Republic of the Philippines

COTABATO STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION - BSEd Major in Science
Sinsuat Avenue, Cotabato City 9600

“THE EARTH’S WATER: Running water, Inland water,

Ground water, and Glaciers”

Reporters:

Kadil, Aleah Ann R.

Kahar, Shaira M.

Kamsa, Farhana

Lumambas, Sittie Aisa G.

Macapanton, Abdul Azis M.

Mamasainged, Jehan B.

Masukat, Zedin C.

Asst. Prof. Elynbeth S. Pusta

Earth Science Instructor
THE EARTH’S WATER: Running water, Inland water, Ground water, and
Glaciers

1. Running Water

A stream is a body of water that flows on Earth’s surface. The word stream is
often used interchangeably with river, though rivers usually describe larger streams.

Streams provide many benefits to humans. Besides providing drinking water

and irrigation for crops, streams wash away waste and can provide electricity through
hydropower. People often use streams recreationally for activities such as swimming,
fishing, and boating. Streams also provide important habitat for wildlife.

Streams need two things to exist: gravity and water. When precipitation falls
onto the ground, some water trickles into groundwater, but much of it flows downhill
across the surface as runoff and collects into streams.

The topographic long profile or grade of an average stream is concave-

upwards. At their headwaters, the grade of a stream is usually steep. As streams get
closer to sea-level, the angle of the grade becomes more gently sloping. Near the
mouth of the stream, the grade becomes almost flat. The grade of a stream develops
over thousands and sometimes millions of years. It is an equilibrium process that
attempts to reduce topographic bumps in the long profile through erosion and
deposition. This process is without end as crustal uplift, due to plate tectonics, is
always modifying the topographic nature of the Earth's landscape.

Upper course

This is where the river starts and is usually an upland area. Slopes are steep -
this can increase the velocity of the river after heavy rainfall, when discharge is high.
The river channel is narrow and shallow here. The river's load is large in the upper
course, as it hasn't been broken down by erosion yet. When discharge is high vertical
erosion erodes the river bed and larger sediments are transported by traction.

Mid-course

Here the gradient becomes less steep. The river channel gets deeper and wider
as the bed and banks are eroded. The sediment load of the river gets smaller in size.
Small meanders and a small floodplain can be found in this part of the river.

Lower course

The final course of the river is where the land is a lot flatter. The river's load
is fine sediment, as erosion has broken down the rocks. The river channel is at its
widest and deepest as it flows towards its mouth. Deposition is the main process in
this part of the river, which creates large floodplains and deltas.

STREAM FLOW

Water within streams can come from many different locations, including the
ground below the stream, melting snow or rainfall. These different sources can
influence how the water flows within the stream, especially the speed of the
water. Streamflow can also be influenced by what is physically found within the
stream. Objects in the stream can influence the speed and direction of the flowing
water. Streamflow is often characterized by the water velocity, which is the speed at
which something moves, and the direction of the flow. Based on these characteristics,
water in steams can be classified as laminar, turbulent, helical or overbank flow.

 Laminar flow - water flow in the stream is not altered in its direction. Water
flows as parallel molecular streams.
 Turbulent flow - water flows as discrete eddies and vortices. Caused by
channel topography and friction.
 Helical flow - spiral flow in a stream. Caused by channel shape. Meandering
channels cause this type of flow. Helical flow has an important role in
sediment transport and deposition, and in the creation of point bars.
 Finally, flow is not always contained within the stream channel. During periods
of high stream discharge overbank flow may occur. Overbank flow or flooding
involves the spilling of water over the stream's banks and onto the floodplain.

BASE LEVEL

A stream of water stops flowing when it reaches the lowest level is called base
level. In hydrology and geomorphology, the term base level is the limit below which
flow of water cannot erode. In other words, the stream of water cannot cut deeper than
its base level; therefore, its energy goes into cutting its banks sideways. As a result,
the stream meanders, gradually widening its valley. For example – If River drained its
water to the sea, then its base level is sea level. If lake enters a river, then the river
level acts as a temporary base level for all the parts of the lake.

STREAM VALLEY

Next time you see a stream or river, take a minute and observe the water. Look
at how fast the water is moving, the direction of the water, and how it has shaped the
landscape around the waterway. Running water is very powerful and has the ability to
drastically change the landscape around it. Most changes to the land are due to
erosion, which is the movement of broken-down rock or soil from one place
to another. The running water of a stream helps move particles from their original
location to new areas.

Valleys are depressed areas of land–scoured and washed out by the conspiring
forces of gravity, water, and ice. Some hang; others are hollow. They all take the form
of a "U" or "V."

Rivers and streams make most primary valley cuts, carving steep-walled sides
and a narrow floor that from afar looks like the letter "V." The gradient of the river—
how quickly it drops—helps define the steepness of the sides and the width of the
floor. Mountain valleys, for example, tend to have near-vertical walls and a narrow
channel, but out on the plains, the slopes are shallow and the channel is wide.

The erosion and transport of rock and sediment by a stream defines the shape and
extent of its valley. V-shaped valleys and wide valleys with flat floors are the most
common varieties.
Downcutting

A valley is the result of downcutting, whereby a stream's channel erodes directly

downward. As downcutting continues, erosion and mass wasting begin to work on
the exposed, vertical sides of the channel, eroding them into slopes and widening the
valley.

Dynamic External Forces

Water resources face a host of serious threats, all caused primarily by human
activity. They include pollution, climate change, urban growth, and landscape changes
such as deforestation. Each of them has its own specific impact, usually directly on
ecosystems and in turn on water resources.

 Damming – Obstructing the flow of a river or stream for energy production Dams
can obstruct the path of migratory fish and disrupt the life cycle of many different
aquatic organisms, to create a lake, or to control the levels of the water. Damming
can be a great renewable resource for power, but it may destroy river ecosystems
downstream. Damming can also be an effective flood control measure to ensure
towns and neighborhoods are safe.
 Channelizing – Modifying a stream or river into a pattern other than what may be
its natural meandering. This can have a major effect on floodplains. River
channelization involves modification, usually by engineering methods, for the
purposes of flood control, drainage, navigation, and prevention of erosion. The
river channel is deepened and widened by dredging, which destroys benthic
habitat. In the latter, the streambed is sometimes straightened and “paved”
to increase the capacity of the stream to transport water downstream. These
processes change the flow regime of the stream favoring species that tolerate
faster, turbulent currents, and excluding others.
 Dumping – Discarding materials into a river. Any chemical, such as car oil or
antifreeze, poured down a storm drain will flow directly into the river. Illegal waste
has hazardous substances and chemicals that could cause damage to the soil, the
air, and the surrounding groundwater. This water can be carried to water sources
that is used for drinking. Improper disposal of materials can pollute natural habitats
and cause death to life in a wide area.

PARTS OF A RIVER

Headwaters

All rivers have a starting point where water begins its flow. This source is called
a headwater. The headwater can come from rainfall or snowmelt in mountains, but it
can also come from groundwater or form at the edge of a lake or large pond.

A waterfall is a river or other body of water's steep fall over a rocky ledge into a
plunge pool below. Waterfalls are also called cascades. A stream's velocity increases
as it nears a waterfall, increasing the amount of erosion taking place. The movement
of water at the top of a waterfall can erode rocks to be very flat and smooth. Rushing
water and sediment topple over the waterfall, eroding the plunge pool at the base. The
process of erosion, the wearing a way of earth, plays an important part in
the formation of waterfalls. Waterfalls themselves also contribute to erosion because
of the hydraulic action or the force of the water as it goes down.

A tributary is a freshwater stream that feeds into a larger stream or river. The
larger, or parent, river is called the mainstem. The point where a tributary meets the
mainstem is called the confluence. Tributaries, also called affluents, do not
flow directly into the ocean.

Most large rivers are formed from many tributaries. Each tributary drains a
different watershed, carrying runoff from that area. Each tributary's watershed makes
up the larger watershed of the mainstem. A great example is the Pulangi river joining
Rio Grande Mindanao or Mindanao River.

The opposite of a tributary is a distributary. A distributary is a stream that

branches off and flows apart from the mainstem of a stream or river. The process is
called river bifurcation.
 A marsh is a type of wetland, an area of land where water covers ground for long
periods of time. Unlike swamps, which are dominated by trees, marshes are usually
treeless and dominated by grasses and other herbaceous plants. Marsh grasses and
other herbaceous plants grow in the waterlogged but rich soil deposited by rivers. The
plants roots bind to the muddy soil and slow the water flow, encouraging the spread of
the marsh. These watery pastures are rich in biodiversity. Marshes are also common
in deltas, where rivers empty into a larger body of water. Although all are
waterlogged and dominated by herbaceous plants, they each have unique ecosystems.

An oxbow lake starts out as a curve, or meander, in a river. A lake forms as the
river finds a different, shorter, course. The meander becomes an oxbow lake along the
side of the river. Oxbow lakes usually form in flat, low-lying plains close to where the
river empties into another body of water. On these plains, rivers often have wide
meanders. Meanders that form oxbow lakes have two sets of curves: one curving
away from the straight path of the river and one curving back. Erosion and deposition
eventually cause a new channel to be cut through the small piece of land at the narrow
end of the meander. The river makes a shortcut. Oxbow lakes are the remains of the
bend in the river. There is no stream or spring feeding the lake, and it doesn’t have a
natural outlet. Oxbow lakes often become swamps or bogs, and they often dry up as
their water evaporates. Oxbow lakes can be rich wildlife habitats.

Meander is the curve of the river. The formation of a meander. As the river
erodes laterally, to the right side then the left side, it forms large bends, and then
horseshoe-like loops called meanders. The formation of meanders is due to both
deposition and erosion and meanders gradually migrate downstream. A floodplain
(or floodplain) is a generally flat area of land next to a river or stream. It stretches
from the banks of the river to the outer edges of the valley. A floodplain consists of
two parts. The first is the main channel of the river itself, called the floodway.
Floodways can sometimes be seasonal, meaning the channel is dry for part of the
year. Beyond the floodway is the flood fringe. The flood fringe extends from the outer
banks of the floodway to the bluff lines of a river valley. Bluff lines, also called valley
walls, mark the area where the valley floor begins to rise into bluff's There are two
major processes involved in the natural development of floodplains: erosion and
aggradation. The erosion of a floodplain describes the process in which earth is worn
away by the movement of a floodway. Aggradation (or alluviation) of a floodplain
describes the process in which earthen material increases as the floodway. deposits
sediment. A river erodes a floodplain as it meanders, or curves from side to side.

Deltas are wetlands that form as rivers empty their water and sediment into
another body of water, such as an ocean, lake, or another river. Although very
uncommon, deltas can also empty into land. A river moves more slowly as it nears its
mouth, or end. This causes sediment, solid material carried downstream by currents,
to fall to the river bottom. As silt builds up, new land is formed. This is the delta. A
delta extends a river's mouth into the body of water into which it is emptying. Like
most wetlands, deltas are incredibly diverse and ecologically important ecosystems.
Deltas absorb runoffs from both floods (from rivers) and storms (from lakes or the
ocean). Deltas also filter water as it slowly makes its way through the delta's
distributary network. This can reduce the impact of pollution flowing from upstream.

Deltas are also important wetland habitats. Plants such as lilies and hibiscus grow
in deltas, as well as herbs such as wort, which are used in traditional medicines. Many
animals are indigenous to the shallow, shifting waters of a delta. Fish, crustaceans
such as oysters, birds, insects, and even apex predators such as tigers and bears can be
part of a delta's ecosystem. Not all rivers form deltas. For a delta to form, the flow of
a river must be slow and steady enough for silt to be deposited and build up.

An estuary is an area where a freshwater river or stream meets the ocean. When
freshwater and seawater combine, the water becomes brackish, or slightly salty. An
estuary may also be called a bay, lagoon, sound, or slough. Water continually
circulates into and out of an estuary. Tides create the largest flow of saltwater, while
river mouths create the largest flow of freshwater. When dense, salty seawater flows
into an estuary, it has an estuarine current. High tides can create estuarine currents.
Saltwater is heavier than freshwater, so estuarine currents sink and move near the
bottom of the estuary. These are also habitats that include oyster reefs, coral reefs,
rocky shores, submerged aquatic vegetation, marshes, and mangroves. There are also
different animals that live in each of these different habitats. Fish, shellfish, and
migratory birds are just a few of the animals that can live in an estuary.

Mouth is the place where a river enters a lake, larger river, or the ocean. The
mouth of a river is often a good place for fishing. Along with the alluvium, a river
flushes many different species into the lake or sea. Many major port cities have been
built at river mouths. The abundant wildlife and natural transportation often create
dynamic harbors and ports

A long profile is a line representing the river from its source (where it starts) to
its mouth (where it meets the sea). A river changes with increasing distance
downstream from its source towards its mouth. It moves through its upper course, to
its mid- course and finally into its lower course.

RIVER PROCESSES

 Hydraulic action - This is the sheer power of the water as it smashes against the
river banks. Air becomes trapped in the cracks in the rock of the river bank and
bed, and causes the rock to break apart.
 Abrasion - When pebbles grind along the river bank and bed in a sand-papering
effect.
 Attrition - When rocks that the river is carrying knock against each other. They
break apart to become smaller and more rounded.
 Solution - When the water dissolves certain types of rocks, e.g. limestone.

2. INLAND WATER

What is Inland Water?

Inland water refers to bodies of water that are located within the landmass,
such as lakes, rivers, and ponds. These bodies of water play a vital role in the
ecosystem, providing habitats for various species of plants and animals. They also
serve as sources of freshwater for drinking, irrigation, and industrial use.

Additionally, inland water bodies offer recreational opportunities like

swimming, boating, and fishing. The study of inland waters, is the scientific discipline
focused on all inland waters of the Earth.

The study of Freshwater ecology are divided into two groups:

 Lentic systems are diverse, ranging from a small, temporary rainwater pool a
few inches deep to Lake.
 Lotic is nothing but the running water series are included all forms of inland
waters in which the entire water moves continuously in a definite direction.
  Importance of Inland Water

•These water bodies provide habitats for various

organisms.

•Their water is used for irrigation in agricultural lands and

serves as a source of water for industrial use.

Categories of Inland Water

• Lakes

A lake is a body of water that is surrounded by land.

There are millions of lakes in the world. They are found on
every continent and in every kind of environment—in
mountains and deserts, on plains, and near seashores. Lakes
vary greatly in size.

• Rivers

A river is a ribbon-like body of water that flows downhill from the force of
gravity. A river can be wide and deep, or shallow enough for a person to wade across.
A flowing body of water that is smaller than a river is called a stream, creek, or brook.

• Ponds

A pond is a relatively small body of surface

water surrounded by land. Surface water is perched
above ground, as opposed to groundwater, which is
underground.

.
Benefits of Inland Water

 Cheaper operating cost and relatively lesser fuel consumption

 Less polluting mode of transportation
 Lesser requirement of land relative to other modes of transportation
 More environment friendly mode of transportation
 Moreover, waterways can be used for recreational purposes such as
boating and fishing.

Advantages of Inland Water

 Massive size of goods and products can be transported with great ease using
inland waterways.
 It needs small lands.
 It causes the minimum environmental pollution including noise pollution
and CO2 emission in comparison with other modes of transportation.
 It has high labor productivity per unit of transport output.

Disadvantages of Inland Water

 Navigation becomes difficult during the monsoons.

 The fear of ships sinking is always a concern.
 It is a slow means of transport.
 It is not suitable for small businesses.
 The goods have to be loaded at the specific places due to the difference in
depth and water volumes.

3. Ground water

Ground Water lies beneath the ground surface, filling pores in

sediments and sedimentary rocks and fractures in other rock
types. Represents 0.6% of the hydrosphere (35x the water in all
lakes and rivers combined). Resupplied by slow infiltration of
precipitation. Generally cleaner than surface water accessed by
wells.
Porosity and Permeability
 Porosity - the percentage of rock or sediment that consists of voids or
openings Measurement of a rock’s ability to hold water Loose sand has ~30-
50% porosity Compacted sandstone may have only 10-20% porosity
 Permeability - the capacity of a rock to transmit fluid through pores and
fractures Interconnectedness of pore spaces Most sandstones and
conglomerates are porous and permeable Granites, schists, unfractured
limestones are impermeable

The Water Table

Subsurface zone in which all rock openings are filled with water is the
phreatic, or saturated zone. Top of the saturated zone is the water table. Water level at
surface of most lakes and rivers corresponds to local water table. Above the water
table is an unsaturated region called the vadose zone. A perched water table is above
and separated from main water table by an unsaturated zone. Commonly produced by
thin lenses of impermeable rock (e.g., shales or clays) within permeable ones

Ground Water Movement

Movement of ground water through pores and fractures is relatively slow (cms
to meters/day) compared to flow of water in surface streams Flow velocities in
cavernous limestones can be much higher (kms/day) Flow velocity depends upon:
Slope of the water table Permeability of the rock or sediment

Aquifers and Aquitards

 Aquifer - body of saturated rock or sediment through which water can move
easily Sandstone Conglomerate Well-jointed limestone Sand and gravel
Highly fractured volcanic rock
 Aquitard - rock/sediment that retards ground water flow due to low porosity
and/or permeability Shale, clay, unfractured crystalline

Unconfined vs. Confined Aquifers

 Unconfined Aquifer Has a water table, and is only partly filled with water
rapidly recharged by precipitation infiltrating down to the saturated zone.
 Confined Aquifer Completely filled with water under pressure (hydrostatic
head) Separated from surface by impermeable confining layer/aquitard very
slowly recharged.

Wells
 Well - a deep hole dug or drilled into the ground to obtain water from an
aquifer. For wells in unconfined aquifers, water level before pumping is the
water table Water table can be lowered by pumping, a process known as
drawdown Water may rise to a level above the top of a confined aquifer,
producing an artesian well
Springs
 Spring - a place where water flows naturally from rock or sediment onto the
ground surface Ground Water Contamination Infiltrating water may bring
contaminants down to the water table, including (but not limited to):
Pharmaceuticals Pesticides/herbicides Fertilizers Feed lots Mercury and gold
mining Landfill Pollutants Heavy Metals Bacteria, viruses and parasites from
sewage Industrial chemicals (PCBs, TCE) Acid mine drainage Radioactive
Waste Oil and gasoline.

4. Glacier

A glacier is a large, perennial accumulation of

crystalline ice, snow, rock, sediment, and often liquid water
that originates on land and moves down slope under the
influence of its own weight and gravity.

Glaciers are moving bodies of ice that can change

entire landscapes. They sculpt mountains, carve valleys, and
move vast quantities of rock and sediment. In the past, glaciers have covered more
than one third of Earth's surface, and they continue to flow and to shape features in
many places.

The dynamic nature of glaciers strongly influences the hydrologic, geologic,

and ecological systems in the environments in which they exist. Glacier change is
important because it provides basic data for understanding and assessing past, current,
and possible future conditions of the local, regional, and global environment. The
geologic monitoring manual provides methods to establish the status and trends of
geologic resources within dynamic ecosystems.

Features of Glacier

U-shaped valleys, hanging valleys, cirques, horns, and aretes are features
sculpted by ice. The eroded material is later deposited as large glacial erratics, in
moraines, stratified drift, outwash plains, and drumlins. Varves are a very useful
yearly deposit that forms in glacial lakes.
Development of Glacier

A glacier forms when snow accumulates over time, turns to ice, and begins to
flow outwards and downwards under the pressure of its own weight.

Snow into ice. Snow turns into glacial ice because of the pressure from
overlying layers of snow. The increased weight compacts the delicate snowflakes and
collapses pockets of air. The snowflakes become rounded granules called firn, which
are held loosely together by new ice that acts as a cement. The greater the overlying
weight, the greater the amount of compaction and recrystallization that leads to the
development of thick slabs of glacial ice.

Wasting and calving. As its mass increases, a glacier begins to move

downslope, or flow, under the influence of gravity. It commonly picks up loose rock
and sediment or breaks off pieces of the irregular rocky surface. When glacial ice
reaches its point of farthest advance, it is wasted, or ablated, through melting. A small
amount of the ice evaporates directly into the atmosphere from the warmed surface of
the glacier. Large blocks of ice may break off, or calve, from the glacial face and
plunge into the water of a lake or ocean as an iceberg. In extremely cold climates,
most glaciers lose their ice through calving.

Geological Action of Glaciers

Glaciation: is the modification of the land surface by the action of glaciers.

Glaciations have occurred so recently in N. America and Europe, that weathering,
mass wasting, and stream erosion have not had time to alter the landscape. Thus,
evidence of glacial erosion and deposition are still present. Since glaciers move, they
can pick up and transport rocks and thus erode. Since they transport material and can
melt, they can also deposit material. Glaciated landscapes are the result of both glacial
erosion and glacial deposition. Glacial Erosion

 Glacial Erosion - Erosional landforms are formed by removing material. The

internal pressure and movement within glacial ice cause some melting and
glaciers to slide over bedrock on a thin film of water. Glacial ice also contains a
large amount of sediments such as sand, gravel, and boulders. Together, the
movement plucks off bedrock and grinds the bedrock producing a polished
 surface and fine sediment called rock flour as well as other poorly-sorted
sediments.

Small Scale Erosional Features

 Glacial striations – long parallel scratches and

grooves that are produced at the bottom of
temperate glaciers by rocks embedded in the ice
scraping against the rock underlying the glacier.
 Glacial polish – rock that has a smooth surface
produced as a result of fined grained material
embedded in the glacier acting like sandpaper on the
underlying surface.

Landforms Produced by Mountain Glaciers

 Cirques – bowl shaped depressions that occur at the

heads of mountain glaciers that result form a
combination of frost wedging, glacial plucking, and
abrasion. Sometimes small lakes, called tarns occur in
the bottom of cirque.
 Glacial Valleys – Valleys that once contained glacial
ice become eroded into a “U” shape in cross section.
Stream erosion, on the other hand, produces valleys
that are “V” shaped in cross section.
 Arêtes – If two adjacent valleys are filled with glacial ice, the ridges between
the valleys can be carved into a sharp knife-edge ridge, called an arête.

 Horns – Where three or more cirques are carved out of

a mountain, they can produce a sharp peak called a
horn.
 Hanging Valleys – When a glacier occupying a smaller
tributary valley meets the larger valley, the tributary
glacier usually does not have the ability to erode its
base to the floor of the main valley. Thus, when the
 glacial ice melts the floor of the tributary valley hangs above the floor of the
main valley and is called a hanging valley. Waterfalls generally occur where
the hanging valley meets the main valley.
 Fjords – Fjords are narrow inlets along the seacoast that were once occupied
by a valley glacier, called a fjord glacier.

 Glacial Deposits

Since glaciers are solid they can transport all sizes of sediment, from huge house-
sized boulders to fine-grained clay sized material. The glacier can carry this material
on its surface or embedded within it. Thus, sediment transportation in a glacier is very
much different than that in a stream. Thus, sediments deposited directly from melting
of a glacial can range from very poorly sorted to better sorted, depending on how
much water transport takes place after the ice melts. All sediment deposited as a result
of glacial erosion is called Glacial Drift.

Ice Laid Deposits

 Till - nonsorted glacial drift deposited directly from ice. Till consists of a
random mixture of different sized fragments of angular rocks in a matrix of
fine grained, sand- to clay-sized fragments that were produced by abrasion
within the glacier. This fine-grained material is often called rock flour because
it is really ground up rock. A till that has undergone diagenesis and has turned
into a rock is called a tillite.
 Erratics - a glacially deposited rock or fragment that now rests on a surface
made of different rock. Erratics are often found many kilometers from their
source, and by mapping the distribution pattern of erratics geologists can often
determine the flow directions of the ice that carried them to their present
locations.
 Moraines - are deposits of till that have a form different from the underlying
bedrock. Depending on where it formed in relation to the glacier moraines can
be:
 o Ground Moraines - these are deposited beneath the glacier and result in
a hummocky topography with lots of enclosed small basins.
o End Moraines and Terminal Moraines are deposited at the low
elevation end of a glacier as the ice retreats due to ablation (melting)
o Lateral Moraines are deposits of till that were deposited along the sides
of mountain glaciers.
o Medial Moraines - When two valley glaciers meet to form a larger
glacier, the rock debris along the sides of both glaciers merge to form a
medial moraine. These black streaks in an active glacier, as well as the
deposits left behind after the ice melts are called medial moraines.
 Glacial Marine drift - Glaciers that reach the oceans or even lakes, may calve
off into large icebergs which then float on the water surface until they melt.
Upon melting, the rock debris that they contain becomes immediately
deposited on the sea floor or lakebed as an unsorted chaotic deposit.
Sometimes single large rock fragments fall out on the floor of the water body,
and these are called drop stones.

Other Consequences of Glaciation

Ice Loading and Glacial Rebound

One of the biggest effects of any glacier on the planet requires no movement at
all, just weight. The Antarctic ice cap is so heavy that it compresses the Earth at the
south pole. As a result, Earth is slightly pear-shaped, with the south pole flatter than
the north pole.

 Isostatic Depression – Glaciers pressed down on the crust, which forces some
liquid in the earth’s mantle out of the way.
 Isostatic Rebound - the mantle will gradually refill the space and push the
crust back up into its original position, if the glacier later recedes. And this can
take a thousands of years.

Sea Level Changes

 During glacial periods much sea water was tied up in glaciers so sea level was
lower.

 during interglacial periods sea level was higher due to melting of the ice.
Ice Dams, Drainage Reversals, and Lakes

When glacial ice forms, it can block existing drainages causing the formation of new
lakes and forcing streams to find new pathways that develop into new drainage
networks. Once the ice melts, the new drainage network become well established and
the old drainage networks are often abandoned.

References:

Lutgens, F. K, Tarbuck, E. J., & Tasa, D. G. (2016). Foundations of earth science (8th
ed.). Pearson.

Plummer, Charles C., MeGeary, David, Carlson, Diane H. (2005). Physical Geology.
McGraw Hill Co., Inc.

Angelier, E. (2019). Ecology of streams and rivers. CRC Press.

Giller, S. and B. Malmqvist. 1998. The Biology of Streams and Rivers. Oxford
University Press, Oxford. Pp. 296

https://www.greenfacts.org/glossary/ghi/inland-waters.htm#:~:text=Definition%3A,wetlands
%2C%20and%20inland%20saline%20systems.

https://www.cbd.int/waters/inland-waters

https://www.slideshare.net/EftekharEmon1/physical-features-of-inland-water-environmentpdf

Ed Grabianowski & Desiree Bowie (2023). What Is a Glacier? Everything to Know

About These Ice Masses
National Park Service (2020): Glaciers and Glacial Landforms