University of Jeddah

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering

Thermodynamics I (ENME 204)

ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CLOSED SYSTEMS

Fall 2022
 Chapter 4
• Moving boundary work
✓ Wb for an isothermal process
✓ Wb for a constant-pressure process
✓ Wb for a polytropic process
• Energy balance for closed systems
✓ Energy balance for a constant-pressure expansion or
compression process
• Specific heats
✓ Constant-pressure specific heat, cp
✓ Constant-volume specific heat, cv
• Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of ideal gases
✓ Specific heat relations of ideal gases
• Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of
incompressible substances (solids and liquids)

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Objectives
• Examine the moving boundary work or P dV work commonly
encountered in reciprocating devices such as automotive engines
and compressors.
• Identify the first law of thermodynamics as simply a statement of
the conservation of energy principle for closed (fixed mass)
systems.
• Develop the general energy balance applied to closed systems.
• Define the specific heat at constant volume and the specific heat at
constant pressure.
• Relate the specific heats to the calculation of the changes in
internal energy and enthalpy of ideal gases.
• Describe incompressible substances and determine the changes in
their internal energy and enthalpy.
• Solve energy balance problems for closed (fixed mass) systems
that involve heat and work interactions for general pure
substances, ideal gases, and incompressible substances.
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MOVING BOUNDARY WORK
Moving boundary work (P dV work): Quasi-equilibrium process:
The expansion and compression work A process during which the system
in a piston-cylinder device. remains nearly in equilibrium at all
times.
Wb is positive → for expansion
Wb is negative → for compression

The work associated

with a moving
boundary is called
A gas does a boundary work.
differential
amount of work
Wb as it forces
the piston to
move by a
differential
amount ds. 4
 The net work done
during a cycle is the
difference between
the work done by
the system and the
work done on the
system.

The area under the process

curve on a P-V diagram The boundary
represents the boundary work. work done
during a process
depends on the
path followed as
well as the end
states.

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Polytropic, Isothermal, and Isobaric processes
Polytropic process: C, n (polytropic exponent) constants
Polytropic
process

Polytropic and for ideal gas

When n = 1
(isothermal process)

Constant pressure process

What is the boundary

work for a constant-
volume process?

Schematic and
P-V diagram for
a polytropic
process. 7
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ENERGY BALANCE FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS
Energy balance for any system
undergoing any process

Energy balance
in the rate form

The total quantities are related to the quantities per unit time is

Energy balance per

unit mass basis
Energy balance in
differential form

Energy balance
for a cycle

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Energy balance when sign convention is used (i.e., heat input and work
output are positive; heat output and work input are negative).

Various forms of the first-law relation

For a cycle E = 0, thus Q = W. for closed systems when sign
convention is used.
The first law cannot be proven mathematically, but no process in nature is known
to have violated the first law, and this should be taken as sufficient proof.
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 Energy balance for a constant-pressure
expansion or compression process
General analysis for a closed system For a constant-pressure expansion
undergoing a quasi-equilibrium or compression process:

U + Wb = H
constant-pressure process. Q is to the
system and W is from the system.

An example of constant-pressure process

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 SPECIFIC HEATS
Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise
the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as
the volume is maintained constant.
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise
the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as
the pressure is maintained constant.

Constant-
volume and
constant-
Specific heat is the energy pressure specific
required to raise the heats cv and cp
temperature of a unit mass (values are for
of a substance by one helium gas).
degree in a specified way. 17
• The equations in the figure are valid for any substance undergoing any
process.
• cv and cp are properties.
• cv is related to the changes in internal energy and cp to the changes in
enthalpy.
• A common unit for specific heats is kJ/kg · °C or kJ/kg · K. Are these units
identical?

Formal definitions of cv and cp.

The specific heat of a substance

changes with temperature.

True or False?
cp is always greater than cv.
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INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY,
AND SPECIFIC HEATS OF IDEAL GASES

Joule showed
using this
experimental Internal energy and
apparatus that For ideal gases,
enthalpy change of
u=u(T) u, h, cv, and cp
an ideal gas
vary with
temperature only.
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• At low pressures, all real gases approach • u and h data for a number of
ideal-gas behavior, and therefore their gases have been tabulated.
specific heats depend on temperature only. • These tables are obtained by
• The specific heats of real gases at low choosing an arbitrary reference
pressures are called ideal-gas specific point and performing the
heats, or zero-pressure specific heats, and integrations by treating state 1
are often denoted cp0 and cv0. as the reference state.

Ideal-gas
constant-
pressure
specific heats
for some
gases (see In the preparation of ideal-gas
Table A–2c tables, 0 K is chosen as the
for cp reference temperature.
equations). 20
Internal energy and enthalpy change when
specific heat is taken constant at an
average value

(kJ/kg)

For small temperature intervals, the

specific heats may be assumed to vary
linearly with temperature.

The relation  u = cv T
is valid for any kind of
process, constant-
volume or not.
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Three ways of calculating u and h
1. By using the tabulated u and h data.
This is the easiest and most
accurate way when tables are
readily available.
2. By using the cv or cp relations (Table
A-2c) as a function of temperature
and performing the integrations. This
is very inconvenient for hand
calculations but quite desirable for
computerized calculations. The
results obtained are very accurate.
3. By using average specific heats.
This is very simple and certainly very
convenient when property tables are
not available. The results obtained Three ways of calculating u.
are reasonably accurate if the
temperature interval is not very
large.

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 Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
The relationship between cp, cv and R

dh = cpdT and du = cvdT On a molar basis

Specific
heat ratio

• The specific ratio varies with

temperature, but this variation is
very mild.
• For monatomic gases (helium,
argon, etc.), its value is essentially
constant at 1.667.
The cp of an ideal gas can be
determined from a knowledge of • Many diatomic gases, including air,
cv and R. have a specific heat ratio of about
1.4 at room temperature.
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INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY, AND
SPECIFIC HEATS OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
Incompressible substance: A substance whose specific volume
(or density) is constant. Solids and liquids are incompressible
substances.

The specific volumes of The cv and cp values of

incompressible substances incompressible substances are
remain constant during a identical and are denoted by c.
process.
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Internal Energy Changes

Enthalpy Changes

The enthalpy of a
compressed liquid
A more accurate relation than 32
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APPLICATION OF FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
TO NON-FLOW OR CLOSED SYSTEM
1. Reversible Constant Volume (or Isochoric) Process (v = constant) :
In a constant volume process the working substance is contained in a rigid
vessel, hence the boundaries of the system are immovable and no work can
be done on or by the system, other than paddle-wheel work input. It will be
assumed that ‘constant volume’ implies zero work unless stated otherwise.
The following figure shows the system and states before and after the heat
addition at constant volume.

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Reversible constant volume process.
Considering mass of the working substance unity and applying first law of
thermodynamics to the process

2. Reversible Constant Pressure (or Isobaric) Process (p = constant).

It can be seen from previous figure that when the boundary of the system is
inflexible as in a constant volume process, then the pressure rises when heat is
supplied. Hence for a constant pressure process, the boundary must move
against an external resistance as heat is supplied ; for instance a gas in a
cylinder behind a piston can be made to undergo a constant pressure process.
Since the piston is pushed through a certain distance by the force exerted by
the gas, then the work is done by the gas on its surroundings.
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The following figure shows the system and states before and after the heat
addition at constant pressure.

Reversible constant pressure process.

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Considering unit mass of working substance and applying first law of
thermodynamics to the process

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3. Reversible Temperature (or Isothermal) Process (pv = constant, T = constant) :

A process at a constant temperature is called an isothermal process. When a

working substance in a cylinder behind a piston expands from a high pressure
to a low pressure there is a tendency for the temperature to fall. In an
isothermal expansion heat must be added continuously in order to keep the
temperature at the initial value. Similarly in an isothermal compression heat
must be removed from the working substance continuously during the process.
The following figure shows the system and states before and after the heat
addition at constant temperature.

Reversible isothermal process. 39

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4. Reversible Adiabatic Process ( pvγ = constant) :

An adiabatic process is one in which no heat is transferred to or from the fluid

during the process. Such a process can be reversible or irreversible. The
reversible adiabatic non-flow process will be considered in this section.
Considering unit mass of working substance and applying first law to the
process

Last equation is true for an adiabatic process whether the process is reversible
or not. In an adiabatic expansion, the work done W by the fluid is at the
expense of a reduction in the internal energy of the fluid. Similarly in an
adiabatic compression process all the work done on the fluid goes to increase
the internal energy of the fluid.

For an adiabatic process to take place, perfect thermal insulation for the system must
be available.

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Reversible adiabatic process.

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The work done in an adiabatic process per kg of gas is given by W= (u1 – u2). The gain
in internal energy of a perfect gas is given by equation :

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5. Polytropic Reversible Process (pvn = constant) :

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The previous equation is true for any working substance undergoing a reversible
polytropic process. It follows also that for any polytropic process, we can write

The following relations can be derived (following the same procedure as was done
under reversible adiabatic process)

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6. Free Expansion
Consider two vessels 1 and 2 interconnected by a short pipe with a valve A, and
perfectly thermally insulated. Initially let the vessel 1 be filled with a fluid at a certain
pressure, and let 2 be completely evacuated. When the valve A is opened the fluid in 1
will expand rapidly to fill both vessels 1 and 2. The pressure finally will be lower than
the initial pressure in vessel 1. This is known as free or unresisted expansion. The
process is highly irreversible ; since the fluid is eddying continuously during the
process. Now applying first law of thermodynamics (or nonflow energy equation)
between the initial and final states,

Free expansion
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