point (more than one location) fuel injection is used. Multipoint
fuel injection (MPFI) locates an injector immediately upstream of each inlet valve, which
enables better control of the air/fuel mixture to each cylinder.
Working:
The MPFI system consists of one fuel injector placed near every intake valve and directed
towards it, in the fuel intake manifold. Fuel is supplied to the injector through a common rail.
The amount of air intake is decided by the car driver by pressing the gas pedal, depending on the
speed requirement. The air mass flow sensor near throttle valve and the oxygen sensor in the
exhaust sends signal to ECU. ECU determines the air fuel ratio required, hence the pulse width.
Depending on the signal from ECU the injectors inject fuel right into the intake valve. The fuel
sprayed at high pressure gets atomized into fine particles and get mixed with air. The air fuel
mixture is sucked into the engine cylinder and the combustion takes place.

Types of MPFI System:

1. D-MPFI System
2. L-MPFI System
D-MPFI System:
D-MPFI measures the vacuum in the intake manifold is first sensed. It also senses the volume of
air by its density. Sensors sends the signal to ECU. The ECU in tun sends commands to the
injector to regulate the amount of gasoline supply for injection. When the injector sprays fuel in

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the intake manifold the gasoline mixes with air and the mixture enters the cylinder.

L-MPFI System:
L-MPFI directly senses the amount of air flowing into the intake manifold by means of an air
flow meter. Sensors sends the signal to ECU. The ECU in tun sends commands to the injector to
regulate the amount of gasoline supply for injection. When injection takes place, the gasoline
mixes with air and the mixture enters the cylinder .

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Working principle of Four stroke cycle Petrol Engines.
Construction:
• A piston reciprocates inside the cylinder
• The piston is connected to the crank shaft by means of a connecting rod and crank.
• The inlet and exhaust valves are Mounted on the cylinder head.
• A spark is provided on the cylinder Head.
• The fuel used is petrol
(a) Suction Stroke (First Stroke of the Engine)
• Piston moves down from TDC to BDC
• Inlet valve is opened and the exhaust valve is closed.
• Pressure inside the cylinder is reduced below the atmospheric pressure.
• The mixture of air fuel is sucked into the cylinder through the inlet valve
(b) Compression Stroke : (Second Stroke of the piston)
• Piston moves up from BDC to TDC
• Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed.
• The air fuel mixture in the cylinder is compressed.
(c) Working or Power or Expansion Stroke: (Third Stroke of the Engine)
• The burning gases expand rapidly. They exert an impulse (thrust or force) on the piston. The
piston is pushed from TDC to BDC
• This movement of the piston is converted into rotary motion of the crankshaft through
connecting rod.
• Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed.
(d) Exhaust Stroke (Fourth stroke of the piston)
• Piston moves upward from BDC
• Exhaust valve is opened and the inlet valve is closed.
• The burnt gases are forced out to the atmosphere through the exhaust valve (Some of the burnt
gases stay in the clearance volume of the cylinder)
• The exhaust valve closes shortly after TDC
• The inlet valve opens slightly before TDC and the cylinder is ready to receive fresh charge to
start a new cycle.

Note: Write this for diesel engine also except use injector instead of spark plug.

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Two stroke Engine
As the name itself implies, all the processes in the two stroke cycle engine are completed
in two strokes. These engine have 1 power stroke per revolution of the crankshaft. In the two
stroke engine there is a two opening called ports are provided in place of valve of four stroke
engines. These ports are opened and closed by reciprocating motion of the piston in the cylinder.
One port known as a inlet port and another port is known as a exhaust port. Two stroke engine
consist of a cylinder with one end fitted with a cylinder head and other end fitted with a
hermitically sealed crankcase which enables it to function as a pump in conjuction with the
piston.

First stroke:
At the beginning of the first stroke piston is at the TDC. Piston moves from TDC to
BDC. The electric spark ignites the compressed charge. The combustion of the charge will
release the hot gases which increase the temperature and pressure in cylinder. The high pressure
combustion engine to force piston downward.
The piston perform power stroke till it uncovers the exhaust port. The combustion gases
which are at the pressure slightly higher than atmosphere pressure escape through exhaust port.
The piston uncovers the transfer port the fresh charge flow from the crankcase into cylinder
through transfer port Which enters the cylinder pushes the burnt gases , so more amount of
exhaust gases come out through exhaust port.

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 This swiping out of exhaust gases by incoming fresh charge is called scavenging. This
will continue till the piston covers both the transfer and exhaust port during next upward stroke.
Second stroke:
In this stroke piston moves from BDC to TDC. When it covers the transfer port, the
supply of charge is stopped and then when it moves further up it covers the exhaust port
completely to stop the scavenging. Further upward motion of the piston will compressed the
charge in the cylinder. After the piston reaches TDC the first stroke repeats again.
Four stroke Two stroke
1.Stroke per cycle Four piston stroke Only two piston stroke
2.Crank rotation per cycle Two crank rotation Only one crank rotation
3.Power stroke per cycle Half of speed of crankshaft Equal to speed of crankshaft
4.Power In every alternate revolution In every revolution
5.Fly wheel Heavy flywheel Lighter flywheel
Heavier , larger and more Lighter , more compact and less
6.Sizeof engine space space
First admitted into crankcase,
7.Admission of charge Directly into cylinder then transfer to engine
8.Valves Inlet and exhaust valves In place of valves, ports are there
9.Crankcase It is not hermetically sealed Hermetically sealed
10.Direction of rotation the
crankshaft In one direction In both directions
11.Lubricant oil consumption Less More
12.Thermal efficiency Higher Less
13.Mechanical efficiency Low High
14.uses Cars, tractors, buses Mopeds, scooter, motor, cycle

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Thermal Engineering 154 P.Purushothaman_AP_Mech
 Actual cycle and theoretical cycle for Diesel cycle

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Actual and theoretical cycle for two stroke SI engine

Actual and theoretical cycle for CI engine

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Thermal Engineering 157 P.Purushothaman_AP_Mech
 Stages of combustion in a CI engine
Various stages of combustion in C.I engine are
 Ignition delay period
 Period of uncontrolled combustion
 Period of controlled combustion
 Period of after burning

Knocking in C.I engine

In CI engines the injection process takes place over a definite interval of time. Consequently, as
the first few droplets to be injected are passing through the ignition delay period, additional
droplets are being injected into the chamber. If the ignition delay of the fuel being injected is
short, the first few droplets will commence the actual burning phase in a relatively short time
after injection and a relatively small amount of fuel will be accumulated in the chamber when
actual burning commences.
If, on the other hand, the ignition delay is longer, the actual burning of the first few droplets is
delayed and a greater quantity of fuel droplets gets accumulated in the chamber. When the actual
burning commences, the additional fuel can cause too rapid a rate of pressure rise as shown in
Fig.(b), resulting in a jamming of forces against the piston and rough engine operation.
If the ignition delay is quite long, so much fuel can accumulate that the rate of pressure rise is
almost instantaneous, as shown in Fig (c). Such a situation produces the extreme pressure
differentials and violent gas vibrations known as knocking and is evidenced by audible knock.

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Knocking in S.I engine
If the temperature of the unburnt mixture exceeds the self-ignition temperature of the fuel and
remains at or above this temperature during the period of preflame reactions (ignition lag),
spontaneous ignition or autoignition occurs at various pin-point locations. This phenomenon is
called knocking. The process of autoignition leads towards engine knock.

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The phenomenon of knock may be explained by referring to Fig (a) which shows the cross-
section of the combustion chamber with flame advancing from the spark plug location A without
knock

Fig.(c) shows the combustion process with knock. In the normal combustion the flame travels
across the combustion chamber from A towards D. The advancing flame front compresses the
end charge BB'D farthest from the spark plug, thus raising its temperature. The temperature is
also increased due to heat transfer from the hot advancing flame-front Also some preflame
oxidation may take place in the end charge leading to further increase in temperature.

However, if the end charge BB'D reaches its autoignition temperature and remains for some
length of time equal to the time of preflame reactions the charge will autoignite, leading to
knocking combustion.

Main components of IC Engine

Cylinder. It is one of the most important part of the engine, in which the piston moves to and fro
in order to develop power. Generally, the engine cylinder has to withstand a high pressure
(more than 50 bar) and temperature (more than 2000°C).. For ordinary engines, the cylinder is
made of ordinary cast iron. But for heavy duty engines, it is made of steel alloys or aluminium
alloys. In case of multiple cylinder engines, the cylinders are cast in one block known as cylinder
block. Sometimes, a liner or sleeve is inserted into the cylinder, which can be replaced when
worn out. As the material required for liner is comparatively small, it can be made of alloy cast
iron having long life and sufficient resistance to rapid wear and tear to the fast moving
reciprocating parts.
Cylinder head. It is fitted on one end of the cylinder, and acts as a cover to close the cylinder
bore. Generally, the cylinder head contains inlet and exit valves for admitting fresh charge

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and exhausting the burnt gases, In petrol engines, the cylinder head also Contains a spark plug
for igniting the fuel-air mixture, towards the end of compression stroke. But in diesel engines,
the cylinder head contains nozzle (i.e. fuel valve) for injecting the fuel into the cylinder.
The cylinder head is, usually, cast as one piece and bolted to one end of the cylinder. Generally,
the cylinder block and cylinder head are made from the same material. A copper or asbestos
gasket is provided between the engine cylinder and cylinder head to make an air-tight joint.

Piston. It is considered as the heart of an I.C. engine, whose main function is to transmit
the force exerted by the burning of charge to the connecting rod, The pistons are generally made
of aluminium alloys which are light in weight. They have good heat conducting property and
also greater strength at higher temperatures.
piston rings: These arc circular rings and made of special steel alloys which retain elastic
properties even at high temperatures. The piston rings are housed in the circumferential grooves
provided on the Outer surface of the piston. Generally, there are two sets of rings mounted for
the piston. The function of the upper rings (compression ring) is to provide airtight seal to
prevent leakage of the burnt gases into the lower portion. Similarly, the function of the lower
rings (oil ring) to wipe off the excess oil from the cylinder walls.
connecting rod. It has a link between the piston and crankshaft, whose main function is
to transmit force from the piston to the crankshaft. Moreover, it converts reciprocating motion of
the piston into circular motion of the crankshaft, in the working stroke. The upper (i.e. smaller)
end of the connecting rod is fitted to the piston and the lower (i.e. bigger) end to the crank.
The special steel alloys or aluminium alloys are used for the manufacture of connecting rods.

Crankshaft. In is considered as the backbone of an I.C. engine whose, function is to convert the
reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion with the help of connecting rod. This
shaft contains one or more eccentric portions called crank That part of the crank, to which bigger
end of the connecting rod is fitted, is called crank pin. It has been experienced that too many
main bearings create difficulty of correct alignment. Special steel alloys are used for the
manufacture of crankshaft. A special care is required for the design and manufacture of
crankshaft.
Crank case. It is a cast iron case, which holds the cylinder and crankshaft of an I.C. engine. It
also serves as a sump for the lubricating oil. The lower portion of the crank case is known as
bedplate, which is fixed with the help of bolts.
Fly wheel. It is a big wheel, mounted on the crankshaft, whose function is to maintain its
speed constant. It is done by storing excess energy during the power stroke, which is returned
during other strokes.

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Thermal Engineering 162 P.Purushothaman_AP_Mech
 Unit 3 Steam Nozzle and Turbines

Nozzle

1. Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 8 bar enters a convergent divergent nozzle and leaves it at
a pressure of 1.5 bar, if the flow is isentropic and if the corresponding expansion index is 1.133 ,
find the ratio of cross section area at exit and throat for maximum discharge. (Nov 2015)

2. Steam at a pressure of 10.5 bar and 0.95 dry is expanded through a convergent divergent
nozzle. The pressure of steam leaving the nozzle is 0.85 bar. Find the velocity of steam at throat
for maximum discharge. Take n=1.135. Also find the area at the exit and the steam discharge if
the throat area is 1.2 cm2. Assume the flow is isentropic and there are no friction losses. (Nov
2014)

3. Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 11 bar enters a convergent divergent nozzle and leaves it
at a pressure of 2 bar , if the flow is adiabatic and frictionless, determine i) The exit velocity of
steam ii)Ratio of cross section of exit and throat. (Apr 2015)

4. Steam expands isentropically in a nozzle from 1 MPa, 250 0Cto 10 kPa. The flow rate of the
steam is 1 kg/s. Find the following when the inlet velocity is neglected

(i) Quality of steam

(ii) Velocity of stream at exit of the nozzle.
(iii) Exit area of the nozzle. (Nov 2013)
5. In a test on a steam nozzle, the issuing steam steam impinges on a stationary flat plate which
is perpendicular to the direction of flow and force on the plate is measured. With convergent-
divergent nozzle supplied with steam at 10 bar dry saturated and discharging at 1 bar; the force is
experimentally measured at 60N. The area of the nozzle at throat measured 5cm2 and exit area is
such that complete expansion is achieved under these conditions. Determine i) flow rate of the
steam and efficiency of the nozzle. Assuming that all losses occur after the throat. Assume
n=1.135 for isentropic expansion. (Apr 2017)

6. steam at 20 bar and 250C enters a group of convergent divergent nozzle. Pressure at the end of
nozzle is 0.07 bar. Asssume a loss of 10% enthalpy drop available in the divergent part. Find the
number of nozzles required to discharge 13.6 kg/s. The throat area of each nozzle is 3.97 cm2.
Also determine area of exit of each nozzle.

7. In a steam nozzle, the steam expands from 4 bar to 1 bar. The initial velocity is 60 m/s and
initial temperature is 200C. Determine the exit velocity if the nozzle efficiency is 92% (May
2013)

8. Dry saturated steam enters a steam nozzle at a pressure of 15 bar and is discharged at a
pressure of 2 bar. If the dryness fraction of discharge steam is 0.96, what will be the final

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velocity of steam? Neglect initial velocity of steam. If 10% of heat drop is lost in friction, Find
the percentage reduction in the final velocity.

9. A steam turbine develops 184kW,with a consumption of 16.45kg.kWhr. The pressure and

temperature of the steam entering the nozzle are 11.8 bar and 220C. The steam leaves the nozzle
at 1.18 bar. The diameter of the nozzle at the throat is 7mm. Find the number of nozzle. If 8% of
the total enthalpy drop is lost in friction in diverging part of the nozzle. Determine the diameter
at the exit of the nozzle and exit velocity of the leaving steam.

10. A steam nozzle is supplied steam at 15 bar 350C and discharges steam at 1 bar. If the
diverging portion of the nozzle is 80mm long and the throat diameter is 6mm, determine the cone
angle of the divergent portion. Assume 12% of the total available enthalpy drop is lost in friction
in the divergent portion. Also determine the velocity and temperature of the steam at throat.

11. An impulse turbine having a set of 16 nozzles receives steam at 20 bar, 400C. The pressure
of steam at exit is 12 bar. If the total discharge is 260kg/min and nozzle efficiency is 90%, find
the cross sectional area of exit of each nozzle. If the steam has a velocity of 80m/s at entry to the
nozzles, find the percentage increase in velocity.

12. Steam at a pressure of 15 bar and dryness fraction 0.97 is discharged through a convergent
divergent nozzle to a back pressure of 0.2 bar. The mass flow rate is 9kg/kWhr. If the power
developed is 220kW, determine i)Throat pressure ii)Number of nozzles required if each nozzle
has a throat of rectangular cross section of 4mm x 8mm. iii) If 12% of the overall isentropic
enthalpy drop reheats by friction the steam in divergent portion find the cross section of the exit
rectangle.

13. A convergent divergent nozzle required to discharge 2kg of steam per second. The nozzle is
supplied with steam at 7 bar and 1800C discharge takes place against a back pressure of 1 bar.
The expansion up to the throat is isentropic and the frictional resistance between the throat and
the exit is equivalent to 63KJ/kg of steam. Take approach velocity of 75m/s and throat pressure 4
bar, estimate,

a) suitable areas for the throat and the exit, and

b) overall efficiency of the nozzle based on the enthalpy drop between the actual inlet
pressure and the temperature and the exit pressure. (Nov 2016)
14. The nozzles of a Delaval steam turbine are supplied with dry saturated steam at a pressure of
9 bar. The pressure at the outlet is 1 bar. The turbine has two nozzles with a throat diameter
of 2.5 mm. Assume nozzle efficiency as 90% and that of turbine rotor 35%. Find the quality
of steam used per hour and the power developed.
Supersaturated flow
15. The flow rate through steam nozzle with isentropic flow from pressure of 13 bar was found
to be 60 kg/min. Steam is initially saturated. Determine the throat area. If the flow is
supersaturated, determine the increase in flow rate. (May 2014)

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16. Steam at 14 bar and 280C is passed through a convergent nozzle at a rate of 40 kg/min and it
is discharged in to a chamber where the pressure is maintained at 3 bar. Neglecting the
friction and assuming flow is supersaturated. Determine the dimension of nozzle at exit,
which is rectangular in shape with ratio of side 1:3. Also find degree of supersaturation and
degree of undercooling.
17. In an installation 5.2 kg/s os steam at 30 bar and 350C is supplied to group of six nozzles in a
wheel diameter maintained at 4 bar. Determine i) The dimensions of the nozzles of
rectangular cross sectional flow area with aspect ratio 3:1. The expansion may be considered
metastable and friction is neglected. ii) Degree of undercooling and supersaturation iii) Loss
in available heat drop due to irreversibility iv) Increase in entropy v) Ratio of mass flow rate
with metastable expansion to that if expansion is in thermal equilibrium.

Derivation

 Velocity of steam through nozzle

 Mass of steam discharged through nozzle
 Critical pressure ratio and condition for maximum discharge

Theory

 Effects of friction in a nozzle or nozzle efficiency

 Supersaturated flow

Turbine

1. Steam enters the blade row of an impulse turbine with a velocity of 600m/s at an angle of
250 to the plane of rotation of the blades. The mean blade speed is 250m/s. The blade
angle at exit is 300. The blade friction loss is 10%. Determine i) Blade angle at inlet
ii)work done per kg of steam iii) Diagram efficiency iv) Axial thrust.
2. The velocity of steam, leaving the nozzle of an impulse turbine is 1000 m/s and nozzle
angle is 200.the blade velocity is 350m/s and the blade velocity coefficient is 0.85.
Assuming no losses due to shock at inlet condition. Calculate for a mass flow of 1.5 kg/s
and symmetrical blading. i) Blade inlet angle ii) Driving force on the wheel iii) Axial
thrust on wheel iv) power developed by turbine.

3. Steam with absolute velocity of 300m/s is supplied through a nozzle to a single stage
impulse turbine. The nozzle angle is 250. The mean diameter of the blade rotor is 1m and
it has a speed of 2000 rpm. Find the suitable blade angle for zero axial thrust. If the blade
velocity coefficient is 0.9 and steam flow rate is 0.9 kg/s. Calculate the power developed.

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 4. A simple impulse turbine has one ring of moving blades running at 150 m/sec. the
absolute velocity of steam at exit from the stage is 85 m/sec at an angle of 80 0 from the
tangential direction. Blade velocity co-efficient is 0.82 and the rate of steam flowing
through the stage is 2.5 kg/sec. if the blade are equiangular, determine blade angle, nozzle
angle, absolute velocity, axial thrust. (May 2016)
5. The following data refer to a single stage impulse turbine: isentropic nozzle enthalpy
drop=210kJ/kg, Nozzle efficiency =90% Nozzle angle = 250, ratio of blade speed to whirl
component of steam =0.5, blade velocity coefficient = 0.9, velocity of steam entering the
nozzle =20m/s. Find a)blade angle at inlet and outlet if the steam enters the blades and
leaves the blade in an axial direction. b) blade efficiency c) power developed d) axial
thrust if the steam flow rate is 10kg/s

Theory questions

1.Compounding
2. Governing of turbines

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 Two marks Question &Answers

1. Define coefficient of friction in nozzle or Nozzle efficiency(Nov 2013) (Nov 2014)

It is defined as the ratio of the actual enthalpy drop to the isentropic enthalpy drop between the
same pressure.

2. Define the term critical pressure ratio. (Nov 2013) (May 2013)(Nov 2017)(Apr 2017)
Ratio p2/p1 which produces maximum discharge from the nozzle. This ratio is called critical
pressure ratio.
p2/p1 = (2/n+1)n/n-1
3. What are the effects of friction on the flow through a steam nozzle. (May 2014)
 The expansion is no more isentropic and enthalpy drop is reduced.
 The specific volume of steam is increased as the steam become more dry due to its frictional
heating.
 The final dryness of fraction of steel is increases on the kinetic energy gets converted into
heat due to friction and is absorbed by steam.

4. What is super saturated flow? (May 2015)

While analyzing the flow of steam through a nozzle, it was assume the during isentropic
expansion process, the steam started to condense as soon as the vapour line was reached, there
would be no subsequent change in the condition of steam. This is known as equilibrium flow.
In actual practice, the does not condense at the Saturation temperature corresponding to the
pressure but continues to expand like a gas with fall in temperature even after entering the wet
region at point A. This type of flow is called as metastable supersaturated (or) non equilibrium
flow.

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5. What is the effect of supersaturation at nozzle. (Nov 2016)
 There is an increase in entropy and specific volume of steam
 The exit velocity of steam is reduced
 Dryness fraction of steam is improved

6. Draw the shape of a supersonic nozzle. ( May 2016)

7. Define degree of reaction. (May 2014) (Nov 2014)

It is defined as the ratio of heat drop in the moving blade to the heat drop in the stage.

What is meant by Wilson line?

The limiting condition of under cooling at which condensation commences and is assumed to
restore conditions of normal thermal equilibrium is called the Wilson line.

8. What is the effect of friction on the flow through a steam turbine (Nov 2015)
 The expansion process will not be isentropic and enthalpy drop will get reduced, which further
lead to reduced exit velocity.
 Final dryness fraction will increase
 Specific volume of steam will increase
9. Distinguish between impulse and reaction turbine. ( May 2016)
S.No Impulse turbine Reaction turbine
1 It consists o f nozzles and moving It consists of fixed blades and moving
blade. blades.
2 Pressure drop occurs only in nozzles Pressure drop occurs in fixed as well as
not moving blade.
is moving blades.
3 Steam strikes the blade with kinetic Steam passes over the moving blade
energy. with
pressure and kinetic energy.

10. Define diagram efficiency of a steam turbine. (May 2013)

It is defined as the ratio between work done by moving blades and available energy.

11. Define stage efficiency. (Nov 2016)

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 It is defined as the ratio between workdone an blade per kg of steam and total energy supplied
per kg of steam.

12. Define the term compounding in turbines. (Nov 2017) (Nov 2015)
In a simple turbine, if the steam is expanded from the boiler pressure to condenser pressure in
one stage the speed of the rotor becomes tremendously high which leads to practical
complications. There are few methods of reducing the speed to lower value, all these methods
utilise a multiple system of rotor in series keyed to a common shaft. This is known as
compounding.
13. What is pressure compounding? (May 2015)
The pressure is reduced in each stage of nozzle rings and hence this is called as pressure
compounding.
14. What are the advantages and limitation of velocity compounded impulse turbine?
Advantages:

Limitation:
friction losses are high due to high initial velocity. Hence the efficiency is low.
15. What are the various types of nozzles and their functions?
Convergent nozzle:
In this type of nozzles, the area diminishes from inlet to outlet throat.
Divergent nozzle:
In this type of nozzles, the area increases from inlet to outlet.
Convergent Divergent nozzles:
In this type of nozzles, there is a divergent portion in addition to convergent portion. The
divergent part is added to allow higher expansion ratio.
16. What is principle of reaction turbine?
In reaction turbine, the steam expands continuously in both the fixed and moving blades, so
its relative velocity does not remains constant. But increases due to the expansion of steam.
17. What is function of governor in steam turbine?
The process of keeping the turbine at constant speed under all condition of load is called
governing of turbine.
18. How throttling governing is done?
Steam pressure at inlet to a steam turbine is reduced by throttling process to maintain the
speed of the turbine constant at part load.
19. What are the different methods of governing steam turbine?
 Throttle governing
 Nozzle control governing
 By pass governingCombination of throttle, nozzle, and by – pass governing
20. What are the losses in steam turbine?
 Losses in regulating value
 Losses due to mechanical friction

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  Losses due to steam friction
 Losses due to wetness of steam
 Losses due to leakage
 Losses due to radiation

21. Write the materials used for steam turbine blade.

Brass, Nickel steel, Stainless steel, phosphor bronze.
22. State the factors on which nozzle efficiency depends.
 Material of the nozzle
 Size and shape of the nozzle
 Reynolds number of flow
 Angle of divergence of divergent portion
 Turbulence in fluid
23. Justify the statement ‘Nozzles are more efficient than diffusers’.

Nozzles are more efficient than diffusers because in nozzles the flow is in the direction of
decreasing pressure. Hence the boundary layer is thin and the frictional losses are less.

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Compounding of impulse turbine
This is done to reduce the rotational speed of the impulse turbine to practical limits. (A
rotor speed of 30,000 rpm is possible, which is pretty high for practical uses.) - Compounding is
achieved by using more than one set of nozzles, blades, rotors, in a series, keyed to a common
shaft; so that either the steam pressure or the jet velocity is absorbed by the turbine in stages. -
Three main types of compounded impulse turbines are: a) Pressure compounded, b) velocity
compounded and c) pressure and velocity compounded impulse turbines.
Velocity Compounding:
Steam is expanded through a stationary nozzle from the boiler or inlet pressure to
condenser pressure. So the pressure in the nozzle drops, the kinetic energy of the steam increases
due to increase in velocity. A portion of this available energy is absorbed by a row of moving
blades. The steam then flows through the second row of blades which are fixed. The function of
these fixed blades is to redirect the steam flow without altering its velocity to the following next
row moving blades where again work is done on them and steam leaves the turbine with a low
velocity.
Pressure Compounding:
The steam at boiler pressure enters the first set of nozzles and expands partially. The
kinetic energy of the steam thus obtained is absorbed by the moving blades.(stage 1).
The steam then expands partially in the second set of nozzles where its pressure again
falls and the velocity increases; the kinetic energy so obtained is absorbed by second ring of
moving blades.(stage 2).
This is repeated in stage 3 and steam finally leaves the turbine at low velocity and
pressure.
Pressure-Velocity Compounding
This is a combination of pressure and velocity compounding. The total drop in steam
pressure is divided into stages and the velocity obtained in each stage is also compounded. The
rings of nozzles are fixed at the beginning of each stage and pressure remains constant during
each stage.

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Governing of turbines

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 Unit 4 Air Compressor

1. A single stage, single acting air compressor 30 cm bore and 40 cm stroke runs at 200 rpm. The
suction pressure is 1 bar at 150C and the delivery pressure 5 bar. Determine ideal power required
to run it, when :

(i) Compression is isothermal

(ii) Compression follows the law pv1.25= c

(iii) Compression is reversible adiabatic (γ=1.4)

Determine the isothermal efficiency for ii, iii. Assume isentropic or reversible adiabatic index as
γ=1.4 and R= 0.287 kJ/kgK . And also find adiabatic efficiency(Nov 2017)

2. A single acting air compressor takes in atmospheric air and delivers is at 1.4 Mpa. The
compressor runs at 300 rpm and has cylinder diameter of 160 mm and stroke 200 mm. clearance
volume is 4% of stroke volume. If the pressure and temperature of the end of suction stroke are
100 Kpa and 47oC and law of compression and expansion is pv1.2=c determine

I. Mass of air delivered per minute

II. Volumetric efficiency
III. Driving power required if ƞm=0.85. (Nov 2015)

3. The free air delivery of a single cylinder ,single acting reciprocating air compressor is
2.5m3/min. The air is at STP condition. The delivery is at 7 bar. The clearance volume is 5% of
the stroke volume. Both compression and expansion are according to the law PV 1.25=constant.
Stroke length is 20% more than that of the bore. Compressor runs at 150rpm. Determine the
mass of air per second, indicated power effective pressure, bore and stroke of the cylinder. (Nov
2016)

4. Air enters a single stage double acting air compressor at 100 kpa and 29C. The compression
ratio is 6:1 The index of compression and expansion is 1.3. The speed of compression is 550
rpm. The volume rate measured at suction condition is 5m3/min. Find the motor power required
if mechanical efficiency is 90%. If the volumetric efficiency is 80%. Find swept volume of
cylinder.

5. A single stage double acting reciprocating air compressor delivers 0.6 kg of air per minute at
6 bar. The temperature and pressure at the end of suction stroke are 30C and 1 bar. The bore and
stroke of the compressor are 100mm and 150mm respectively. The clearance is 3% of the swept
volume. Assuming polytropic expansion and expansion with n=1.3. Find i)volumetric efficiency
ii) power required if mechanical efficiency is 85% and iii) speed of the compressor(Apr 2015)

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 6. A single stage single acting reciprocating air compressor delivers 14 m3 of free air per minute
from 1 bar to 7 bar. The speed of the compressor is 310 rpm. Assuming polytropic expansion
and expansion with n=1.35 and clearance is 5% of the swept volume, find the diameter and
stroke of the compressor. Take L=1.5D. Assume the temperature and pressure at suction are
same as atmospheric air.(may 2013)
7. A two cylinder single acting air compressor is to deliver 16 kg of air per minute at 7 bar from
suction conditions 1 bar and 15C. Clearance may be taken as 4% of stroke volume and index
for both compression and expansion as 1.3. compressor is directly coupled to four stroke petrol
engine which runs at 2000 rpm with b.m.e.p of 5.5 bar. Assume a stroke bore ratio of 1.2 for
both engine and compressor and a mechanical efficiency of 82% for compressor, calculate the
required cylinder dimensions.
8. A single stage double acting compressor has a free air delivery of 14 m3/min measured at
1.013 bar and 15C. The pressure and temperature in the cylinder during suction are 0.95 bar
and 32C. The delivery pressure is 7 bar and index of compression and expansion n= 1.3. The
clearance volume is 5% of the swept volume. Calculate i) Indicated power required ii)
volumetric efficiency.

9. The free air delivered by a single stage double acting reciprocating compressor measured at 1
bar and 15C of free air is 16m3/min. The pressure and temperature of air inside the cylinder
during suction are 0.96 bar and 30C respectively. And delivery pressure is 6 bar. The
compressor has a clearance of 4% of swept volume and the mean piston speed is limited to
300m/min. Determine i) power input to compressor if mechanical efficiency is 90% and
compression efficiency 85%. ii)stroke and bore if the compressor runs at 500 rpm. Take index
of compression & expansion= 1.3.

Derivation:
 Workdone by single stage compressor without clearance volume
 Workdone by single stage compressor with clearance volume
 Volumetric efficiency

Multi stage compressor

1. A three stage air compressor with perfect intercooling takes 15 m3 of air per minute at 95 Kpa
and 27oC and delivers the air at 3.5 Mpa. If the compression process is polytropic (pv1.3=c)
determine
I. Power require if the mechanical efficiency is 90%
II. Heat rejected in the intercooler per minute
III. Isothermal efficiency
IV. Heat rejected through cylinder walls per minute. (Nov 2015)

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2. A multi stage air compressor is to be design to evaluate the pressure from 1 bar to 120 bar such
that single stage pressure ratio not to be exceed 4. Find number of stages b) exact stage pressure
ratio c) Intermediate pressure

3. A single acting two stage compressor with complete intercooling delivers 10.6 kg/min of air at
16 bar. Assuming an intake at 1 bar and 27C and compression and expansion with the law PV1.3
= c. Calculate i) power required to run the compressor at 440 rpm ii)Isothermal efficiency
iii)Free air delivered per sec iv)If clearance ratio for LP and HP cylinder are 0.04 and 0.06,
calculate volumetric efficiency and swept volume for each cylinder. (Apr 2017)

4. In a single acting two stage reciprocating air compressor 4.5 kg of air per min are compressed
from 1.013 bar and 15 0C through a pressure ratio of 9 to 1. Both stages have the same pressure
ratio and the law of compression and expansion in both stages is PV1.3 =C. Calculate i)
indicated power ii) cylinder swept volumes required. Assume that the clearance volumes of
both stages are 5% of their respective volume and that the compressor runs at 300 rpm(Apr
2015)

5. A two stage single acting reciprocating air compressor with perfect intercooling with a suction
pressure of 1 bar and temperature of 25C and final pressure is 5 bar. Compression and
expansion follows the law PV1.3 =C. Find per kg of air i) work done ii) mass of water necessary
for abstracting the heat in the intercooler, if the temperature rise of the cooling water is 30 0C.
6. 2 kg/s of air enter the LP cylinder of 2 stage compressor. The overall pressure ratio is 9:1. The
air at inlet to the compressor is at 100kpa and 35c. The index of compression in each cylinder is
1.3. Find the intercooler pressure for perfect intercooling. Also find the minimum power
required for compression and percentage power saved over single stage compression.
7. A three stage air compressor delivers 5.2 m3 of free air per minute. The suction pressure and
temperature are 1 bar and 30C. The pressure and temperature are 1.013 bar and 20C at free air
condition. The air is cooled at 30C after each stage of compression. The delivery pressure of
the compressor is 150 bar. The Rpm of the compressor is 300. The clearance of L.P,I.P and
H.P cylinder are 5% of the respective stroke. The index of compression and reexpansion in all
stages is 1.35. Find B.P of motor required to run the compressor if mechanical efficiency is
80%.
8. A two stage air compressor consists of three cylinder having the same bore and stroke. The
delivery pressure is 7 bar and the free air delivery is 4.3 m3/min. air is drawn in at 1.013 bar,
15oc and an intercooler cools the air to 38oc. the index of compression is 1.3 for all three
cylinders. Neglecting clearance calculate the intermediate pressure, the power required to drive
the compressor, the isothermal efficiency. (May 2016)

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9. A single acting two stage air compressor delivers air at 18 bar. The temperature and pressure of
air before the compression in L.P cylinder are 25C and 1 bar. The discharge pressure of L.P
cylinder is 4.2 bar. The pressure of air leaving the intercooler is 4barand the air is cooled to
25C. The diameter and stroke of L.P cylinder are 40cm and 50cm respectively. The clearance
volume is 5% stroke in both cylinders. The speed of the compressor is 200 rpm. Assuming the
index of compression is 1.25. Find i) power required to run the compressor ii) Heat rejected in
intercooler per min.

Derivation:

 Workdone by two stage compressor

Theory:

 Rotary compressor

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 Two marks Question &Answers
1. Give the classification of compressor based on movement of piston. (Nov 2013)
 Reciprocating compressor
 Rotary compressor
2. What is isothermal efficiency with reference to reciprocating air compressor?
(May 2013)
It is defined as the ratio between isothermal work done to the actual work done with
polytropic compression.

3. State the principal of working of screw compressor. (May 2013)

Screw compressors use two meshing helical screws, known as rotors, to compress the
gas. Air enters at the suction side and moves through the threads as the screws rotate. The
meshing rotors force the gas through the compressor, and the gas exits at the end of the screws.
4. Draw the P-V diagram of a two stage reciprocating air compressor. (May 2014)

5. Define isentropic efficiency of reciprocating compressor. (Nov 2014)

It is the ratio of isentropic power to the brake power required to drive the compressor.

6. What is the effect of clearance volume on work of compression? (Nov 2017)

If clearance volume is considered, actual volume of suction has decreased from the stroke
volume. Thus the effect of clearance is to reduce the volume of air actually sucked in per
working cycle.

7. List out the factors limit the delivery pressure in a reciprocating compressor
(Nov 2015)

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 The size of the cylinder will be too large for very high pressure
 Due to compression, there will be rise in the temperature of the air. So the delivery pressure is
limited, so that rise in temperature of air is not going beyond limit and size of cylinder is not too
large.
8. Define volumetric efficiency of an air compressor. ( May 2016) (May 2015)

Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of volume of free air sucked into the
compressor per cycle to the stroke volume of the cylinder.

9. State the conditions which lower the volumetric efficiency of an air compressor.
(May 2016)
 Very high speed
 Leakage past the piston
 Too large a clearance volume
 Obstruction at inlet valve
 Inertia effects of air in suction pipe

10. Write the difference between centrifugal and axial compressors. (Nov 2016)
S.No Centrifugal compressor Axial compressor
1 Starting torque is low. Starting torque is high
2 It is not suitable for multistage It is suitable for multistage
compression compression
3 Running cost is low Running cost is high

11. Define the term Free air delivery (May 2015)(Apr 2017)
Free air delivery: The free air delivered is the actual volume delivered at this state pressure
reduced to intake pressure and temperature and expressed in terms of m3/min.
12. What are the advantages of multistage compression? (May 2015) (Nov 2016)
 It improves the efficiency for the given pressure ratio.
 It reduces the leakage loss considerably.
 It gives the more uniform torque and hence, a smaller size of fly wheel is required.
13. What is meant by intercooler? (May 2014)
The cooler which is placed in between stages is called Intercooler. An intercooler is a
simple heat exchanger.
14. What is meant by perfect inter cooling (Nov 2015)
When the temperature of air leaving the inter cooler is equal to the original
atmospheric air temperature then the inter cooling known as perfect inter cooling.
15. What is the effect of inter cooling in multi compressor? (Nov 2014)(Nov 2017)
An inter cooler is a simple heat exchanger. It exchanges the heat of compressor air from
the low pressure compressor to the circulating water before the air enters to the high pressure
compressor. The purpose of inter cooling is to minimize the work compression.
16. List the effects of intercooling in a multi stage compression process. (Nov 2013)

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 The workdone per day of air is reduced in multistage compression with intercooler
 It improves volumetric efficiencyfor the given pressure ratio
 It provides effective lubrication because of lower temperature range
17. What is meant by Adiabatic efficiency?
It is defined as the ratio between workdone on compressor with polytropic compression and
workdone on compressor with adiabatic compression.
18. How to increase Isothermal efficiency?
 Spray injection
 Water jacketing
 Intercooling
 External fins
 By a suitable choice of cylinder proportions
19. Write about effects of parameters on volumetric efficiency.
Speed of compressor: Volumetric efficiency increases with increase in speed.
Delivery pressure: Volumetric efficiency is decreased when the delivery pressure is
increased.
Throttling across the valves: Throttling at the inlet and delivery valve increases the
pressure ratio. It would reduce the free air delivery and hence volumetric efficiency
increases.

20. What are the various Rotary compressors?

 Roots blower
 Vane type compressor
 Centrifugal compressor

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Intercooling of air in a two-stage reciprocating air compressor:
Efficiency of the intercooler plays an important role in the working of a twostage reciprocating
air compress.

1. Complete or perfect intercooling:

When the temperature of the air leaving the intercooler (i.e. T3) is equal to the original
atmospheric air temperature (i.e. T1) then the intercooling is known as complete or perfect
intercooling. In this case, the point 3 lies on the isothermal curve as shown in

Incomplete or imperfect intercooling:

When the temperature of the air leaves the intercooler (i.e. T3) is more than the original
atmospheric air temperature (i.e. T1), then the intercooling is known as incomplete or imperfect
intercooling. In this case, the point 3 lies on the right side of the isothermal curve as shown in

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Rotary compressors
Roots Blower Compressor
A roots blower compressor, in its simplest form, consists of two rotors with lobes rotating in
an air tight casing which has inlet and outlet ports. Its action resembles with that of a gear pump.
There are many designs of wheels, but they generally have two or three lobes (and sometimes
even more). In all cases, their action remains the same as shown in Fig. (a) and (b).

The lobes are so designed that they provide an air tight joint at the point of their contact. The
mechanical energy is provided to one of the rotors from some external source, while the other is
gear driven from the first. As the rotors rotate, the air, at atmospheric pressure, is trapped in the
pockets formed between the lobes and casing. The rotary motion of the lobes delivers the
entrapped air into the receiver. Thus more and more flow of air into the receiver increases its
pressure. Finally, the air at a higher pressure is delivered from the receiver.

Vane Blower Compressor

A vane blower, in its simplest form, Consists of a disc rotating eccentrically in an air tight casing
with inlet and outlet ports. The disc has a number of slots (generally 4 to 8) containing vanes.
When the rotor rotates the disc, the vanes are pressed against the casing, due to centrifugal force,
and form air tight pockets. The mechanical energy is provided to the disc from some external
source. As the disc rotates, the air is trapped in the pockets formed between the vanes and casing.
First of all, the rotary motion of the vanes compresses the air. When the rotating vane uncovers
the exit port, some air (under high pressure) flows back into the pocket. Thus the pressure of air,
entrapped in the pocket, is increased first by decreasing the volume and then by the backflow of
air. Now the air is delivered to the receiver by the rotation of the vanes. Finally, the air at a high
pressure is delivered from the receiver.

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Centrifugal compressor
A centrifugal blower compressor, in its simplest form, consists of a rotor (or impeller) to which a
number of curved vanes are tilted symmetrically. The rotor rotates in an air tight volute casing
with inlet and outlet points. The casing for the compressor is so designed that the kinetic energy
of the air is converted into pressure energy before it leaves the casing as shown in Fig

The mechanical energy is provided to the rotor from some external source. As the rotor rotates, it
sucks air through its eye, increases its pressure due to centrifugal force and forces the air to flow
over the diffuser. The pressure of air is further increased during its flow over the diffuser.
Finally, the air at a high pressure is delivered to the receiver. It will be interesting to know that
the air enters the impeller radially and leaves the vanes axially.

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Axial Flow Compresrs
An axial flow compressor, in its simplest form, consists of a number of rotating blade rows
fixed to a rotating drum. The drum rotates inside an air tight casing to which are fixed stator
blade rows, as shown in fig. The blades are made of aerofoil section to reduce the loss caused by
turbulence and boundary separation.

The mechanical energy is provided to the rotating shaft, which rotates the drum. The air enters
from the left side of the compressor. As the drum rotates, the airflows through the alternately
arranged stator and rotor. As the air flows from one set of stator and rotor to another, it gets
compressed. Thus successive compression of the air, in all the sets of stator and rotor, the air is
delivered at a high pressure at the outlet point.

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 Unit 5 Refrigeration &Air conditioning

Refrigeration

1. A NH3 refrigerator produces 30 tons of ice from and at 0C in a day of 24 hours. The
temperature range in the compressor is from 25C to -15C. The vapour is dry saturated at the
end of compression. Asssume a cop 60% theoretical. Calculate the power required to drive
the compressor. Assume latent heat of ice is 335 kJ/kg. For properties of ammonia

Temperature 0C hf(kJ/kg) hg(kJ/kg) sf(kJ/kg) sg(kJ/kg)

25 298.9 1465.8 1.124 5.039
-15 112.34 1426.5 0.4572 5.549

2. The temperature limits of Ammonia Refrigeration System are 250 C and 10 0C. If the gas is
dry at the end of Compression. Calculate the COP of the cycle assuming no under-cooling of
the liquid ammonia. The properties of Ammonia are given below.
Temperature in ˚ C Liquid Heat Latent Heat Liquid entropy
25 298.90 1166.94 1.2420
10 135.37 1207.68 0.5443 (Nov 2013)

3. A 5 tonne refrigeration plant uses R12 as refrigerant. It enters the compressor at -5C as
saturated vapour. Condensation takes place at 32C and there is no undercooling of
refrigerant. Assuming isentropic compression, determine COP of the plant, mass flow of
refrigerant, power required to run the compressor in kW. The properties of R-12 are given in
table.
Temperature 0C P(bar) hf(kJ/kg) hg(kJ/kg) sg(kJ/kg)
32 7.85 130.5 264.5 1.542
-5 2.61 - 249.3 1.557

4. A vapour compression refrigeration system uses R12 as refrigerant and liquid evaporates at -
14C. Temperature of refrigerant delivery from the compressor is 15C. And vapour is
condensed at 10C. Find COP of the system i) If there is no undercooling ii) iquid is cooled
by 5C before expansion. Assume at the entry of compressor refrigerant is just dry. Take
specific heat of vapour is 0.65kJ/kgK and specific heat of liquid is 0.94 kJ/kgK. The
properties of R12 is given below
Temperature 0C hf(kJ/kg) hg(kJ/kg) sf(kJ/kg) sg(kJ/kg)
-14 23.23 181.4 0.091 0.7045
10 45.4 191.74 191.74 0.6921

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5. The temperature limits of Ammonia Refrigeration System are 25 0 C and 10 0C. If the gas is
dry at the end of Compression. Calculate the COP of the cycle assuming no under-cooling of
the liquid ammonia. The properties of Ammonia are given below.

Temperature Liquid Latent Heat Liquid

in ˚ C Heat entropy
25 298.90 1166.94 1.2420
10 135.37 1207.68 0.5443

6. A food storage locker requires a refrigeration capacity of 50 kW. It works between condenser
temperature of 35C K and an evaporator temperature of -10C. The refrigerant used is
ammonia. It is sub-cooled by 50C before entering the expansion valve by the dry saturated
vapour leaving the evaporator. Assuming the single cylinder single acting compressor
operating at 1000 rpm with stroke equal to 1.2 times the bore. Determine i) power required
and cylinder dimensions.

Saturation Enthalpy(kJ/kg) Entropy(kJ/kgK) Specific volume Specific

temperature0C (m3/kg) heat(kJ/kgK)
liquid vapour liquid vapour liquid vapour liquid vapour
-10 154.056 1450.22 0.8296 5.7550 - 0.4174 - 2.492
35 366.072 1488.57 1.566 5.2086 1.7023 0.0956 4.556 2.903

7. Refrigerating plant works between temperature limits -5C and 25C. The working fluid
ammonia has a dryness fraction of 0.62 at entry to compressor. If the machine has a relative
efficiency 55%. Calculate the amount of ice formed during a period of 24 hours. The ice is to
be formed at 0C from water at 15C and 6.4 kg ammonia is circulated per min. Specific heat
of water is 4.187kJ/kg and latent heat of ice is 335 kJ/kg.

Temperature0C Liquid heat (kJ/kg) Latent heat(kJ/kg) Entropy of liquid(kJ/kgk)

25 298.9 1167.1 1.124
-5 158.2 1280.8 0.630

8. A Freon-12 refrigerator producing a cooling effect of 20kJ/s operates on a simple cycle with
pressure limits of 1.509 bar and 9.607 bar. The vapour leaves the evaporator as dry saturated
and there is no undercooling. Determine the power required by the machine. If teh
compressor operates at 300 rpm and has a clearance volume of 3% of stroke volume,
determine the piston displacement of the compressor. For compressor assume that expansion
following the law pV1.3=C

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Temperature Pressure Specific Enthalpy hg Entropy sg(kJ/kg) Specific
0
C bar volume hf (kJ/kg) sf (kJ/kg) heat(kJ/kgK)
Vapour (kJ/kg)
(m3/kg)
-20 1.509 0.1088 17.8 178.61 0.073 0.7082 -
40 9.607 - 74.53 203.05 0.2716 0.682 0.747

9. A food storage locker requires a refrigeration capacity of 2400kJ/min. It works between

condenser temperature of 303 K and an evaporator temperature of 263 K. The refrigerant
used is freon 12. It is sub-cooled by 60C before entering the expansion valve and vapour is
superheated by 7 C before leaving the evaporator. Assuming a two cylinder, single- acting
compressor operating at 1000rpm with stroke equal to 1.25 times the bore. Take liquid
specific heat=1.235kJ/kgk, vapour specific heat =0.733kJ/kgK. Determine i) Refrigeration
effect per kg ii)Mass of refrigerant to be circulated per minute iii)Piston displacement per
minute iv) power required to run the compressor v) Heat removed through condenser per
min vi) Bore and stroke of compressor.

Saturation Absolute pressure, Enthalpy kJ/kg Entropy Specific

temperature, K bar volume,m3/kg
Liquid vapour Liquid Vapour
263 2.19 26.9 183.2 0.1080 0.7020 0.0767
303 7.45 64.6 199.6 0.2399 0.6854 0.0235

Theory Questions

 Vapour compression refrigeration system

 Vapour Absorption system ( Ammonia water, Lithium bromide)

Air conditioning

1. 200m3 of air per minute at 15C DBT and75% RH is heated until its temperature is 25 C.
Calculate heat added to air per minute, RH of the heated air and wet bulb temperature of the
heated air. (Nov 2016).
2. An air conditioning plant is required to supply 50 m3 of air per minute at a DBT of 22oC and
50% RH. The atm condition is 32oC with 65% RH. Determine the mass of moisture removed
and capacity of cooling coil if the required effect is obtained by dehumidification and
sensible cooling process. Also calculate the sensible heat factor. (Nov 2015)
3. An office is to be air conditioned of 50 staff outdoor conditions are DBT 30 0C and 75% RH.
If quantity of air supplied is 0.4m3/min /person. Find i)capacity of cooling coil in terms of
refrigeration. ii) capacity of heating coil in kW iii) Amount of water vapour removed per

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 hour. Assume inlet air condition is 20C DBT and 60% RH. Air is conditioned first by cooling
and dehumidifying and then by heating. If the heating coil surface temperature is 25C. Find
bypass factor of cooling coil.
4. An air conditioning plant is to be designed for small office for winter conditions : outdoor
conditions are DBT 100C and 8C WBT. Required indoor conditions-20C DBT and 60%R.H
Quantity of air supplied is 0.4m3/min /person. Seating capacity of the office-50. Air is
conditioned first by heating and adiabatic humidifying.
Find i) capacity of heating coil in kW and surface temperature required if by pass factor of
coil is 0.32 ii)capacity of humidifier.
5. It is required to design an air-conditioning system for an industrial process for the following
hot and wet summer conditions :
Outdoor conditions ...... 32ºC DBT and 65% R.H.
Required air inlet conditions ...... 25ºC DBT and 60% R.H.
Amount of free air circulated ...... 250 m3/min.
Coil dew temperature ...... 13ºC.
The required condition is achieved by first cooling and dehumidifying and then by heating.
Calculate the following :
(i) The cooling capacity of the cooling coil and its by-pass factor.
(ii) Heating capacity of the heating coil in kW and surface temperature of the heating coil if
the by-pass factor is 0.3.
(iii) The mass of water vapour removed per hour.
Solve this problem with the use of psychrometric chart.

6. The following data pertain to an air-conditioning system :

Unconditioned space DBT = 30ºC
Unconditioned space WBT = 22ºC
Cold air duct supply surface temperature = 14ºC.
Determine : (i) Dew point temperature.
(ii) Whether or not condensation will form on the duct

Theory Questions:

 Summer and winter air conditioning system

 Central, zoned and room air conditioning system
 various loads for air conditioning

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 Two marks Question &Answers

1. List out the components in the vapour absorption refrigeration system. (Nov 2013)
Heat exchanger, generator, condenser, receiver, expansion valve, evaporator.
2. Show the simple vapour compression cycle on pressure enthalpy diagram.
( May 2016)

3. What is the effect of subcooling of the refrigerant on the performance of the vapour
compression refrigeration system? (May 2013)

It increases the refrigeration effect therefore the COP increases. The mass flow rate of the
refrigeration is less than that for the simple saturated cycle. The reduced mass flow rate reduces
the piston displacement per minute. Power per tones of refrigeration losses due to reduction in
mass flow rate. The increased efficiency may be offering some extent by the rise in the
condenser pressure. Work input almost remains same. The heat rejection capacity of the
condenser increases.

4. List two desirable properties of refrigerants. (Nov 2013) (Nov 2014)

 It should have low boiling point and low freezing point.
 It must have low specific heat and high latent heat.
 It should have low specific volume to reduce the size of the compressor.
 It should have high thermal conductivity to reduce the heat transfer in evaporator and
condenser.
5. State the unit of refrigeration and any two properties of good refrigerant.
(May 2014)
The capacity of refrigeration is expressed in tonnes of refrigeration (TOR). One tonne of
refrigeration = 3.5 kW=210kJ/min

6. What are the requirements of a refrigerant? (Nov 2017)

 High evaporating temperature is generally desirable so that heat transmission can occur with
lowest possible circulating refrigerant.
The refrigerant must be chemically stable at the temperatures and pressures typically expected
to be encountered in a refrigeration plant.

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 The refrigerant must not be corrosive or attack normal design materials.

7. Define tonne of refrigeration. (May 2015)

The capacity of refrigeration is expressed in tonnes of refrigeration (TOR). It is defined
as the rate at which heat is required to be removed to freeze one ton of water from and at 0 0C.
1 tones of refrigeration = 210 kJ/min (or) = 3.5 kJ/sec (kW)
A tone of refrigeration is defined as the quantity of heat to be removed in order to form one tone
of ice at 0oC in 24 hours.
8. Name any three commonly used refrigerants. (Nov 2016)

Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs, such as R-11, R-12, and R-114

Hydro chlorofluorocarbons or HCFCs, such as R-22 or R-123
Hydro fluorocarbons or HFCs, such as R-134a.

9. Distinguish summer and winter air conditioning (Nov 2015)

In summer air conditioning the air gains both sensible and latent heat. Hence, the
conditioning of air is done by both cooling and dehumidification. In winter air conditioning,
heating and humidification is done to the air.
10. How does humidity effect the human comfort (Nov 2015)
Humans are very sensitive to humidity as the skin relies on the air to get rid of moisture.
The process of sweating is your body’s attempt to keep cool and maintain its current
temperature. If the air is at 100 percent relative humidity, sweat will not evaporate in to the air.
As a result, we feel much hotter than the actual temperature when the relative humidity is high. If
the relative humidity is low, we can feel much cooler than the actual temperature because our
sweat evaporates easily, cooling us off.
11. List out the basic elements of an air conditioning system. ( May 2016)
Fan, filter, refrigeration unit, humidification or dehumidification system, control system

12. Name the different components of a summer air conditioning system. (May 2013)
 Cooling coil
 Humidifier
 Air damper
 Water eliminator
13. Define relative humidity of air? (Apr 2017)
Relative humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapour in a certain volume of moist air
at a given temperature to the mass of water vapour in the same volume of saturated air at the
same temperature.
14. Define RSHF and RTH. (May 2014) (Nov 2014)
Room sensible heat factor is defined as the ratio of the room sensible heat to
The room total heat.
RSHF = RSH / RTH = RSH / (RSH + RLH)

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 Room total heat(RTH) is the sum of room sensible heat and room latent heat
15. Define the terms gross sensible heat factor and effective sensible heat factor.

(Nov 2017)(May 2015)

Gross sensible heat factor is defined as the ratio of total sensible heat to grand total heat load.
Effective sensible heat factor is the ratio of effective room sensible heat to the sum of effective
room sensible heat and latent heat.

16. What is meant by ERSHF. (Nov 2016)

Effective room sensible heat factor is defined as the ratio between effective room sensible heat
and effective room total heat
17. Define COP of refrigeration
It is defined as the ratio of heat extracted in a given time to the work input.
COP = Ref – effect / Work input.

18. Define cooling with dehumidification of air in an air-condition system.

The process implies lowering both the air temperature and the humidity ratio. The
dehumidification of air only be possible when the temperature of the cooling oil is below the
dew point temperature of air.
19. What is humidification and dehumidification?
Humidification:
The addition of water vapour to the air is known as humidification.
Dehumidification:
The removal of water vapour to the air is known as dehumidification.

20. Write the factors affecting the performance of a vapor compression refrigeration
system.
 Effect of Suction pressure
 Effect of Delivery pressure
 Effect of Superheating
 Effect of Sub cooling
 Effect of Suction temperature and condenser temperature.

21.What is meant by refrigerant?

It is defined as any substance that absorbs heat through expansion or vaporization and loses it
through condensation in a refrigerant system.

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Vapour compression refrigeration system

Functions of Parts of a Simple Vapour Compression System

Various parts of a simple vapour compression system are
1. Compressor. The function of a compressor is to remove the vapour from the evaporator,
and to raise its temperature and pressure to a point such that it (vapour) can be condensed with
available condensing media.
2. Condenser. The function of a condenser is to provide a heat transfer surface through which
heat passes from the hot refrigerant vapour to the condensing medium.
3. Receiver tank. A receiver tank is used to provide storage for a condensed liquid so that a
constant supply of liquid is available to the evaporator as required.
4. Expansion valve (refrigerant flow control). Its function is to meter the proper amount of
refrigerant to the evaporator and to reduce the pressure of liquid entering the evaporator so
that liquid will vapourize in the evaporator at the desired low temperature and take out sufficient
amount of heat.
5. Evaporator. An evaporator provides a heat transfer surface through which heat can pass from
the refrigerated space into the vapourizing refrigerant.
Working
The low pressure refrigerant vapour coming out of the evaporator flows into the
compressor. In the compressor, the refrigerant vapour is compressed isentropically.

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 vapour from the compressor is then passed through the
condenser vapour refrigerant condenses into high pressure liquid refrigerant.
receiver tank.
This valve allows the high pressure liquid refrigerant to allow at a controlled rate into the
evaporators. While passing through this valve, liquid refrigerant partly evaporates.
absorbs its latent heat
of evaporation from the material which is to be cooled. Thus the refrigeration effect is obtained.
COP = Ref – effect / Work input

Merits and demerits of vapour compression system

Merits :
1. C.O.P. is quite high as the working of the cycle is very near to that of reversed Carnot cycle.
2. When used on ground level the running cost of vapour-compression refrigeration system is
only 1/5th of air refrigeration system.
3. For the same refrigerating effect the size of the evaporator is smaller.
4. The required temperature of the evaporator can be achieved simply by adjusting the throttle
valve of the same unit.
Demerits :
1. Initial cost is high.
2. The major disadvantages are inflammability, leakage of vapours and toxity. These have been
overcome to a great extent by improvement in design.

Vapour Absorption System

 Ammonia water system

 Lithium bromide water system

Ammonia water system

Various parts of Ammonia water system

1. Heat exchanger. A heat exchanger is located between the generator and the absorber. The
strong solution which is pumped from the absorber to the generator must be heated ; and the
weak solution from the generator to the absorber must be cooled. This is accomplished by a heat
exchanger and consequently cost of heating the generator and cost of cooling the absorber are
reduced.
2. Analyser. An analyser consists of a series of trays mounted above the generator. Its main
function is to remove partly some of the unwanted water particles associated with ammonia
vapour going to condenser. If these water vapours are permitted to enter condenser they may
enter the expansion valve and freeze ; as a result the pipe line may get choked.
3. Rectifier. A rectifier is a water-cooled heat exchanger which condenses water vapour
and some ammonia and sends back to the generator. Thus final reduction or elemination of the
percentage of water vapour takes place in a rectifier.

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4. Evaporator: It is in the evaporator where the refrigerant pure ammonia (NH 3) in liquid state
produces the cooling effect. It absorbs the heat from the substance to be cooled and gets evaporated.
From here, the ammonia passes to the absorber in the gaseous state.

5. Pump: The strong solution of ammonia and water is pumped by the pump at high pressure to the
generator.
6. Generator: The strong solution of ammonia refrigerant and water absorbent are heated by the
external source of heat such as steam or hot water. It can also be heated by other sources like natural
gas, electric heater, waste exhaust heat etc.

7.Absorber: In the absorber the weak solution of ammonia-water is already present. The water, used
as the absorbent in the solution, is unsaturated and it has the capacity to absorb more ammonia gas.
As the ammonia from evaporator enters the absorber, it is readily absorbed by water and the strong
solution of ammonia-water is formed.
Working
 The low pressure refrigerant vapour coming from the evaporator is absorber by the weak
solution of refrigerant in water. Absorption of ammonia lower the pressure in the
absorber, which in turn draws more ammonia vapour from the evaporator.

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  Water cooling arrangement is employed in the absorber to remove the heat evolved
during absorption of ammonia.
 The solution in the absorber is called a strong solution because it is rich in refrigerant.
The pump drawn strong solution from the absorber, built up a pressure up to 10bar and
forces the strong solution in the generator through the heat exchanger.
 The strong solution pumped from the absorber to the generator must be heated and the
weak solution from the generator to the absorber must be cooled.
 In the generator the strong solution of ammonia is heated by some external source such
as gas or steam. In heating process, the ammonia vapour is driven out of the solution as a
high pressure vapour.
 Ammonia vapour leaving the generator may contain unwanted particles. If this particles
is allowed directly to the condenser and expansion valve, it may freeze and choke the
pipe line.
 Analyzer and rectifier incorporated in the system before the condenser to remove the
water particles contained in the ammonia vapour. The condensate water returned to the
analyzer.
 The pure ammonia vapour then passes through the condenser and the ammonia vapour is
condensate to liquid ammonia.
 The high pressure liquid refrigerant then enters the expansion valve, the liquid refrigerant
partly evaporates. The low pressure ammonia vapour leaving the evaporator again enters
the absorber and the cycle is repeated.
Lithium Bromide – water system
This refrigeration system is used for large tonnage capacity. In this system, lithium-bromide is acting
as the absorbent and water is acting as refrigerant.
Various parts of the system are
1) Evaporator: Water as the refrigerant enters the evaporator at very low pressure and
temperature. Since very low pressure is maintained inside the evaporator the water exists in the
partial liquid state and partial vapor state. This water refrigerant absorbs the heat from the
substance to be chilled and gets fully evaporated. It then enters the absorber.
2) Absorber: In the absorber concentrated solution of lithium bromide is already available.
Since water is highly soluble in lithium bromide, solution of water-lithium bromide is formed.
This solution is pumped by the pump to the generator.
3) Generator: The heat is supplied to the refrigerant water and absorbent lithium bromide
solution in the generator from the steam or hot water. Due to heating water gets vaporized and it
moves to the condenser, where it gets cooled. As water refrigerant moves further in the
refrigeration piping and though nozzles, it pressure reduces and so also the temperature. This
water refrigerant then enters the evaporator where it produces the cooling effect.

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Working:
 Water to be chilled is passed through tubes. Refrigerant water after expanding in the
expansion valve is sprayed over these tubes.

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  Because of this, the tube water gets chilled and the refrigerant water becomes water
vapour.
 Lithium bromide solution, which is sprayed in the absorber absorbs the water vapour.
Thus the solution becomes weak.
 This weak solution is pumped to the generator. Here, heating of the solution is done.
Because of this, some water evaporates. So, the solution becomes strong. This strong
solution is passed through the heat exchanger and sprayed in the absorber. Thus the cycle
repeats.
 Water vapours formed in the generator is passed through a condenser. Water vapour thus
gets condensed and becomes liquid water.
 External supply of cooling water is effected the condenser. This cooling water is supplied
through the absorber, to carry some heat from there. Condensed water is supplied to the
evaporator to make up the water vapour formed there.

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Types of Air- Conditioning System:

Central Systems: The central air conditioning system is used for cooling big buildings, houses,
offices, entire hotels, gyms, movie theaters, factories etc. various parts of this system are as fans,
coils, filters etc. A central system serves different rooms, requires individual control of each
room. The condenser, compressor, dampers, heating, cooling and humidifying coils and fan are
located at one place say basement. The conditioned air is carried to the different rooms by means
of supply duct and return back to the control plant through return ducts.
Outdoor air enters from a intake which should be situated on that side of the building least
exposed to solar heat. It should not be close to the ground or to dust collected roof. The air after
passing through damper passes through filter. The filter may be of mechanical cleaned type, or
electrostatic. The cleaned air then passes to the conditioning equipment in the following order:
preheater coil, cooling coil, humidifier, heating coil and finally fan.

Zoned system
A zoned air conditioning system using a room air terminal which has the same horizontal
dimensions as a floor tile of a raised tile floor such that the terminal may replace one tile in such a
floor. The terminal includes a cool air inlet below the floor for drawing in cooling air circulated in
the under floor space and a return air inlet in the top surface of the terminal. The cool air and return
air is mixed in a mixing chamber and drawn from the mixing chamber by a fan and returned to the

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room through an outlet vent. The ratio of cool air to return air mixed in the mixing chamber is
controlled by a modulating damper which is controlled in response to the temperature of the return
air in order to control the room temperature in the region of the terminal in accordance with an
adjustable set point. A heater is also provided in the terminal for those occasions where the return air
is cooler than the set point.

Unitary Systems or Room Ac system:

A unitary air conditioning system comprises an outdoor unit including a compressor for
compressing a refrigerant, an outdoor heat exchanger for heat exchange of the refrigerant and an
expander connected to the outdoor heat exchanger, for expanding the refrigerant; a duct installed
inside a zone of a building; a central blower unit having a heat exchanger connected to the
outdoor unit through a first refrigerant pipe and a blower for supplying the air heat-exchanged by
the heat exchanger to the duct; and an individual blower unit including a heat exchanger
connected to the outdoor unit through a second refrigerant pipe and a fan for sending the air heat-
exchanged by the heat exchanger and disposed in a zone in the building, for individually cooling
or heating the zone.
Accordingly, cooling or heating operation is performed on each zone of the building, and
simultaneously, additional individual heating or cooling operation can be performed on a specific
space, so that a cost can be reduced, and cooling or heating in the building can be efficiently
performed.

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.
Summer Air conditioning system
For hot and wet weather
When the air is hot and wet, the treating of air the in air conditioning system differs from other
methods. Because air contains more quantity of water vapour than the required quantity. So, the
air conditioning system has to remove the water vapour by humidifying.

During hot weather, air is first passed through air filter to remove the dust and then it is passed
through cooling coil to remove water vapour. At that time, the temperature of air becomes below
its dew temperature due to reduction in surface temperature of cooling coil. This surface
temperature of coil is controlled by varying the quantity of coolant.
Air coming out from the cooling coil is passed over the heating coil to heat up to the
required temperature. Then the heated air is directly supplied to air conditioned space. The

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amount of air passes through air conditioned system is controlled with the help of air dampers
according to the load in air conditioned space.

For hot and dry weather

In this type air is passed through the cooling coil to remove water vapour and then it is
passed through type humidifier to increase humidity and it is passed through eliminator to
remove water droplets. The quantity of passed through the air conditioned space varies with the
load conditions.

Winter conditioning system

The conditioning of air during winter season is totally different from summer air
conditioning. It is necessary to heat air for comfort conditions. But the R.H of the air decreases
as it is heated, therefore, it becomes necessary to increase the R.H by humidifying the air. The air
conditioning for winters requires heating and humidifying. The heating of air is generally done in
two stages to simplify the controls.

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 The air is first passed through air filter to remove dust and then it is passed over heating
coil. The temperature of air coming out of heating coil is controlled by the energy input to the
coil. Then the air is passed through humidifying chamber where it is humidified with help of
water sprays. The air coming out of the humidifier passed through eliminator to remove the
water particles. Then the temperature of air is further increased up to required temperature with
help of energy input given to second heating coil. Then the air coming out of heating coil at
required condition is supplied to an air conditioned space.

What are the various loads for air conditioning?

The air conditioning systems carry two types of loads.
1. Room heat load
a. Room sensible heat loads
b. Room latent heat loads
2. Total heat load
1. A. Room sensible heat load:
transmission heat gains through walls, roof, etc.

air conditioned space through crakes, doors, windows

and ventilators and also through the door when opened.
B. Room latent heat load:

ss.
2. Total heat load = Total sensible heat + Total latent heat

Total sensible heat load:

It is the summation of effective room sensible heat load and return ducts heat gain, return duct
leakage gain, dehumidifier pump horse power and dehumidifier and piping losses.
Total latent heat load:
It is the summation of effective room detent and return duct leakage gain.
Gross Sensible Heat Factor:
It is defined as the ratio of gross sensible heat to the gross total heat. GSHF= GSH/GTH.
Effective Sensible Heat Factor: It is the ratio of effective room sensible heat to the effective
room total heat. ESHF= ERSH/ERTH.
Room Sensible Heat Factor: It is the ratio of room sensible heat to the room total heat

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Thermal Engineering 353 P.Purushothaman_AP_Mech
Thermal Engineering 354 P.Purushothaman_AP_Mech
Thermal Engineering 355 P.Purushothaman_AP_Mech