VELAMMAL VIDHYASHRAM

GUDUVANCHERY

ALL INDIA SENIOR SCHOOL

CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION

CHEMISTRY

INVESTIGATORY PROJECT REPORT

ON
“CONSTITUENTS OF ALLOY“

2024-2025

NAME :B.DWARAKESH
ROLL NO :
CLASS : XII—B(2)
GROUP : COMPUTER SCIENCE
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BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this CHEMISTRY Investigatory Project on the topic
“CONSTITUENTS OF ALLOY“ has been successfully completed by
B.DWARAKESH of class XII- B(CHEMISTRY), Roll.no...................... at
Velammal Vidhyashram , Guduvanchery for the partial fulfilment of
this project as a part of All India Senior School Certificate
Examination-CBSE, New Delhi for the academic Year 2024– 2025.

Date : ……………………

Signature of Principal Signature of the Guide

Name : Name :

Submitted for AISSCE 2022-2023, CHEMISTRY Practical examination on

......................

Signature of the Signature of the

Internal Examiner External Examiner

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The success of any project depends largely on people associated with it. I
would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge the
enthusiasm of all these personalities. I hereby express my heartfelt
thanks to our Senior Principal for having given this opportunity to do
the project in the Chemistry laboratory and for her constant
encouragement. I extend my sincere gratitude to my Physics teacher
for the valuable guidance offered to me. Her wholehearted
encouragement and constant stimulant inspiration and advice
enabled me to complete the project successfully. I am also thankful to all
our Teaching Staff and Non-Teaching Staff for their help during my
course of study. I take this opportunity to express my sincere
thanks to my parents for their encouragement and support. Last but
not the least I am thankful to the almighty .

~B.DWARAKESH
XII-B2

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 INDEX

SL.NO CONTENTS PG.NO

1 INTRODUCTION 1

2 AIM 2

3 COMMON ALLOYS 7-10

4 USES OF ALLOYS 11-13

5 PREPARATION OF ALLOYS 14

6 ANALYSIS OF AN ALLOY 14-20

7 PROS OF USING ALLOY 20-21

8 CONS OF USING ALLOY 22-23

9 CONCLUSION 24

10 BIBLIOGRAPHY 25

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 INTRODUCTION
An Alloy is a homogenous mixture of two or more metals or a nonmetal.
An alloy of mercury with another metal is called amalgam.

Alloys are usually harder than their components but very often less ductile
and less malleable. Thus the hardness of gold is increased by addition of
copper to it. The melting point of an alloy is always lower than the melting
points of the constituent metals. Other properties such as reactivity
towards atmospheric oxygen and moisture, mechanical strength, ductility,
color etc. also under goes a change when an alloy is made from its
constituents (metals). This change of properties is very useful and makes
an alloy beneficial.

Some of the alloys along with their composition is given below:

1. Brass: It consists copper-50-90%.

Zinc.: 20-40% And small amounts of tin, lead and iron.

2. Bronze: It consists copper 60-90%.

3. Tin: 5-35% And also contains small amounts of lead, iron and zinc.

Duralumin: It consists A1: 95%, Cu = 4% ,Mn 0.5%, Mg = 0.5%

4. Gun Metal: It consists copper 85-90% , 8-10% Tin, 2-4%Zinc.

5. Zinc: a transition metal, grouped with cadmium and mercury.

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The composition of alloys may differ slightly depending upon the quality of
the alloy though the main components remain the same. AIM
“The aim of this project is to investigate and analyze the various
constituents of different alloys, their properties, and applications.
The project seeks to explore the different types of alloys, their
composition, and the effects of various elements on their
strength, corrosion resistance, and durability. Additionally, the
project aims to research and document the uses of alloys in
various industries, such as aerospace, automotive, and
construction, and to present the findings in a clear and concise
manner, thereby providing a comprehensive understanding of
the constituents of alloys and their significance in real-world
applications.”

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 common alloys
Amalgam:
Any alloy of mercury is called an amalgam. Most metals are
soluble in mercury, but some (such as iron) are not. Amalgams are
commonly used in dental fillings because they have been relatively
cheap, easy to use, and durable. In addition, until recently, they have been
regarded as safe. They are made by mixing mercury with silver, copper,
tin, and other metals. The mercury content of dental fillings has recently
stirred controversy, based on the potentially harmful effects of mercury.

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Mercury amalgams:
have also been used in the process of mining
Gold and silver, because of the ease with which mercury
Amalgamates with them. In addition, thallium amalgam is used as the
liquid material in thermometers, because it freezes at -58°C, whereas
pure mercury freezes at -38°C.

Brass:
is the term used for alloys of copper and zinc in a solid solution. It
has a yellow color, somewhat similar to gold. It was produced in
prehistoric times, long before zinc was discovered, by melting copper
with calamine, a zinc ore.

The amount of zinc in brass varies from 5 to 45 percent, creating a range

of brasses, each with unique properties. By comparison, bronze is
principally an alloy of copper and tin.

Despite this distinction, some types of brasses are called bronzes. Brass
is relatively resistant to tarnishing and is often used for decorative
purposes. Its malleability and acoustic properties have made it the metal

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of choice for musical instruments such as the trombone, tuba, trumpet,
and euphonium.

Aluminum makes brass stronger and more corrosion-resistant. It forms a

transparent, self-healing, protective layer of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) on
the surface. Tin has a similar effect and finds its use especially in
seawater applications (naval brasses). Combinations of iron, aluminum,
silicon, and manganese make brass resistant to wear and tear.

Bronze:
Bronze refers to a broad range of copper alloys, usually with tin as
the main additive, but sometimes with other element s such as
phosphorus, manganese, aluminum, or silicon. Typically, bronze is about
60 percent copper and 40 percent tin. The use of bronze was particularly
significant for early civilizations, leading to the name “Bronze Age.” Tools,
weapons, armor, and building materials such as decorative tiles were

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made of bronze, as they were found to be harder and more durable than
their stone and copper predecessors.

In early use, the natural impurity arsenic sometimes created a superior

natural alloy, called “arsenical bronze.”

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Though not as strong as steel, bronze is superior to iron in nearly every
application. Bronze develops a patina (a green coating on the exposed
surface), but it does not oxidize beyond the surface. It is considerably less
brittle than iron and has a lower casting temperature. Several bronze
alloys resist corrosion (especially by seawater) and metal fatigue better
than steel; they also conduct Heat and electricity better than most steels.
Bronze has myriad uses in industry. It is widely used today for springs,
bearings, bushings, and similar fittings, and is particularly common in
the bearings of small electric motors. It is also widely used for cast metal
sculpture and is the most popular metal for top-quality bells and
cymbals.
Commercial bronze, otherwise known as brass, is 90 percent
copper and 10 percent zinc. It contains no tin.

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 Uses of alloys
Common uses:-

To increase hardness-copper is added to gold to increase

hardness.

To increase tensile strength-components of nickel alloy have

high tensile strength.

To modify colour-aluminium bronze alloy has beautiful golden

colour.

To lower melting point-solder metal alloy has lower melting

point than its separate components.

To resist corrosion-stainless steel alloy do not get rusted due to

its components like iron and carbon.

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USES OF ALLOYS IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES:-

Aerospace Industry:

- Titanium alloys for aircraft frames and engine components

- Nickel-based super alloys for turbine blades and engine components
- Aluminum alloys for aircraft bodies and wings

Automotive Industry:

- Steel alloys for vehicle bodies and engine components

- Aluminum alloys for engine blocks, cylinder heads, and wheels
- Titanium alloys for exhaust systems and engine components

Construction Industry:

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- Steel alloys for building frames, beams, and reinforcement
- Aluminum alloys for roofing, siding, and structural components
- Titanium alloys for high-strength fasteners and hardware

Electronics Industry:

- Copper alloys for electrical wiring and circuits

- Aluminum alloys for electronic packaging and heat sinks
- Gold alloys for electronic contacts and connectors

Medical Industry:

- Titanium alloys for surgical implants and prosthetics

- Stainless steel alloys for medical instruments and equipment
- Cobalt-chromium alloys for dental implants and prosthetics

Energy Industry:

- Nickel-based superalloys for nuclear reactor components

- Steel alloys for oil and gas pipelines and equipment
- Titanium alloys for desalination plants and heat exchangers

Other Industries:

- Jewelry Industry: gold, silver, and platinum alloys for jewelry - Sports
Industry: titanium alloys for high-performance sports equipment
- Food Processing Industry: stainless steel alloys for food processing
equipment

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Note: This is not an exhaustive list, and alloys are used in many other
industries and applications beyond those listed her

Preparation of alloys:
Alloys are prepared from the techniques of fusion, compression or
simultaneous electro deposition. Generally the components are mixed
together in proper properties in a fuse clay crucible, melted and stirred
with a piece of charcoal to avoid oxidation. The molten mixture is now
allowed to cool. When an alloy is obtained e.g. brass is prepared by above
melted.

Analysis of an alloy:
The complete analysis of an alloy involves two steps.

1.Qualitative Analysis:

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 This involves identification of the components of the alloys.

2. Quantitative Analysis:

This involves determination of the components of the alloy. It

involves the separation of the components from the alloy quantitatively
followed by determination of percentage of each component
volumetrically or gravimetrically.

In this project we will carry out qualitative analysis only.

Objectives of Project:

In this project, our aim is to know the various metals present in the given
sample of alloy.
EXPERIMENT NO:1

Aim: To analyze a sample of bronze qualitatively.

Material Requirements: China dish, test-tube funnel, filter paper and

common laboratory reagents.

Theory:
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin with the following.

Composition:

Cu 88-96% and Sn. = 4-12%.

Thus copper and zinc. Form the main constituents of bronze. Both these
metals dissolved in nitric acid.

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3 Cu + 8H++ 2NO3-3 Cu2+ + 2NO + 4H2O

4Sn+ NO3-+10 H+4 Sn+2 + NH4+ + 3H2O

(Cold and Dil. Acid)

Sn+4NO3-+4H+ H2Sn O3 + 2NO2 + H2O (Conc. Acid) (Metastannic Acid)

Excess of nitric acid is removed by heating the solution. The resulting

solution now would contain Cu+2 ions and metastannic acid. This
solution is acidified with dil. HCI and H2S gas is passed when the
sulphides of copper and tin are formed.

Cu+2 + S2- CuS (Black ppt.)

H2SnO3 + 2H2S SnS2 (Black ppt.) + 3H2O

The sulphides are separated by boiling the ppt. with yellow ammonium
sulphide when SnS2goes into solution as thiostannate where as CuS is
not affected.

SnS2 + (NH4)2S (NH4)2 SnS2 (Soluble)

Ammonium thiostannate.

CuS + (NH4)2S CuS (Unaffected)

Black ppt.

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The soluble black ppt. is tested for Cu+2 ions and the solution is tested
for Sn2+ ions as in elementary qualitative analysis.

Procedure:

1. Take about 1g. of small pieces of bronze in a china dish and add
to it 5-10 ml. of dil. ΗΝΟ3.

2. Heat the contents slowly to dissolve copper and tin completely

and then boil the contents to a paste to remove excess of HNO3.
All this is carried out in cup board.

3. Dissolve this dry mass in distilled water containing HCI (1:1) to

get a clear solution.

4. Transfer the solution in a test tube and pass H2S in excess i.e. till
the precipitation is complete. Filter and reject the filtrate.

5. Take the black ppt. in a test tube and add to it 2-3 ml. of yellow
ammonium sulphide and heat. Filter the contents. Black residue
is tested for Cu+2 ions and filtrate is tested for Sn+2ions.

6. Analysis of black residue:

• Transfer a little of the black ppt. into a test tube. Add to it 2-3 ml. of
50%. HNO3 and boil the contents of the tube. A light blue or green
sol. Indicates the presence of Cu+2. Divide this sol. Into two parts.

(a) To one part add excess of NH4OH a deep blue coloration

confirms the presence of Cu+2 ions.

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 (b) Acidify the second part with acetic acid and add K4 [Fe
(CN)6] i.e. potassium ferrocyanide solution. A reddish
brown ppt. confirms the presence of Cu+2 ions.

7. Analysis of filtrate:

Boil the filtrate with 1 ml. of dil. HCI. A yellow ppt. is obtained. Dissolve in
1 ml. conc. HCI. To this solution add 0.5 g. of zinc. Dust and boil it for 23
minutes. Filter and to filtrate add 1-2 ml. of mercuric chloride solution. A
white ppt. turning grey on standing confirms the presence of Sn+4 ions.

Result:

The given sample of bronze contains – Cu and Sn as the main

constituents.
EXPERIMENT NO:2

Aim: To analyze a sample of brass qualitatively.

Material Requirements: China dish, test-tube funnel, filter paper and

common laboratory reagents.

Theory:
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. With the following.

Composition:

Cu 60-90% and Zn. = 10-40%.

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Thus Cu and Zn. Form the main constituents of brass. Both these metals
dissolved in 50% of nitric acid due to formation of nitrates which are
soluble.

3 Cu + 8HNO3 (Dil.) 3 Cu (NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O

Or

Cu + 8H++ 2NO3-3 Cu+2 + 2NO + 4H2O

4Zn + 10HNO3 (Dil.) 4 Zn (NO2)2 + N2O + 5H2O

4Zn + 2NO3- + 10H+4 Zn+2 + N2O + 5H2O

The solution is boiled to expel the oxides of nitrogen and the

resulting solution is tested for Cu2+ and Zn+2 ions. Procedure:

1. Place a small piece of brass in a china dish and heat this with
minimum quantity of 50% HNO3 so as to dissolve the piece
completely.

2. Continue heating the solution till a dry solid residue is obtained.

3. Dissolve the solid residue in dil. HCI and filter. Add distilled water to
the filtrate.

4. Pass H2S gas through the filtrate. A black precipitate of copper

sulphide is obtained. Separate the black ppt. and keep the filtrate
for the test of Zn+2 ions Dissolve black ppt. by heating them with
50% HNO3. To this solution add ammonium hydroxide solution.
Appearance of deep blue coloration in the solution shows the
presence of copper ions in the solution.

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 5. To test Zn+2 ions, boil the filtrate to remove H2S gas, then add solid
NH4Cl to this and heat to dissolve NH4CI. Add excess of NH4OH so
that a solution is ammoniacal. Now pass H2S gas through this
ammoniacal solution. Dirty white or grey precipitation indicate
zinc. Separate the precipitates and dissolve it in minimum amount
of dil. HCI.

 Boil to expel H2S gas and add potassium Ferro cyanide solution,
white or bluish white ppt. confirm Zn+2 ions in the solution.

Result:

The given sample of brass contains copper and zinc. Metals as the main
constituents.

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 PROS OF USING ALLOYS

- Strength: Alloys are stronger than their base metals, making them
ideal for structural applications.

- Corrosion resistance: Alloys like stainless steel and titanium have

high corrosion resistance, reducing maintenance costs.

- High temperature resistance: Some alloys like nickel-based

superalloys can withstand extremely high temperatures.

- Electrical conductivity: Copper alloys have high electrical

conductivity, making them suitable for electrical applications.

- Low thermal expansion: Some alloys like Invar have low thermal
expansion, making them ideal for precision instruments.

- Magnetic properties: Some alloys like Alnico have strong magnetic

properties, making them suitable for magnetic applications.

- Aesthetics: Alloys like bronze and brass have attractive

appearances, making them suitable for decorative applications. -
Cost-effective: Alloys can be more cost-effective than using pure
metals, as they can be made with less expensive materials.

- Versatility: Alloys can be tailored to have specific properties,

making them versatile for various applications.
- Improved durability: Alloys can withstand wear and tear better
than pure metals, reducing replacement costs.

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- Enhanced weldability: Some alloys have improved weldability,
making them easier to fabricate.

 These pros make alloys widely used in various industries, including

aerospace, automotive, construction, and more.

CONS OF USING ALLOYS

- Complexity: Alloys can be complex to produce and manufacture.

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- Cost: Some alloys can be more expensive than pure metals.

- Density: Some alloys can be heavier than pure metals.

- Difficult to recycle: Alloys can be challenging to recycle and separate.

- Galvanic corrosion: Some alloys can undergo galvanic corrosion when

exposed to certain environments.

- Hydrogen embrittlement: Some alloys can be susceptible to hydrogen

embrittlement.

- Limited ductility: Some alloys can have limited ductility and flexibility.

- Magnetic interference: Some alloys can interfere with magnetic fields.

- Over-alloying: Over-alloying can lead to a loss of strength and ductility.

- Oxidation: Some alloys can oxidize and lose strength over time.

- Toxicity: Some alloys can contain toxic elements like lead, cadmium,
and chromium.

- Vulnerability to fatigue: Some alloys can be vulnerable to fatigue and

cracking under repeated stress.

 These cons highlight some of the potential drawbacks of using

alloys, and it’s important to carefully consider these factors when
selecting materials for specific applications.

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 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this project has delved into the fascinating world of alloys,
uncovering the intricacies of their constituents, properties, and
applications. Through meticulous research and analysis, it has become
evident that alloys are the backbone of various industries, providing the
necessary strength, durability, and corrosion resistance to cater to
specific needs.

This project has demonstrated a comprehensive understanding of alloys’

constituents, their effects on properties, and their significance in
realworld applications. By exploring the world of alloys, we can unlock

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new possibilities, drive innovation, and shape the future. This project
aims to contribute meaningfully to the existing body of knowledge,
inspiring further research and innovation in the field of alloys. Ultimately,
the knowledge gained from this project can be applied to develop new
materials, improve existing ones, and push the boundaries of
technological advancements. By harnessing the potential of alloys, we
can create a brighter, more sustainable future for generations to come.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
• www. Google.com
• www.Wikipedia.com
• Chat gpt4.0
• Meta AI
• class 12 NCERT textbook
• reference article from various blog

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