DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

It is the collective name used to describe the alimentary canal, some accessory organs and a
variety of digestive processes which take place at different levels in the canal to prepare food eaten in
diet for absorption.
The activities in digestive system can be grouped into 6 headings:
 Ingestion
 Secretion
 Mixing and propulsion
 Digestion
 Absorption
 Defecation
Digestive system consists of two part gastrointestinal tract and accessory digestive organs.
1. Gastrointestinal tract long tube through which food passes started from mouth and ending
at anus. It consists of:
 Mouth
 Pharynx
 Oesophagus
 Small intestine
 Stomach
 Large intestine
 Rectum
 Anal canal.
2. Accessory digestive organs various secretions are poured in gastrointestinal tract. Gastric
juice secreted are
 Salivary gland
 Liver
 Pancreas
Structure of alimentary canal:
Walls of gastroenteritis and attract has 4 layer of tissue has adventitia, mucus layer, sub
mucosal layer, mucosal layer.

ADVENTITIA:

 It consists of loose fibrous tissue. In abdomen it is covered by peritoneum.

  Peritoneum consists of small amount of serous fluid, supplied with blood and lymph vessel,
and also contain lymph node.
 Provide a physical barrier to local spread of infection. It has 2 layers parietal layer and
visceral layer.
MUSCLE LAYER:
 It consists of 2 layers of smooth involuntary muscles.
 The muscle fibres of the outer layer are arranged longitudinal and those of the inner layer
in circle the wall of the tube.
 Between those 2 muscle layers there are blood and lymphatic vessels and plexus.
 Contraction and relaxation of these muscle layers occur in a push the contents of the tract.
Onwards.
SUBMUCOSA
 Consist of loose connective tissue with some elastic fibres.
 Within this layer or plexus of blood vessel, lymph vessel, nerves and lymphoid tissue.
 Blood vessels are arterioles, ventricles and capillaries.
MUCOSA
3 layer of pursue
 Mucus membrane:
Formed by columnar epithelium, is inner most layer the inner most layer.
 Lamina propria:
Consist loose connective tissue that support the blood vessel. Varying amount of lymphoid
tissue. Protection function.
 Muscularis mucosa:
 Is the thin outer layer of smooth muscle that provide involution of the mucus layer.

SALIVARY GLANDS:
Their secretions in mouth there are 3 pair:
 Parotid gland
 Sub mandible
 Sublingual gland.
1. Parotid gland situated on each side of the face just below the external acoustic meatus. It has parotid
duct opening into mouth.
2. Submandibular gland lie each side of face under angle of their opened under floor of the mouth.
The 2 submandibular ducts are open on the floor of the mouth one on each side of the frenulum of the
tongue.
3. Sublingual gland lying under the floor of mouth in front of submandibular gland. They have
numerous small ducts that open into the floor of the mouth.
STRUCTURE:
 The glands are surrounded by a fibrous capsule.
 They consist of number of lobules and made up of acini and lined with secretory cells.
 The secretions are poured into ductless, which join up to form larger ducts and leading into the
mouth.
 The glands are supplied by parasympathetic and sympathetic nerve fibers.
 Parasympathetic stimulation increase secretion.
 Sympathetic stimulation decrease secretion.
 Arterial supply by carotid artery.
 Venus drained by external jugular vein.

Composition of Saliva:
About one and half liter of saliva produced daily.it consists of water, mineral salts, enzymes
such as salivary amylase, lysosome, blood clotting factor. pH of saliva is around 5.8 7.4
Functions of Saliva:
1. Chemical digestion of polysaccharides saliva that contains enzyme amaylase substance that
begins breakdown of complex sugar by action that's why it has acidic pH.
Saliva contain enzyme amylase that begins breakdown of complex sugar.
Optimum pH of salivary amylase is 6.8.
The enzyme action continues during swallowing until terminated by strongly acidic pH of
gastric juice.
 2. Lubrication of food Bolus is formed.
Dry food entering the mouth is moisten and lubricated by saliva before it can be made into
bolus, ready for swallowing.
3. Cleansing and lubricating due to adequate floor of the liver it is necessary to cleanse the mouth
and keep it soft and moist.
An adequate amount of saliva is necessary to cleanse the mouth and keep it tissues soft, moist
and pliable.
4. Non-specific defense, lysosome, immunoglobulin and clotting factor that compact invading
microbes.
5. Taste buds are stimulated only by chemical substance.
The dry foods stimulate the sense of taste only after thorough mixing with saliva.

Stomach:
It is a j shaped dilated portion of alimentary tract situated in epigastric, umbilical, left
hypocondrial region of abdominal cavity.

Structure:
1. Continuous with oesophagus at cardiac spinster and with duodenum at pyloric sphincter.
2. Two curvature called as greater and lesser curvature. The lesser curvature is short which lie in
the posterior surface of the stomach, just before pyloric sphincter it curve upward to complete
J shape. Where the, esophagus joins the stomach, the anterior region angle upwards, curve
downwards, and forming the greater curvature.
3. There are three parts in the stomach:
 Fundus
  Body
 Pylorus.
4. Pyloric sphincter which guards opening of the duodenum and stomach.
5. Stomach has four layers of tissue. Muscle layers of tissue are
 Outer layer of longitudinal fibre,
 Middle layer of circular fibre
 Inner layer of oblique fibre.
6. Stomach allows churning motion of gastric activity as well as peristaltic movement.
Mucosa:

 In stomach is empty the mucous membrane is arranged into four is called rugae.
 When stomach is full there are faults that are ironed out.
 Numerous gastric glands are situated or present below the surface of mucous membrane.
 Consist of specialised cells that secrete gastric issues into stomach. Sympathetic nerves causes
secretion of gastric juice and parasympathetic nerves causes opposite action.

Functions of Stomach:
 It is temporary storage of food.
 Chemical digestion such as pepsin.
 Limited absorption of water, alcohol and lipid soluble drug.
 Mechanical breakdown.
 Non-specific defense against microbes is provided by HCL in gastric juice.
 Preparatory for absorption; acid environment of stomach is essential for iron absorption.
 Production and secretion of intrinsic factor needed for absorption of vitamin B12 in ileum.
 Regulation and passage of gastric content into the duodenum.
GASTRIC JUICE
Gastric juice, about 2 litres of gastric juice are secreted daily by a special secretary gland in the
mucosa.
Composition:
 Secreted by gastric glands: water, mineral salts.
 Secreted by goblet cells in the glands: mucus.
 Secreted by parietal cells in gastric glands: HCL, intrinsic factor.
 Inactive enzyme precursor – like pepsinogen secreted by chief cells in glands.
Functions:
Water: further liquefies the food that is swallowed.

HCL:
 Acidifies the food and stops action of salivary amylase.
 Kills ingested microbes.
 provide the acid environment needed for effective digestion by pepsin
 The pepsinogen are activated to pepsin by HCL.
 The pepsin begins the digestion of proteins and breaking them into small molecules.
 The pH is 1.5 to 3.5.

Intrinsic factor: is necessary for absorption of vitamin b 12.

Mucus:

 Prevent the mechanical injury to stomach by lubricating the content.

 Act as a barrier between the stomach wall and corrosive gastric juice.

Secretion of Gastric juice:

 There is always a small quantity of gastric juice present in the stomach even when it contains
no food and it is known as fasting juice.
 The secretion reaches its maximum level about one hour after meal then decline to fasting
level after about 4 hours.
 3 phases of secretion of gastric juice :
1. Cephalic phase
2. Gastric phase
3. Intestinal phase
1. Cephalic phase :
 Flow of juice occur before the food reaches the stomach and is due to the reflex of the Vegas
nerve initiated by sight, Smell, taste and thought of having food.
2. Gastric phase :
 Stimulated by the presence of food, the entero endocrine cells in the pyloric antrum and
duodenum secrete gastrin, which stimulate the gastric glands to produce more gastric juice.
 In this way the secretion of digestive juice is continued after the completion of meal and end
of cephalic phase.
 The gastrin secretion is suppressed when the pH in pyloric antrum false to 1.5.
3. Intestinal phase:
 When partially digested contents of stomach reach the small intestine, a hormone complex,
enterogastrone which slow down the secretion of gastric juice and reduce gastric motility.

Small Intestine Structure:

 It is the next part of stomach after the pyloric sphincter and leads into large intestine through
ileocecal valve.
 It is about 5 mtr. Long and lie in abdominal cavity surrounded by large intestine.
 Chemical digestion of food is completed and absorption of nutrients takes place in small
intestine.
 There are three main sections of small intestine;
i. Duodenum
 Is about 25cms long and curve. Around the head of the pancreas
 Secretions from pancreas and gall bladder are released into the duodenum through
hepatopancreatic ampulla.
 It is guarded by hepatopancreatic sphincter.
ii. Jejunum
 It is the middle secretion of the small intestine.
 It is about 2 metres long.
iii. Ileum
 It is about 3 metres long and ends at ileocecal valve which control the flow of
material from ilium to cecum.
Structure:
1. The walls of small intestine has 4 layers.
2. Double layer of peritoneum called as mesenteric attack, jejunum and ileum to posterior
abdominal valve.
3. Mucosa is present which is increased by circular faults called as villi or microvilli.
4. The villi are tiny finger like projections which increase the absorption rate which is present in
human about 5 to 1 micro-meter long the walls consists of enterocytes which are having tiny
microvilli.
5. Goblet cells secrete mucus epithelial cells enclose the network of blood and lymph capillaries.
6. These epithelial cells encloses a network of blood vessels and lymph capillaries.
7. Lymph capillaries are called lacteals.
8. Absorption and final stage of final digestion of nutrients are in enterocytes.
9. Intestinal gland that are below the surface between villi and hence epithelium is replaced by
every 3 to 5 days.
10. More lymph nodes are found in the mucosa throughout the length of the small intestine.
Functions of Small intestine:
1. Onward movement of content that is called as peristalsis.
2. Secretion of intestinal juice.
3. Chemical reactions are done here such as fats, carbohydrates, proteins.
4. Protection from microbes against bacteria as our bacteria by lacteals.
5. Secrete hormones called as CCK and secretin.
6. Absorption of nutrients.
Large intestine:
It is about 1.5 metres long.It begins at cecum in ilial fossa and terminate at rectum and anal canal.
The lumen is longer than small intestine for descriptive purpose large Intestine is divided into:
1. Caecum
 It is the first part of the colon.
 Dilated region.
 13 centimetres long
2. Ascending colon
 Pass upward from the caecum to the level of the liver.
3. Transverse colon
 Loop of colon which extend across the abdominal cavity.
 4. Descending colon
 It passed down the left side of the abdominal cavity.
5. Sigmoid
 It describes as an S shaped curve and continues downward to become rectum.
6. Rectum.
 Slightly dilated section of colon and is 13 centimetres long.
7. Anal canal
 Short passage and about 3.8 centimetres long in adult.
 2 sphincter muscles control the anus: Internal sprinter and external printer.
Structure:
 Arrangement longitudinal muscle fibers is modified part of colon.
 They have formation of three bands called Tania coli.
 Submucosal layer have more lymphoid tissue.
 Upper region of rectum has Goblet cells, which form tubular glands that secrete mucus.
 Lining membrane consists of stratified squamous epithelium and merge at anal spincter.
 Blood supply of superior and inferior mesenteric artery.
 The lining membrane of anus consists of stratified squamous epithelium and merge with the
skin beyond the external sphincter.
 Blood supply by superior and inferior mesenteric arteries and Venus return by superior and
inferior mesenteric veins.
Functions of Large Intestine:
 Absorption of water continuous until the Semisolid feces.
 Minerals, vitamins, some drugs are absorbed into capillaries from large intestine.
 Microbial activity is also colonized by certain type of bacteria which synthesis vitamin K and
Folic acid by E.coli.
 Mass movement, no peristaltic movement is being seen in the other part of the intestine.
 GIT Only at fairly long intervals does a wave of strong peristalsis forcing the content into
descending and sigmoid colon.
 Defecation is also seen.
 Usually the rectum is empty but it force the content into rectum in infant defication occur by
reflex.

Pancreas:
It is a paired gland of weight 60 gram, long 12 to 15 situated in epigastric and left
hypochondriac region broad-head, body with tail. Head lies in curve of the duodenum, body is behind
stomach and tail lies in front of left kidney.
Structure:
 It consists of a large number of lobules made of small alveoli.
 Walls consists of secretory cells. Each lobule is drained by tiny ducts and forum pancreatic
duct hence called hepatopancreatic duct. It produce pancreatic juice that has enzyme that can
digest food.
Composition:

Water, mineral salt, enzyme such as pancreatic amylase or like lipase, trypsinogen, chymo-
trypsinogen, pepsinogen and pH is around 8.

Digestion and Absorption of Nutrients

 Carbohydrates are broken into monosaccharaides.

 Proteins are broken into amino acids.
 Fats are broken into fatty acids and glycerol.

Pancreatic juice:
It is alkaline of pH around 8. When food enter in pancreatic juice and mix with the bile it is raised to
6 to 8 pH, at this pancreatic enzyme act.
Functions:
 Digestion of protein are inactive initially but activated by enterokinase in microvilli which
convert into trypsin and chymotrypsin later into amino acid.
 Digestion of Carbohydrates which convert all polysaccharides which are not acted upon when
salivary amylase.
 Digestion of fats which convert fats to fatty acids and glycerol in aid in action of life space bile
salts emulsify the salts.

LIVER
 Largest gland in body and which is between upper part and anterior surface which are smooth
and curve to fit the under surface of diaphragm.
 It weigh between one and 2.3 KG. Situated in the upper part of the abdominal cavity occupying
the greater part of the right hypochondriac region.
 Its upper and anterior surface are smooth and curved to fit the upper surface of diaphragm
enclosed in a fibrous capsule and is completely covered by peritoneum.
 It has four lobes right and small wedge-shaped lobe quadrant and smooth quadrant. 2 are: Large
right lobe and smaller wedge shaped left lobe. Other 2 are quadrate and caudate hepatic artery
and portal vein take blood to the liver.
 Portal vein carry blood from stomach, pancreas small intestine and large intestine.
  It is supplied with sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves.
 These lobules are hexagonal in outline and are formed by cubicle shaped cells called as
hepatocytes.
 Hepatocytes are arranged in pairs of column there are sinusoids containing match mixture of
blood from portal vein and hepatic Artery.
 It allow atrial blood and venial blood to mix and come in contact with liver cells.
 Amongst that are living lying sinusoids and kupffer cells to ingest and destroy foreign particles.
 Blood drains from sinusoids into central veins and join the veins and form larger vein and
become hepatic vein.

Functions:
 Carbohydrate metabolism: Conversion of glucose to glycogen in presence of insulin and
conversion of liver glycogen to glucose in presence of glycogen.
 Fat metabolism: Conversion of stored fats to form fatty acids and glycerol to provide energy.
 Protein metabolism: Deamination is present which can remove nitrogen is path from amino
acid and help for formation of new protein. For example urea. Transamination: remove the
 nitrogenous portion of amino acids and attach it to other carbs to form new non-essential amino
acid.
 Breakdown of RBC or erythrocytes: Carried out by phagocytic kupffer cells.
Detoxification: Which includes ethanol and toxin produced by microbe. Metabolism of ethanol.
Follows consumption of alcoholic drinks, inactivation of hormones includes insulin, Glucagon,
cortisol, aldosterone, and thyroid. And sex hormones. Synthesis of vitamin A from carotene, carotene
is a pro vitamin found in some plants.
Example: carrot, green leafy vegetables.
 Production of heat: Liver has high metabolic rate and produce a great deal of heat and it is the
main heat producing organ of the body.
 Secretion of bile: Hepatocyte synthesis the components of bile from the mixed arterial and
venous blood in sinusoids.
 Storage: Stores fat soluble vitamin A, D, E, K, Iron, copper and water soluble vitamin like
riboflavin, vitamin b 12, vitamin B3, niacin, pyridoxine, folic acid.

DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS

Gastric juices:
About 2 liters of gastric juice is secreted daily by secretary clients in mucosa.
Composition: It comprises of water, mineral salts, mucus, intrinsic factor secreted by parietal cells.
Functions:
 Water present liquefy is the food HCL acid A5 the food and stop action of salivary amylase.
 Kills interested microbes.
 Pepsinogen is activated by HCL to pepsin, and pepsin begins digestion of proteins.
 Intrinsic factor responsible for absorption of vitamin B12. Mucus prevent the mechanical
injury.
 PANCREATIC JUICE
 Digestion of proteins: Trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen are inactive enzyme precursors and
activated by enterokinase into trypsin and chymotrypsin. These enzymes convert polypeptide
into tripeptide, dipeptide and amino acids.
 Digestion of carbohydrate: the pancreatic amylase convert all digestable polysaccharides into
disaccharides and monosaccharides.
 Digestion of fats: lipase convert fats to fatty acids and glycerol to aid the action of lipase bile
salts emulsify the fats.
BILE

 Secreted by liver is unable to enter duodenum when hepatopancreatic sphincter is closed.

 It passes from hepatic duct. To the gall bladder where it is stored.
 PH is 8 and between 500- 1000 ml secreted daily.
 Consist of water mineral solids as well as mucus, bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol.

Functions:

 Which like sodium taurocholate and Sodium glycolate emulsify fat in intestine.
 Bile pigments: bilirubin is the waste product of breakdown of RBC and is excreted in the bile
than urine.
 Bilirubin altered by microbes in large intestine and convert into urobilinogen and stercobilin.
 Bile salts make fatty acids soluble and ready to absorb.

Intestinal secretion

 Composed of water, mucus, mineral salts, enzyme enterokinase activate trypsin which convert
polypeptide to amino acid. Lipase complete digestion of fat in enterocyte.
 Sucrase, lactase, maltase complete the digestion of sucrose lactose and maltose.

Absorption of Nutrients

 Occur by 2 possible processes.

Diffusion: Monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol diffuse slowly down there
concentration gradient into their entero sites from intestinal lumen.
Active transport: Monosaccharides amino acids and fatty acids end lacera l actively transport into
villi.
 Disaccharide, dipeptide, tripeptide are actively transported into enterr sites and to the
capillaries of villi.
 Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into lacteals some proteins are absorbed and changed
vitamins, minerals and water absorbed from small intestine to blood capillaries.
 Large amount of fluids enter the GIT each day of this only 500 ml is not absorbed by small
intestine and pass into large intestine.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM DISORDERS

1. Peptic Ulcer:
It is a crater like Lesions of membrane in a gastrointestinal tract. Complication of them
is bleeding which leads to anemia. It is caused by a bacterium H pylori. Caffeine should be
avoided, hyper secretion of HCL maybe one of the cause.
 3 distinct peptic ulcers are recognized:
 Bacterium Helicobacter pylori
 NSAIDS: Aspirin, Paracetamol, nimesulide.
 Hyper secretion of HCL
 Therapeutic approach is are helpful for treatment of peptic ulcer.
 In case of H pylori treatment with antibiotics.
 Oral antacids can help temporarily.
 Treatment with H2 blockers or proton pump inhibitor like omeprazole and
pantoprazole.
2. Gastrointestinal esophageal Reflux disease:
 Also known as acid reflux.
 Obesity, pregnancy, smoking, drugs like antihistamine could be cause of this disease.
Treatment: weight-loss, antacids, H2 blockers, Proton pump.
 It is due to poor closure of esophageal sphincter
 Lifestyle changes and medication are its treatment.

3. Hepatitis:
Inflammation of liver, which is caused by virus drugs and Chemicals that includes
alcohol. Hepatitis A caused by “Hepatitis A virus” which spread via fecal contamination of
food or clothes there is a loss of appetite nausea diarrhea fever chills. Hepatitis B causes
“Hepatitis B virus” spread via sexual contact and contaminated syringe or transfusion of blood.
4. Cirrhosis:
Distorted or scarred liver as a result of chronic inflammation due to hepatitis chemical
that destroy hepatocyte, parasites that infect liver. Alcoholism could be a reason for this. Jaundice,
edema in legs and uncontrolled bleeding that can lead to diarrhea.
5. Diarrhea:
Losing of stools which also can increase the urgency and frequency of defecation
abnormal a frequent discharge of semisolid or fluid fecal matter from bowel.
6. Constipation:
Condition in which Bowel movement are infrequent or incomplete there is a difficult in
empty in the Bowel. Few moments are hard as well or small stools. Symptoms are swollen belly
and cause due to change in the diet, pregnancy, colon cancer or due to stress.
7. Anorexia:
Decreased sensation of appetite.
Signs and symptoms: extreme weight loss, Thin appearance, abnormal blood count, seizures, brittle
nails,, dry skin, Constipation.
Cause is idiopathic.

ENERGETICS

Formation and role of ATP

 It was first discovered in muscle extract by C. fiske & Y subbrow in US by Lohaman in Germany
in 1929
 In 1941 Lipmann presented a detailed hypothesis of its function as high energy rich phosphate

ADENINE + RIBOSE – P~P~P (ATP)

Hydrolysis

Adenine + Ribose – P~P~P + phosphate+ 7000 calories

Hydrolysis

Adenine + RIBOSE – P + phosphate+7000 calories

Hydrolysis

Adenosine + phosphate + 3000 calories

In the hydrolysis of the terminal phosphate group about 7000 calories of energy liberated the hydrolysis
of 1st phosphate which is linked by an ester linkage to ribose releases only 3000 calories
Therefore the terminal phosphate bonds are called energy rich phosphate bond & represented in
structural formula by squiggle instead of ~ ester bond
An adult man at rest generates & consume about 40 kg of ATP in 24hrs. During stenous exercise it
may reach above 0.5 kg/min.
Structure of ATP:

Functions:
 ATP is the high energy phosphate for energy requiring reaction
 It concentration in living mammalian cell is about 1M
 It has an important role in the muscle contraction & also in the motility of flagella
 It facilitate transport of ions like calcium, sodium, potassium H+ across membrane against
concentration gradient
 It regards participation in oxidative phosphorylation
BMR
 Basic metabolic rate is the rate of energy expenditure per unit time by endothermic animals at
rest. Some processes are breathing, blood, circulation cell growth as well as brain & nerve
function.
 BMR affects the rate that a person burn calories & ultimately weather the person maintain, gain
or lose weight. It account for about 60-75% the daily caloric expenditure by individual.
 It is influenced by several factors. It is used to help us to gain, loose or maintain our weight. By
knowing how many calories you burn, you can know how many to consume
Haris-benedict equation
Men: - BMR = 88.362 + (13.397×Wt in kg) + 4.799 height in cm – (5.677× age in years)
Women: - BMR = 447.593 + (9.247× Wt in kg) + 3098× height in cm – 4.330× age in year
Normal values
Men = 7.106 kj/day
Women =5.900 kj/day.