UNIT-II SINGLE PHASE AND TWO-PHASE SYSTEM (CL HRS-10, MARKS-14)

2.1 Characteristics gas constant and universal gas constant.

i) Boyle’s law,
ii) Charle’s law,
iii) Avogadro’s law,
i) Boyle’s law:-
- It states that volume of a given mass of a perfect gas varies inversely with absolute
pressure when temperature is constant.
1
V  P

c
V =
p
Or pv = C Distance where C is constant of proportionality.
P1V1 = P2 V2 = C
Charlie’s law:-
- This law can be define/stated in two parts.
a) It states that when the pressure of a given mass of gas is kept constant, then volume
is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
When P = Constant (C) , then V  T
V = CT
V
= C
1
V1 V2
= =C
T1 T2
b) It also states that when the volume of a given mass of gas is kept constant, the
pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
WhenV = Constant (C) then P  T
P = CT
P
= C
T
P1 P2
= =C
T1 T2
iii) Avogadro’s law:-
- Statement: It states that equal volumes of all gases contain equal number of
molecules at normal temperature and pressure.
- Avogadro’s experiment shows that the average volume of 1 kmol of any perfect gas is
22.43 m3 at standard atmospheric pressure and 0C.
- Avogadro's law (sometimes referred to as Avogadro's hypothesis or Avogadro's
principle) is an experimental gas law relating volume of a gas to the amount of
substance of gas present.
 - For a given mass of an ideal gas, the volume and amount (moles) of the gas are
directly proportional if the temperature and pressure are constant.
Relationship between universal gas constant (Ru) and characteristic gas
constant (R).
- The values of gas constant R are different for different gases. Universal gas
constant doesn’t depend on types of gases.
- For uniformity another unit of mass called Kg-mole is introduced.
- R= Characteristic gas constant = 287 J/KgK
- Ru= Universal gas constant = 8314.3 J/Kg-moleK
- R= Ru/ M, M = Molecular weight
Characteristic Gas Equation.
- For an ideal gas the equation of state or the characteristic gas equation is the relation
between pressure, volume and temperature.
- In engineering practice, pressure, volume, temperature all varies simultaneously.
- So, Boyle’s law or Charles’s law alone is not applicable, since one of three properties
is kept constant.
- In order to establish a relationship between these three properties, Boyle’s law and
Charle’s laws are combined together, which gives a general equation called
characteristic gas equation.
- According to Boyle’s law,
1
- V  …(1)
P when T = Constant
- And according to Charle’s law,
- V  T when P = Constant …(2)
- It is obvious that,
1
- V  T and P
T
- i.e. V  …(3)
P
- or PV  T
- or PV = CT where C is a constant
PV
- or T = C
P1V1 P2V2 P3V3
T3 = ….. = C
- or In general T1 = =
T2
…(2.1.4)
m3
- or Since v = Specific volume in kg
Pv
- Then equation will be, T = C …(4)
- When 1 kg of gas is considered, then the constant for the Equation (4) is written as R
and is called characteristic gas constant.
Pv
-  T = R …(5)
 - Now consider m kg of gas, multiply both sides of Equation (5) by m.
P  (m  v)
- = mR
T
- mv = V = Total volume
-  PV = mRT
- This is known as characteristic equation of an ideal gas.
kJ
- Note that, the value of R for air = 0.287
kg  K
- The constant of proportionality in characteristic gas equation is called as specific gas
constant or characteristic gas constant.
- It is denoted by symbol ‘R’.
2.2 Ideal gas processes –Isobaric, Isochoric, Isothermal, Isentropic, Polytrophic and
their representation on P-V and T-S diagrams. Determination of work, heat, internal
energy, enthalpy change. (only simple numerical based on above).
Ideal gas:
- A gas is a phase of substance whose evaporation from it liquid phase is complete and
obeys all gas laws under all condition of pressure & temperature.
- It applies for same gases within range of pressure and temperature (i.g. air, nitrogen,
O2 and H2 called ideal gas) An ideal gas obeys all the gas laws under all conditions
of pressure and temperature.
Ideal Gas Assumptions:
- Following are the assumptions made for ideal gas
a) A finite volume of gas contains large number of molecules.
b) The collision of molecules with one another and with the walls of the container is
perfectly elastic.
c) The molecules are separated by large distances compared to their own dimensions.
d) The molecules do not exert forces on one another except when they collide.
Ideal gas processes
- There is infinite variety of thermodynamic processes.
- The five important ideal gas processes commonly dealt with thermodynamic
applications are :
1. Constant volume process or isochoric process
2. Constant pressure process or isobaric process
3. Constant temperature process or isothermal process
4. Adiabatic or isentropic process
5. Polytropic process
(1) Constant volume process (Isochoric process)
- During this process, volume remains constant (V = C) and is represented on a PV-
diagram by means of vertical line as shown in figure 2.1.1.
- When unit mass of a gas is heated in a closed vessel (i.e., V = C). Since volume
remains constant, no external work is done. But as temperature of the gas increases
I.E. increases.
(a) Work done
Work done in a non-flow system =  PdV.
Here, V = C  dV = 0
 W1 – 2 = 0
(b) Heat supplied
From the First Law for a closed
system undergoing a process,
Q = U + W
In this case
Since W = 0
 Q = U
or q = u (Where q is kg)
 q = du = CV  dT
From the definition of CV, For total mass,
Q = dU = m  CV  dT Fig. : Constant volume Process

(2) Constant Pressure Process

- During this process pressure remains constant (P = C) and this process is represented
by means of a horizontal line on the PV-diagram as shown in figure.
- When a unit mass of a gas is taken in a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston and is
heated. Then the piston moves up maintaining same pressure (i.e., P = C). As the
volume of the gas increases, the work is done by the gas on the piston. As the
temperature of the gas increases, internal energy increases.
- So, heat supplied in a constant pressure heating process is utilized for two purposes
(i) For doing some external work
 (ii) (ii) For increasing the I.E. of the gas.

Fig. 2.2.3

(a) Work done

Work done in non-flow system.

W1 – 2 =  PdV
1
Since P is constant.
2
 W1 – 2 = P  dV W1 – 2 = P (V2 – V1)
1
N 2
If the pressure P is in 2 and volume is in m then the resultant unit of work will be N-
m
m or J
(b) Change in internal energy
(U) = U2 – U1
(c) Heat transferred
From the first law,
Q – W = U ; Q = U + W
or Q = dU + W ; Q = dU + P dV
 Q = dU + d (PV)… since P = C
Q = d (U + PV)
U + PV = H which is enthalpy
Q = dH ; or q = dh
Where h is enthalpy / kg
i.e. Heat supplied = Change in enthalpy
(3) Isothermal process (Constant temperature process):
- At Constant temperature process, ideal process, and piston moves very slow.
- It obeys the law PV = constant.

Fig.

- During this process, temperature remains constant (T = C). The law for the process is
PV = C and is represented by means of a curve as shown on the PV-diagram. It is
represented by means of a horizontal line on T-S diagram
(a) Work done
The work done in a non-flow system.
2
W1 – 2 =  P  dV
1
The law for the process is,
PV = C i.e. PV = P1 V1 = P2 V2 = C
 P1V1
 P = V Substitute this in Equation (2.2.1) we get,
V2
W1 – 2 = P1V1 ln V
1

P1 V1 P1
W1 – 2 = P1V1 ln P Since V = P
2 2 2

(b) Change in IE
dU = mCV dT = 0 as T = C, dT = 0
(c) Heat transferred : From the first law, for a closed system undergoing a process,
Q = U + W Q = dU + W
V2 P1
Q = 0 + W Q = W = P1V1 ln V = P1V1 ln P
1 2

(4) Adiabatic process

- During Adiabatic process, there is No heat transfer between system and surrounding,
dQ = 0.
- Piston moves very fast, entropy remains constant in ideal adiabatic process. Work is
done at the cost of internal energy. It obeys the law PV = Constant.
- process should be very fast so that there is very little time for the exchange of heat to
take place. The system for this process may be considered as piston and cylinder
mechanism.
- We know that first law for the process is,
Q – W = U Q = U + W
Q = dU + W  Q = dU + PdV
0 = CV  dT + PdV
–
 V2  P2
   =
 V1  P1

 V1  P2
 V  = P
 2 1
 
 P1V1 = P2V2

or PV = Constant
- Combining this equation with ideal gas equation, we get,

P1V1 P2V2 T1 P2V2 P2  V1 
=  = But  
T1 T2 T2 P1V1 P1 =  V2 
 –1
T2  V1  V2  V1 
T =  V   V = V 
1  2 1  2
–1
T2  V1 
= V  …(2.2.4)
T1  2
- Similarly,
1
V2  P1  
= P 
V1  2
1 –1
T2 P2  P1    P2  
 = P  P  = P 
T1 1  2  1
–1
T2  P2  
 = P 
T1  1

–1
–1
T2  V1   P2  
 = V  = P 
T1  2  1
- Now for adiabatic process (PV = C) and during this process neither heat enters the
system nor heat leaves the system.
Work done
2
Work done, W1 – 2 =  PdV
1
P2V2 – P1V1
W1 – 2 =
1–
P1V1 – P2V2
W1 – 2 =
–1
Heat supplied
Here heat supplied = 0 (Since neither heat enters nor leaves the system during the
adiabatic process).
(5) Polytropic process
Polytropic process is given by the law (PVn = C) and is represented on the PV-diagrams
as shown,

(a) Work done

Work done in a non-flow process
W1 – 2 =  PdV
For a polytropic process,
n n n
PV = P1V1 = P2V2 = C

C
P = a …(2.2.7)
V
Substituting in Equation (2.2.7), we get,
2
CdV –n 1–n 1–n 1–n
 Pdv =  V
n =CV dv = [ V ] 1 = ( V2 – V1 )

P2V2 – P1V1 P1V1 – P2V2

W1 – 2 = or …(2.2.8)
1–n n–1
Since, P1V1 = mRT1
and P2V2 = mRT2
 mR (T2 – T1)
W1 – 2 =
1–n
R (T2 – T1)
And for unit mass, W1 – 2 = …(2.2.9)
1–n

(b) Heat supplied

From the first law for closed system undergoing a process.
Q = U + W
For unit mass, q = u + w
In the differential form, q = du + w
q = du + Pdv
R (T2 – T1)
q1 – 2 = CV (T2 – T1) + [From Equation (2.2.9)]
1–n

=  CV + R  (T2 – T1) =  CV – nCV + CP – CV  (T2 – T1) since CP – CV =

 1–n  1–n 
R

=
 CP – nCV  (T – T )
 1–n  2 1
Taking CV common, we can write,

–n
q1 – 2 = CV 
CP
 1 – n  (T2 – T1), as CV = 
q1 – 2 = Cn (T2 – T1) …(2.2.10)
–n –n
Cn = CV  
Where,
 1 – n  or we can write as, Cn = – CV  n – 1 
–n
i.e. Magnitude of Cn = CV  …(2.2.11)
 n – 1  is known as polytropic specific heat.
Qu. Draw P-V and T-S chart of following gas processes.
i) Isobaric process
ii) Isothermal process
Isothermal Process:-

Difference between Isobaric & Isochoric Process

Difference between Isothermal and Adiabatic (Isochoric) process
2.3 Steam fundamentals - Applications of steam, generation of steam at constant
pressure with representation on T-H &T-S chart. Types of steam: Wet, dry,
superheated steam.
Saturated Steam
Saturated steam is the most common, especially in pharmaceutical industry applications.
Saturated steam is essentially steam at its boiling point. The most common example is steam
at atmospheric pressure. At this pressure, saturated steam would be at 212°F (100°C). As the
pressure of the steam goes up, so does its corresponding boiling point temperature. This
relationship can be seen in steam tables, which are charts of industrial steam temperature
versus pressure for saturated steam.
Superheated Steam
Superheated steam is steam that is hotter than its boiling point for a given pressure. For the
example above, superheated steam would be hotter than 212°F (100°C), but still at
atmospheric pressure.
Dry Steam
Dry steam is entirely in the vapor state, and has no liquid in it. Superheated steam is always
dry, because any liquid would be immediately heated into steam. Saturated steam can be
essentially dry, or at least dry enough to do the job! In order to keep your saturated steam
dry, it is necessary to trap it effectively so that any water is removed before the steam gets to
its use point.
Wet Steam
Wet steam is simply the opposite of dry steam. It has both liquid and vapor present. The
liquid takes up space in the flow, but does not contribute effectively to the heat transfer since
it has already given up its heat of vaporization. Unsaturated steam can also be described as
Wet Steam.
Generation of steam at constant pressure with representation on T-H &T-S chart.
(Formation of steam at constant pressure)

- Consider formation of steam from ice at -10⁰ C at atmospheric pressure of 1.01325 bar.
This is explained from stage a to stage f as shown in fig.
a-b ( Heating of ice from -10⁰C to melting point of ice) :-
- In this heating, temp of ice will increase, which can be sensed by thermometer . Therefore
it is called as ‘sensible heat’. During this heat addition, solid phase exists. This sensible
heat is denoted as ‘hi ‘
b-c (Latent heat of fusion of ice):-
- Point b is saturation state of ice. Further addition of heat will not increase the temp of ice
but ice will start converting into water. Thus b-c is transformation phase. In this region,
solid as well as liquid phase exists and heat supplied is called as ‘Latent heat’ as it is not
sensed by thermometer. It is denoted by ‘hi f ‘
c-d (Sensible heating of water from 0⁰C to saturation temp) :-
- In this region water at 0⁰C is heated to 100⁰C (Boiling point of water at 1.01325 bar.)
This change in temp is sensed by thermometer. So it is known as ‘ sensible heat’ of water.
It is denoted by hf . Here only liquid phase exist.
- Heat supplied = hf = mCp (Td -Tc) = 1 X 4.18 (100-0) =4.18 KJ/ Kg
d-e (Latent heat of vaporization of water) :-
- At point ‘d’ water is at saturation state. Further addition of heat will not increase the
temp but heat is transferred at constant temp to change the phase from liquid to
vapour (steam). This is known as ‘ Latent Heat of vaporization of water’. It is denoted
by’ hfg ‘ .From steam tables, at 1.01325 bar, hfg = 2256.9 KJ/Kg . In this region, both
liquid and vapour phase exist.
e-f (Superheating of steam):-
- At point ‘e’, steam is present in dry saturated state. It does not contain any moisture,
as all liquid is converted into steam. Further heating of steam will increase the temp of
steam, which is known as superheating. Thus, superheating is defined as heating of
steam above saturation temperature.
Types of steam: Wet, dry, superheated steam.

2.4 Use of Steam Table and Mollier’s chart, Properties of steam: Sensible, latent, total
heat, specific Volume, dryness fraction. Use of the steam table. (Only simple numerical
based on above).
What is Mollier chart {Enthalpy –Entropy ( Mollier ) diagram} and what information does it
provide ?
Enthalpy –Entropy ( Mollier ) diagram :
- The enthalpy – entropy diagram is referred as Mollier diagram. It is most commonly used
to obtain the properties of steam with reasonable accuracy, while analyzing the steady
flow devices such as a steam turbine, nozzle etc. he use of Mollier chart eliminates the
complex calculation work and it is also convenient to use .
- In the enthalpy – entropy chart, the enthalpy is plotted against entropy , The h-s chart
covers pressure range from 0.01 bar to 1000 bar and temperature up to 8000C. The lines
of constant dryness fraction are drawn in the wet region to the value less than 0.5 . The
lines of constant temperature lines are drawn in superheated region . The h-s chart does
not show the value to specific enthalpy , specific entropy and specific volume for
saturated water at pressures , which are generally associated with steam condenser.

Definitions
1. Dryness fraction (x) :- It is defined as a fraction of steam that is in vapour form in liquid vapour is
called dryness fraction.

Where x – Dryness fraction mv – mass of vapour (dry steam) contain in steam mL = mass of
water in suspension in steam
Dryness fraction is ratio of the mass of actual dry steam to the mass of wet steam.

2. Enthalpy of dry saturated steam:- It is defined as the quality of heat required to raise the
temperature of one kilogram of water from freezing point to temperature of evaporation (tsR) there
convert it into dry saturated steam at that temperature & pressure.

Where Hs enthalpy of dry saturated steam, hf = sensible heat hfg = latent heat of evaporation
The quantity of heat required to convert 1 kg of water at 00c into dry saturated steam at constant
pressure is known as enthalpy of dry saturated steam.
3. Enthalpy a superheated steam:
An amount of heat required to one kg of water from freezing temperature into super heated
steam is called enthalpy of super heated steam.

Where Hsnp = enthalpy of superheated steam hf = sensible heat hfg = latent heat, Cpsnp
= specific heat of superheated vapour Tsat – saturated temperature.
The quantity of heat required to convert 1 kg of water at 00c into superheated steam at
constant pressure is known as enthalpy of superheated steam.
4. Degree of superheat: - It is the difference between the temperature of superheated vapour
& saturation temperature corresponding at given pressure. is said to be degree of superheat.
Degree of superheat = (Tsup – Tsat)
(iv) Vacuum efficiency- It is ratio of vacuum actually present at steam inlet to condenser to
maximum vacuum which could be produced in a perfect condensing plant.
Vaccum efficiency= Actual vaccum / Ideal Vaccum