Lecture 1 - PRELIMINARY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The use of precast concrete in construction is widely regarded as an economic, durable,

structurally sound and architecturally versatile form of construction. The precasting industry is
continuously making efforts to keep on line with the demands of modern society: economy,
efficiency, technical performance, safety, labour circumstances and environmental friendliness.

The evolution of building construction and civil engineering works during the next decades will
undoubtedly be influenced by the developments in information processing, global
communication, industrialization and automation. They are already now to a certain extent being
implemented in prefabrication. However, more has to be done, especially when looking to the
efficiency of the present building process, from the design of the construction to its finishing.
The only way to shift further from the traditional labour intensive method to a modern approach
like prefabrication would involve the application of an industrial philosophy throughout the
entire building process.

Prefabrication of concrete structures is an industrialized process with a large potential for the
future. It is often considered by uninitiated designers as a variant execution technique of cast in-
situ construction. In this approach, prefabrication means only that parts of the construction are
precast in specialized plants, to be assembled afterwards on site in such a way that the initial
concept of cast in-situ structures is obtained again. This viewpoint is false. Every construction
system has its own characteristics which to a greater or lesser extent influence the structural lay-
out, span width, stability system, etc. For the best results a design should, from the very outset,
respect the specific and particular demands of the intended structure.

1.2 OPPORTUNITIES

Compared with traditional construction methods and other building materials, prefabrication as a
construction method, and concrete as a material, have a number of positive features. It is an
industrialized way of construction, with inherent advantages:

• Factory made products

The only way to industrialize the construction business is to shift the work from the site to
modern permanent factories. Factory production means rational and efficient manufacturing
processes, skilled workers, repetition of actions, quality surveillance, etc. Competition and
social environment are forcing the industry to continuously strive for improvement of
efficiency and working conditions through development and innovation of products, systems
and processes. Automation is gradually being implemented. Examples exist already in the
domain of preparation of the reinforcement, assembly of moulds, concrete casting, surface
finishing of architectural concrete and so on. Other operations will follow.

• Optimum use of materials

Prefabrication has much greater potential for economy, structural performance and durability
than cast in-situ construction because of the higher potential and optimal use of materials. This
is obtained through modern manufacturing equipment and carefully studied working
procedures.

Precasting works use computer controlled batching and mixing equipment. Additives and
admixtures are used in the mix design to obtain the specific mechanical performances, needed
for each product. Casting and compaction of the concrete is performed in indoors working
conditions, with optimum equipment. The water content can be reduced to a minimum, and
This design handbook is only for persons who are professionals in designing of prefabricated concrete structures. In all cases only the user is responsible for the
calculations. The design handbook makers shall not be liable for direct, consequential or incidental damages or for loss of profits or for any claim or demand by the
user or any third party arising out of the use of this design handbook.
 compaction and curing are done in controlled circumstances. The result is that the grade of
concrete used can be exactly suited to the requirements of each type of component in order to
expedite the use of more expensive and exhaustible materials. In addition, the mix efficiency
is better than cast in situ concrete.

High performance concrete, with cylinder strength exceeding 100 N/mm² is well known in
prefabrication and most factories are using it daily. The major benefit for building structures
concerns the improved structural efficiency enabling more slender products and optimum use
of materials. Another positive property is the improved durability against frost and chemicals.
The best advantages are achieved for vertical components, especially load bearing columns.
Figure 1.1 shows the influence of the compressive strength on the load bearing capacity of
different column cross-sections. It demonstrates that the load bearing capacity is increasing by
100% to 150% when the concrete strength goes from 30 to 90 N/mm².

Columns without danger of buckling

2,25 200/200 w ith 4-Ø20

Relative load carrying capacity

300/300 w ith 4-Ø25

2,00 400/400 w ith 4-Ø25

1,75

1,50

1,25 Calculated according to NS 3473

1,00
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Concre te grade according to EC2

Fig.1.1 Relative load bearing capacity of columns in relation to concrete strength

For beams, the higher concrete strength enables to use a greater prestressing force. This means
more prestressing strands and consequently a higher ultimate bending capacity, a higher
cracking moment and thus a higher allowable loading.

Self-compacting concrete is a new and very promising solution for prefabrication. Whereas
high strength concrete essentially focuses on improved product performances (strength and
durability), self-compacting concrete has also a serious beneficial impact on the production
process. Self compacting concrete needs no vibration and thus opens a lot of advantages as
low noise level during casting, less mould pressure, rapid casting, easy casting when using
dense reinforcement or when having thin or complicated cross-sections, less air pores at the
surface and easy to pump. The application of this new development in the precast concrete
industry is rapidly growing and it is expected that in a few years from now, an important
part of the daily production will be with this technique.

Prestressing is often applied in precasting, because of the possibility to use prestressing beds
and tendons anchored by bond. The latter technique gives not only all the constructional
advantages of prestressed concrete, but also economy at manufacture because of the low
labour input and the absence of expensive anchorage devices used in post-tensioning.

• Shorter construction time - less than half of conventional cast in-situ construction

This design handbook is only for persons who are professionals in designing of prefabricated concrete structures. In all cases only the user is responsible for the
calculations. The design handbook makers shall not be liable for direct, consequential or incidental damages or for loss of profits or for any claim or demand by the
user or any third party arising out of the use of this design handbook.
 Because of the slowness of traditional in-situ construction methods, long construction delays
have been accepted. Today, the demand for a speedy return on investment is becoming more
and more important: the decision to start the work is postponed until the last moment, but
the initially agreed construction delay has to be met. In addition, projects are getting more
complex, which is not in favour of short construction delays.

• Continuing erection in wintertime until -20°C

Site work stops when the temperature falls below - 5°C. Prefabrication is independent of
adverse weather conditions and production is continuing normally in wintertime.

• Quality

The term quality has a broad meaning, the final aim being to supply products and services
responding to the expectations of the customer. It starts already at the study and preparation
of the project, and continues with the production of the components and the respect of the
delays at delivery and erection.

Quality assurance during manufacture is based on 4 poles: the people, plant installations and
equipment, raw materials and operating processes, and quality control of the execution.
Quality surveillance is usually based on a system of self-control, with or without supervision
by a third party. The factory production control system consists of procedures, instructions,
regular inspections, tests and the utilization of the results to control equipment, raw
materials, other incoming materials, production process and products. The results of
inspection are recorded and available to customers. Several precasting companies have
obtained the ISO-9000 label.

Prefabrication offers the customer marked advantages with respect to exploitation, life time and
ecology, on line with the present trends in construction.

• Opportunities for good architecture

The design of the building is not fixed by rigid concrete elements and almost every building
can be adapted to the requirements of the builder or the architect. There is no contradiction
between architectural elegance and variety on the one hand and increased efficiency on the
other. The days are gone when industrialization meant large numbers of identical units; on
the contrary, an efficient production process can be combined with skilled workmanship,
which permits a modern architectural design without extra costs.

• Structural efficiency

Precast concrete offers considerable scope for improving structural efficiency. Longer spans
and shallower construction depths can be obtained by using prestressed concrete for beams
and floors. For industrial and commercial halls, roof spans can be made up to 40 m and even
more. For parking garages, precast concrete enables occupiers to put more cars on the same
space, because of the large span possibilities and more slender column sections. In office
buildings, the trend is to construct large open spaces, to be filled in with partitions. It offers
not only flexibility in the building but extends its lifetime, because of the easier adaptability.
In this way, the building retains its commercial value over a longer period.

• Flexibility in use

Certain types of buildings are frequently required to be adaptable to the user’s needs. This is
especially the case with offices. The most suitable solution to this effect is to create a large
free internal space without any restriction to possible subdivisions with partition walls.
This design handbook is only for persons who are professionals in designing of prefabricated concrete structures. In all cases only the user is responsible for the
calculations. The design handbook makers shall not be liable for direct, consequential or incidental damages or for loss of profits or for any claim or demand by the
user or any third party arising out of the use of this design handbook.
• Adaptability

In the past and still today, buildings are conceived for a clearly defined destination, without
taking much care about future evolutions and possible refurbishment. However, in the
course of time, buildings will no longer respond to the evolved user requirements, or be
suited to new destinations. Then, the only remaining solution will be a complex renovation
or to demolished the structure. Both solutions are expensive, time consuming and
environmentally unfriendly. In the future, this will become very difficult because of severe
regulations regarding noise, dust, traffic problems and many other inconveniences.

The solution to this problem lies already at the design stage of a new building. The basic
concept should facilitate ulterior renovations or re-destinations, without demolition of the
structure. The basic concept should make a clear division between the structural part of the
building and the finishing. The structural part comprises all principal functions such as load-
bearing structure, principal circulations, principal conduits, non load bearing façades, etc.
The finishing comprises the partitions, technical equipment, non load bearing façades, etc.

Today, precast concrete structures are already conceived according to this concept. One of
the basic pillars thereto are the large span capacities of beams and floors, enabling to realise
large open spaces inside the structure. More details about the application of the above design
concept are given in the following lectures.

• Fire resistant construction

Precast building structures in reinforced and prestressed concrete normally assume a fire
resistance of 60 to 120 minutes and more. For industrial buildings, all types of precast
components without any special measure meet the normal required fire resistance of 60
minutes. For other types of buildings, a fire resistance of 90 to 120 minutes is easily
obtained by increasing the concrete cover on the reinforcement.

• Environmentally friendly way of building

Preserving the environment is becoming globally increasingly important. Since some of the
most basic needs of any generation are housing and mobility, the construction sector is
placed in a central position of this development. However today most building activities are
still imposing a heavy burden upon the environment in terms of energy consumption, use of
resources, pollution, noise and waste production.

In the context of environmental friendly construction, the precast concrete industry is

showing the way: reduced use of materials up to 45%; reduced use of energy up to 30%;
reduced waste at demolition up to 40%. Several plants are recycling all fresh and hardened
concrete waste, and future precasting plants will work as a closed production system, in
which all waste material is processed and reused.

1.3 SUITABILITY OF PRECAST CONSTRUCTION

Most buildings are suitable for construction in precast concrete. Buildings with an orthogonal plan
are of course ideal for precasting, because they exhibit a degree of regularity and repetition in their
structural grid, spans, member size etc. Anyhow, when designing a building, one should always
strive for standardization and repetition in the context of economical construction, not only in
precast concrete alone, but also in any other construction system.

This design handbook is only for persons who are professionals in designing of prefabricated concrete structures. In all cases only the user is responsible for the
calculations. The design handbook makers shall not be liable for direct, consequential or incidental damages or for loss of profits or for any claim or demand by the
user or any third party arising out of the use of this design handbook.
Irregular ground layouts are on many occasions equally suitable for precasting, if not totally, then
certainly partially. It is a completely false understanding that precast concrete has no flexibility.
Modern precast concrete buildings can be designed safely and economically, with a variety of
plans (Figure 1.2) and with considerable variation in the treatment of the elevations, to heights up
to twenty to forty floors .

Fig. 1.2 Irregular ground layouts are also suitable for precast concrete construction

1.4 BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Designers should consider the possibilities, restrictions, and advantages of precast concrete, its
detailing, manufacture, transport and erection and serviceability stages before completing a design
in precast concrete. Good organization of the project team and design routines is very important.
This design handbook is only for persons who are professionals in designing of prefabricated concrete structures. In all cases only the user is responsible for the
calculations. The design handbook makers shall not be liable for direct, consequential or incidental damages or for loss of profits or for any claim or demand by the
user or any third party arising out of the use of this design handbook.
It is recommended that precast concrete organizations should make available design and
production information to the client, architect, consulting engineer, services engineers and all other
disciplines to give unified guidance to the entire design team. This will ensure that all parties are
aware of the particular methods adopted in all phases of the project, leading to maximum
efficiency and benefit. This is particular true with the manufacturing and erection stages as many
consulting engineers may not be familiar with some of the methods used.

It is also very important to realize that the best design for a precast concrete structure is arrived at if
the structure is conceived as a precast structure from the very outset and is not merely adapted
from the traditional cast in-situ method. The major beneficial advantages of a precast concrete
solution will be met when at the conceptual design stage the following points are considered:

a. Respect the specific design philosophy

One of the most important objectives of this lecture course is to explain the specific design
philosophy of precast structures, since it is the key to efficient and economical construction. The
basic guidelines to be followed are explained in Lecture 3:

• Use own stabilizing systems

• Use large spans
• Provide for structural integrity

b. Use standard solutions whenever possible

Standardization is an important economic factor in prefabrication. It enables repetition and

experience, and hence lower costs, better quality and reliability, and faster execution.
Standardization is applicable in the following areas:

• Modular design (see section 1.5)

• Standard products (see section 1.6)
• Internal standards for detailing and working procedures

c. Details should be simple

A good design in precast concrete should use details that are as simple as possible. Details that
are too elaborate or vulnerable should be avoided.

d. Take account of dimensional tolerances

Precast concrete products inevitably present differences between the specified dimensions and
the actual ones. These deviations must be recognized and allowed for in the design from the very
outset, for example:

• Possibility to absorb tolerances in the connections (both between precast units mutually, and
between precast elements and cast in-situ parts )
• Need for bearing pads
• Consequences from camber and differences in camber
• Allowance for movement, due to shrinkage, thermal expansion, etc.

e. Take advantage of the industrialization of the process

Precast concrete production should be based on industrialization. This is partly influenced by the
design, for example:

This design handbook is only for persons who are professionals in designing of prefabricated concrete structures. In all cases only the user is responsible for the
calculations. The design handbook makers shall not be liable for direct, consequential or incidental damages or for loss of profits or for any claim or demand by the
user or any third party arising out of the use of this design handbook.
• Prestressing allows long-line production;
• Standardization of components and details enables standardization of the process;
• Adequate positioning of details, e.g. waiting bars etc., decreases labour time;
• Simplicity of documents helps to avoid mistakes;
• Last minute modifications trouble the production planning, induce mistakes, etc.

1.5 MODULATION

Modulation is an important economic factor in designing and constructing buildings, both for
structural work and finishing. In prefabrication, this is even more pronounced, especially in terms
of standardization and economy at production and construction. Modulation is generally well
established for the structural components of prefabricated buildings. The basic module is usually
3M (M = 100 mm), and 6M and 12M are a widely used measurements.

Internal columns are positioned centrally on the modular axis grid. Corner columns may be
implanted with the grid axis along the face of the column, but this solution is less recommended
than the previous one. In the first solution, all beams are of the same length and the gap at the edge
of the floor with the façade can be easily filled with cast in-situ concrete or match plates.

The length of floor elements is in principle completely free. Modulation is certainly recommended,
but will have little impact of the cost of the floors. However, there might be consequences for the
modulation of the façade units.

Central cores and lift shafts are positioned so that the modular axis in the direction of the floor span
coincides with the outside of the core or shaft. In the other direction, the implantation should
preferably be such that all floor elements of the bay are of the same length.

For the façade units, the standpoint is rather different. Modulation is certainly desirable, but should
not constitute an obstacle for the architectural concept of the building. Most facades are designed as
one-off projects, for which new moulds always have to be made.

Modulation in connection with industrial production is certainly not imperative, but does have an
influence on the cost of the elements. Modulation should always be considered as an aid, not as an
obligation.

This design handbook is only for persons who are professionals in designing of prefabricated concrete structures. In all cases only the user is responsible for the
calculations. The design handbook makers shall not be liable for direct, consequential or incidental damages or for loss of profits or for any claim or demand by the
user or any third party arising out of the use of this design handbook.
 Preferably modulated on
the floor width

gemoduleerd op 0.30

Preferably modulated on n x 0.30 m

Fig. 1.3 Example of modular system for precast structures.

1.6 STANDARDIZATION

Standardization of products and processes is widely spread in prefabrication. Precast

manufacturers have standardized their components by adopting a range of preferred cross-sections
for each type of component. Standardization is generally limited to details, cross-sectional
dimensions and geometry, but seldom to the length of the units. Typical standard products for
buildings are columns, beams and floor or roof slabs.

columns roof beams floor beams floors

Fig. 1.4 Examples of standard cross-sections

Standard products are cast in existing moulds. The designer can select the length, dimensions and
load bearing capacity within certain limits. This information can be found in catalogues from the
precast element producers.

Wall elements have usually standard thicknesses but the height and width is free within certain
limits. Openings for windows and doors are normally free. Facades are always designed
individually for each project. Cladding panels for utility buildings are sometimes available in
standard dimensions.

This design handbook is only for persons who are professionals in designing of prefabricated concrete structures. In all cases only the user is responsible for the
calculations. The design handbook makers shall not be liable for direct, consequential or incidental damages or for loss of profits or for any claim or demand by the
user or any third party arising out of the use of this design handbook.
Precasters are also producing non-standard elements. In addition to the already mentioned façade
elements in architectural concrete, the precast industry produces also other purpose-designed
elements, for example stairs and landings, balconies, special shaped elements, etc.

Standardization constitutes an important economic factor in prefabrication, because of the lower

costs for moulds, industrialization of the production process with high productivity, large
experience in execution, etc. Standardization has also a beneficial impact on the series of
identical elements, resulting in a serious reduction of the labour input per produced unit. Also for
non-standard products, series are playing an important role on the production cost.

Precasters have developed design routines and organization manuals that are helping the design
staff to elaborate the projects. Standardization of systems, products, connections etc., does not
only mean industrialization of the component production, but repeated handling means also
avoiding errors and bad experiences.

1.7 DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES

There will be inevitable differences between the specified dimensions and the actual dimensions of
the components and the finished building. These deviations must be recognized and allowed for.
Precast concrete is generally manufactured with relatively small deviations, but designers should
take a realistic view of dimensional variability. It is essential to consider this from the very outset
and to discuss tolerances as early as possible with the precaster.

Tolerances are occurring at the precasting plant and on site. Production tolerances at the plant
include dimensional deviations of the products, non-linearity, non-flatness, lack of orthogonality of
the cross-section, camber deviations of prestressed elements, position of inserts, etc.

Site tolerances include deviations on the setting out of construction axes and levels. In addition,
during erection, deviations will occur with respect to position and alignment of the elements.

Information concerning allowable tolerances can be found in specific literature issued by Precast
Concrete Federations, national and international Product Standards, and catalogues from precast
element producers.

Dimensional

Production Alignment

Shape tolerances

Position tolerances
Total building Setting-out
Alignment

Positioning
Erection tolerances
Alignment

Fig. 1.5 Combination of construction tolerances

This design handbook is only for persons who are professionals in designing of prefabricated concrete structures. In all cases only the user is responsible for the
calculations. The design handbook makers shall not be liable for direct, consequential or incidental damages or for loss of profits or for any claim or demand by the
user or any third party arising out of the use of this design handbook.
1.8 BUILDING SERVICES

Building services may partly be integrated into the precast units. For example ducts, boxes or
chases for electrical fittings may be cast in the wall elements. Another example concerns internal
rainwater pipes cast into columns or facade units. Large prefabricated conduits for ventilation, and
other pipes can be installed inside double ceilings, or along projecting spandrel facade units during
the erection of the precast units.
There are certain advantages and also some specific problems. A major advantage is that the
precast structure can be designed according to the specific needs of the building equipment.
Elements can be provided with a variety of holes, fixings can be cast in the units, and a lot of
additional means are available on site after erection of the precast building.

The major difference with cast in-situ concrete lies in the fact that everything which has to be cast
into the units, has to be planned at an earlier stage. Both the architect and services engineer must be
ready to define their requirements in time for the precaster to prepare his drawings. Henceforth, the
final study of the building services has to be made earlier than usually, but this could be seen
equally well as an advantage.

Precasting offers also certain advantages with respect to building techniques. For example, thermal
mass of concrete has been used satisfactorily to store thermal energy in hollow core floors, leading
to substantial savings on heating costs. The cores in floor elements are utilized to circulate the air
for ventilation before it enters the room. In winter, the excess energy coming from machines,
electrical light, sunshine and occupants is stored during daytime and recovered during the night.
In the summer, the floors are cooled during the night by outdoor air. The system enables energy
savings of 30% and over.

Fig. 1.6 Hollow core units with internal labyrinth to circulate the air for ventilation

The cores may also be used to incorporate ducts and pipes in the floors.

This design handbook is only for persons who are professionals in designing of prefabricated concrete structures. In all cases only the user is responsible for the
calculations. The design handbook makers shall not be liable for direct, consequential or incidental damages or for loss of profits or for any claim or demand by the
user or any third party arising out of the use of this design handbook.