CH6605 Process Instrumentation & Control Chemical Engineering 2015-2016

CH6605 PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL

UNIT-I
Part-A (Questions & Answers)

1. Name any two characteristics of measuring instruments and define them.

The two (static) characteristics of measuring instruments are (i) Static error (ii) Drift.
Static error of an instrument is the difference between the true value of a quantity not
changing with time and the value indicated by the instrument.
Drift is an insidious quality in industrial instruments, (Zero drift – whi9ch is usually due to
simple effect, such as permanent set or slippage; Span drift – involves a gradual change in
which the calibration from zero upward changes a proportional amount; A third kind of
drift occurs when only one portion of a calibration changes) because it is rarely apparent
and must be carefully guarded against by continuous inspection and maintenance.

2. List the static and dynamic characteristics of process control instruments. (May
2011) (Dec 2013)
The static characteristics of process control instruments are;
 Static error (Accuracy)
 Drift (Reproducibility)
 Dead zone (Sensitivity)
The dynamic characteristics of process control instruments are;
 Lag (Speed of response)
 Dynamic error (Fidelity)

3. Define sensitivity and dead zone.

Sensitivity denotes the smallest change in value of a measured variable to which an
instrument responds (that is, the instrument has a dead zone). On the other hand, it may
mean that the instrument produces a given deflection for a given change in value of a
measured quantity (that is, the instrument has a given span).

4. Name some instruments for measurement of temperature. (May 2011)

The instruments for measurement of temperature are;
 Thermocouples
 Bimetallic thermometer (0-500oC)
 Resistance thermometer (20-600oC)
 Vapor pressure thermometer (0-400oC)
 Mercury in glass thermometer (0-500oC)
 Radiation pyrometer (300-3000oC)
 Optical pyrometer (300-3000oC)
 Photoelectric pyrometer(500-1500oC)
 Platinum resistance thermometer (-200 to 0oC)

5. What is Seebeck effect?

In 821 Seebeck discovers that a current flows in a thermoelectric circuit when the
temperatures at the junctions are different (hot and cold junctions of simple thermoelectric
circuit). There is therefore a thermal e.m.f. generated in the circuit, which causes the
current flow. By the principle of conservation of energy, it is apparent that this energy
under static conditions must come from the absorption of heat from external sources.

6. What is the principle of operation of a thermocouple?

A thermocouple is made up of two dissimilar metals joined together resulting generation
of a thermal e.m.f (electro motive force). The reference junction of two dissimilar metals is
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maintained at low temperature at 0OC in an ice box and the measuring junction is the hot
junction indicating the temperature of the system.
According to Seebeck effect, a current flow in a thermoelectric circuit because of the
difference in the temperature at the two junctions and consequently the thermal e.m.f. is
generated in the circuit resulting the flow of current in the circuit.
The Thomson effect gives the relationship between the e.m.f. generated in the
thermoelectric circuit and the difference in temperature between the two junctions of a
thermocouple circuit.
The generated e.m.f. is proportional to the temperature difference in the wire and
depending on the different metals of the thermocouple.

7. What are the commonly used thermocouples?

The commonly used thermocouples are;
 Copper – Constantan (100-700oC)
 Iron – Constantan (0-600oC)
 Chromel – Alumel (100-1000oC)
 Platinum – Platinum (13% Rhodium or 10% Rhodium) (500-1500oC)

8. State law of intermediate temperatures.

Law of intermediate temperatures provides a means of relating the e.m.f. generated under
ordinary conditions to what it should be for the standardized constant temperature.

9. What is the principle used in the measurement of temperature using RTD?

An RTD (resistance temperature detector) is a temperature sensor that operates on the
measurement principle that a material‟s electrical resistance changes with temperature.
The relationship between an RTD‟s resistance and the surrounding temperature is highly
predictable, allowing for accurate and consistent temperature measurement. By supplying
an RTD with a constant current and measuring the resulting voltage drop across the
resistor, the RTD‟s resistance can be calculated, and the temperature can be determined.

10. Indicate standard temperature scales with their ranges.

Centigrade scale (used in scientific literature) – assigns 0OC to the ice point and 100oC to
the steam point.
Kelvin scale (used in technical literature) – assigns 273.16OK to the ice point and
373.16oK to the steam point.
Fahrenheit scale (used in most English speaking countries) - assigns 32OF to the ice point
and 212oF to the steam point.
Rankine scale (used in Engineering literature) - assigns 491.69OR‟ to the ice point and
671.69oR‟ to the steam point.
Reaumur scale (used in few European countries, especially in alcohol industries) - assigns
0OR to the ice point and 80OR to the steam point.

11. Name few instruments for measurement of pressure.

The instruments for measurement of pressure are;
 Liquid-head manometers [U-tube (< 30psi), Differential (<30psi), Inclined (small
pressure difference), Inverted U-tube (< 30psi)and Ring manometer (< 10000psig)]
 Bellows pressure element (< 100psi)
 Bellows differential pressure gauge (< 200psig)
 Bell differential pressure gauge (< 1000psig)
 Inductance pressure meter (30 to 2000psig)
 Pneumatic balance pressure meter (up to 600psig)

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12. State the various composition measuring instruments.

The various composition measuring instruments are;
 Mass spectrometer (used in petroleum refining, in rubber analysis, isotope
analysis)
 Infrared analyzer (used in pharmaceutical industry – organic and inorganic
compounds)
 Emission spectrometer (used for the analysis of the metallic compound)
 Polaragraph (used in the analysis of alloys and ores)
 X-ray diffraction (used in the analysis crystalline and amorphous solids, control of
dye and filler in rubber, particle size determination in ceramic industry)
 Thermal conductivity cell (used in the analysis of CO2 gas; determination of H2 in
nitrogen, air and oxygen; determination of ammonia, hydrocarbon, carbon
monoxide, argon and water vapor in air)
 Psychrometer, Hygrometer (used in the analysis of moisture in air)
 Refractometer (used in the analysis of composition of the miscible solution)

13. Mention the principle involved in the concentration (composition) measurement.

Principle involved in Mass spectrometer: In this instrument the sample of gas at 40
microns mercury is introduced into the ionization chamber in which the vacuum is
maintained at less than 40 microns mercury, absolute.
The gas is combined with electrons emitted from the filament in the chamber and
transformed into ions; neutral fragment ions are positively charged, move towards the two
plates where the electric potential field accelerate the ions on both the plates resulting a
parallel beam.
The ion beam deflecting in a circular path because of the presence of the magnetic field in
a circular tube. The radius of the circular path is depending on the mass and the velocity of
the ion. Numbers of such beams are formed having different specific mass of ions.
By accelerating the voltage at the two plates, the selection of a particular beam to strike the
collector an be fixed and the ions give the charge to the collector plate, which is amplified
and recorded by the potentiometer; the intensity of the ion beam for different mass of the
ion is recorded, giving the spectrum.
The analysis of the spectrum gives the composition of the gas by comparing the spectrum
of a pure substance.

14. What are variable head meters? Give examples.

The variable head meters is the most common method used to measure the flow of fluid is
closed pipes, which operates by measuring the pressure differential across a suitable
restriction to flow. The examples are (i) Venturi meter (ii) Orifice meter

15. List various orifice meter tappings.

The various orifice meter tappings are;
 Thin-plate square-edge orifice (concentric, eccentric and segmental)
 Orifice with flange taps
 Orifice with pipe taps
 Orifice with vena-contracta taps

16. Mention any two flow measuring devices.

 Volumetric flow rate (Closed channel flow – Orifice meter, Venturi meter, Pitot
tube and Rotameter; Open channel flow – Notches and weirs – triangular,
rectangular, etc.,)
 Mass flow rate (Magnetic flow meter)

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17. Explain the principle involved in the measurement of pH.

The most common industrial method of measuring pH is by glass-cell and calomel-cell
electrodes, used with a potentiometer instrument. In brief, this method requires that an
electrode be immersed in the solution. An electric potential is produced at the electrode
which forms an electrolytic half-cell. This the measuring cell. A second electrode is
required to provide a standard potential and to complete the cell. This is the reference cell.
The algebraic sum of the potentials of the two half-cells is proportional to the
concentration of the hydrogen ions in the solution.

18. How the viscosity is measured? List few viscometers.

Viscosity is a characteristic sometimes called fluid friction. Consequently, it can be
measured by measuring friction or, actually, shear force. The few viscometers are (i) Red-
wood viscometer (ii) Saybolt viscometer (iii) Oswald‟s viscometer.

19. How humidity of gases can be measured?

Dew-point method is used to measure the absolute humidity (weight of vapor per unit
weight of dry gas).The instrument consists of a thin metal tube covered with a glass cloth,
saturated with lithium chloride. A double winding of silver wire is made over the glass
cloth. A power supply of a few volts is connected to the winding. The electrical
conductivity between wires is directly proportional to the moisture in the salt taken on
from the surrounding gas. When the moisture is low, there is a small current flow, and the
temperature rise of the cell due to Joule heating is low. When the moisture is high, the
current flow is high and the temperature of the cell is high. Thus, a thermometer bulb
placed inside the metal tube will measure the cell temperature and, therefore, absolute
humidity.

20. Distinguish between ‗variable head and static head.[May 2012](MAY 2015)
The variable head meters is the most common method used to measure the flow of
fluid is closed pipes, which operates by measuring the pressure differential across a
suitable restriction to flow. The examples are (i) Venturi meter (ii) Orifice meter
The variable area meters are very oftenly employed, and they operate from the variation in
area of the fluid stream. Example: Rotameter

21. Using electrical conductivity, which parameters can be measured?

The parameters that can be measured using electrical conductivity are;
 Temperature
 pH
 Composition of gases
 Total dissolved salts or minerals in water

22. Name any two humidity measuring instruments. [May 2012]

 A device used to measure humidity is called a psychrometer or hygrometer.
 Humidity is also measured on a global scale using remotely placed satellites.
 These satellites are able to detect the concentration of water in the troposphere at
altitudes between 4 and 12 kilometers.

Part-B (Questions)

1. (i) Define the terms accuracy, repeatability, span, sensitivity and errors.
(ii) Explain the principle and working of an optical pyrometer with a neat sketch. (Dec
2013)

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2. Explain with principle, the range of application of thermometers commonly employed in

chemical industries.

3. Explain the working of a bimetallic thermometer, material of construction and range of

operation with neat sketches.

4. Discuss the properties and types of industrial thermocouples with range of operation &
advantages.

5. (i) Compare resistance thermometers and thermocouples with their principle of operation.
(ii) Explain why thermal wells are necessary and the various factors that are to be
considered in their selection.

6. (i) Explain the working principle of vapor pressure thermometer.

(ii) Discuss briefly on the instruments used in measuring pressure in process industries.
(May 2014) (May 2015)

7. (i) What are the principles on which pressure measuring instruments work? List out the
instruments used for the pressure measurement and indicate their range of operation.
(ii) Briefly describe the working of an ionization type vacuum gauge (vacuum pressure)
with a neat sketch.

8. (i) Discuss on the various indicating elements for a pressure gauge.

(ii) With a neat sketch, explain the working of McLeod gauge and its range of operation.
(May 2011) (Dec 2013)

9. Compare variable head meters and variable area meters in industrial flow metering with
their principles of operation. (May 2011)

10. With neat sketches, discuss the principle and working of instruments used for the
measurement of following parameters; [May 2014]
(i) Viscosity (ii)pH

11. (i) Describe the principle and operation of concentration measurement.

(ii) Explain any one method of composition analysis.

12. (i) Discuss briefly on the measurement of thermal conductivity. [May 2014]
(ii) Write in detail about the measurement of humidity of gases.

13. Discuss the principle of measurement and classification of process control instrument
with respect to [May 2012]
(i) Temperature
(ii) Pressure
14. Explain the principle and working of instrument used in process industries for measuring
humidity and composition.(May 2015)

UNIT-II Part-A (Questions & Answers)

1. Write down the Laplace transform of f(t) = e-2t sin(3t) [May-2012]

The given equation is of the form f(t) = e-at sin(kt), then its Laplace transform is
f(s) = k/[(s+a)2 + k2]. Therefore, the transform for the given equation is 3/[(s+2)2 + 32].

2. Obtain the Laplace transform of f(t) = R u(t) + L [du(t)/dt]

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The transform for the given equation is f(s) = R/s + L [s u(s) – u(0)]. Where u(s) = L{u(t)}
and u(0) is u(t) evaluated at t = 0.

3. What is the Laplace transform of the function f(t) = e-2t t2?

The given equation is of the form f(t) = e-at tn, then its Laplace transform is f(s) = n!/(s +
a)n+1. Therefore, the transform for the given equation is 2!/(s+2)2+1 = 2/(s+2)3.

4. Linearize the function f(x) = x3 at x = 2.

By Taylor series of expansion, we get f(x) = f(xs) + f‟(xs) (x - xs)
For the Given f(x) = x3 at xs = 2, we get f(x) = 22 + 3 (22) (x – 2)
= 8 + 12 (x – 2) = 12x - 16

5. Give the transforms of step function and exponential function.

 For the step function f(t) = 1 (unit-step), its transform is f(s) = 1/s
 For the exponential function f(t) = e-at, its transform is f(s) = 1/(s+a)

6. Write the transforms of ramp function and sine function.

 For the ramp function f(t) = t, its transform is f(s) = 1/s2
 For the sine function f(t) = sin (kt), its transform is f(s) = k/(s2+k2)

7. Draw the graphical representation of exponential and sinusoidal inputs. [May-2012]

8. Show graphically, step and ramp functions. [May-2014]

9. State initial and final value theorems. (May 2011) (Dec 2013)(MAY 2015)
 Initial value theorem: If f(s) is the Laplace transform of f(t), then
lim [f(t)] = lim [s f(s)]
t→0 s→∞

 Final value theorem: If f(s) is the Laplace transform of f(t), then

lim [f(t)] = lim [s f(s)]
t→∞ s→o

Provided that [s f(s)] does not become infinite for any value of „s‟ satisfying Re(s)
≥ 0. If this condition does not hold, f(t) does not approach a limit as t→∞.

10. State the theorem of translation of functions.

If L[f(t)] = f(s) then L[f(t – to)] = e-sto f(s)
Provided that f(t) = 0 for t < 0
This will always be true for functions we use.

11. Define open loop system.

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A system which generates output signals but which depends on the integrity of the system
to execute them, without feedback for monitoring or comparison purposes. Open-loop
systems ignore error signals and operate on the assumption that no errors occur.

12. Define transfer function and explain its properties.

The transfer function relates two variables in a physical process; one of these is the cause
(forcing function or input variable) and the other is the effect (response or output variable).
Thus, the transfer function G(s) is defined as
G(s) = Laplace transform of the output deviation variable, Y(s)
Laplace transform of the input deviation variable, X(s)

13. What is a first order system?

Any physical system for which the relation between Laplace transforms of input and
output deviation variable is of the form Y(s)/X(s) = 1/( s + 1) is called a first order
system. Where „‟ is the time constant of the system and has the units of time.

14. What are the assumptions used in developing the transfer function for thermometer?
The following assumptions are used in developing the transfer function for thermometer;
 All the resistance to heat transfer resides in the film surrounding the bulb (the
resistance offered by the glass and mercury is neglected)
 All the thermal capacity is in the mercury. Furthermore, at any instant the mercury
assumes a uniform temperature throughout.
 The glass wall containing the mercury does not expand or contract during the
transient response.

15. List different forcing functions.

The different forcing functions are
 Step function: X(t) = A u(t). Where „A‟ is the magnitude of step input and u(t) is
the unit-step function.
 Impulse function: X(t) = A δ(t). Where δ(t) is the unit-impulse function.
 Sinusoidal input: X(t) = A sin(ωt)
16. Define resistance and capacitance of a first order system.
 Resistance is defined as the ratio of the change in driving force to the change in
flow.
 Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the change in storage to the change in driving
force.

17. Write the units of resistance and capacitance in a thermometer.

 Resistance = 1/(h A), has the SI unit of [oK-s/kJ]
 Capacitance = m C, has the SI unit of [kJ/ oK]

18. What is linearization of non-linear systems.

Most of the physical systems are non-linear. The process dynamics of a particular system
is characterized by its transfer function.
To obtain the transfer function for liquid level system, linear resistance to flow was
considered. In practice, the relationship between the flow rate and liquid head is square
root relationship, which is non-linear.
The non-linear systems are approximated by the linear system. The accuracy of
approximation is good, if the control system is operating around the steady state point.
Under such conditions, these relations may be linearized by using Taylor‟s series at or near
its steady state point.

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Therefore, any non-linear system operated at or near its steady state conditions can be
assumed as linear systems.

19. Write the variables in second order transfer function.(MAY 2015)

The second order transfer function is Y(s)/X(s) = 1/[ 2 s2 + 2 ξ  s + 1]
The variables are „τ‟ is the time constant (has the units of time) and „ξ‟ is the damping
coefficient (represents the characteristics of the second order control system).

20. Define critically damped system and write the transfer function for the same.
In a second order control system, if ξ (damping coefficient) = 1 then the system is said to
be critically damped system (and allows most rapid approach of the response without
oscillation). Its transfer function is
Y(s)/X(s) = 1/[ 2 s2 + 2  s + 1] = 1/(  s + 1)2.

21. “Two first order system connected in series is an over-damped second order system”
– Justify.
The transfer function for two first order system connected in series is given by
Y(s)/X(s) =1/[( 1 s + 1) (2 s + 1)].
It behaves as over damped system (ξ>1, the response is non-oscillatory and becomes more
sluggish as „ξ‟ increases) because the roots s1 and s2 are real and the equation 2 s2 + 2 ξ 
s + 1 may be factored into two linear factors. Therefore,
Y(s)/X(s) =1/[( 1 s + 1) (2 s + 1)] = 1/[ 2 s2 + 2 ξ  s + 1].

22. What is loading in an interacting system?

The term „Interacting‟ is often referred to as „Loading‟. That is, the second tank is said to
load the first tank. The effect of interaction on a system containing two first order systems
is to change the ratio of effective time constants in the interacting system.
23. Define overshoot and decay ratio.
 Overshoot is a measure of how much the response (step response of under damped
system) exceeds ultimate value following a step change. The over shoot for a unit
step is relate to „ξ‟ by the expression
Over shoot = exp [-π ξ/(1 – ξ)1/2]

 Decay ratio is defined as the ratio of the sizes of successive peaks (in the step
response of under damped system) . The decay ratio is related to „ξ‟ by the
expression Decay ratio = exp[-2π ξ/(1 – ξ)1/2] = (Overshoot)2

24. Define rise time and response time.

Rise time: It is the time required for the response to first reach its ultimate value (in the
step response of under damped system).
Response time or settling time: This is the time requires for the response to come within ±
5 percent of its ultimate value and remain there (in the step response of under damped
system).

25. Define period of oscillation and natural frequency of oscillation. (May 2011)
 Period of oscillation (T) is the time elapsed between peaks or the time elapsed
between alternate crossings of the line Y = 1 (in the step response of an under
damped second order system).
It is given by T = 2π/ω = 2π/(1 – ξ2)1/2
Where „ω‟ is the radian frequency, „‟ is the time constant of the system and „ξ‟ is
the damping efficient.
Note: Frequency of oscillation, f = 1/T

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 Natural frequency of oscillation (fn): If the damping is eliminated [ξ=0], the system
oscillates continuously without attenuation in amplitude. Under these “natural” or
undamped conditions, the natural radian frequency is ωn = 1/. Therefore, natural
frequency of oscillation is
fn = 1/Tn = 1/[2π/ωn] = 1/2π
Part-B (Questions)

1. (i) Obtain the inverse Laplace transform of

(ii) Obtain the transient response of first order system with unit ramp input. (May 2015)

2. (i) Develop a transfer function for mercury thermometer. Obtain the dynamic response for
a step change in the input variable. (May 2011) (May 2014) (May 2015)
(ii) Solve the following by Laplace transform;

3. (i) A thermocouple of time constant of 2 min is placed in a bath at 150oC. The bath
temperature increases linearly at the rate of 1.5oC/min. Sketch the response of the system.
(ii) Derive the response equation of an integrating system to a unit step input and sketch
the response.

4. (i) Derive the transfer function of a mixing tank. (Dec 2013)

(ii) A thermometer having a time constant of 1 min is placed in a temperature bath, T1 of
60oC and after the thermometer comes to equilibrium with the bath, the temperature of the
bath is suddenly increased to 80oC for a period of 0.3 min and the bath is brought back to
60oC. Plot the temperature response of the thermometer.

5. (i) If a forcing function f(t) has the Laplace transform

Graph the function f(t).

(ii) A process of unknown transfer function is subjected to a unit-impulse input. The
output of the process is measured accurately and is found to be represented by the function
y(t) = t e-t. Determine the unit step response of the process.

6. (i) The function f(t) has the Laplace transform

Obtain the function f(t) and graph f(t).

(ii) A thermometer having a time constant of 0.5min is placed in a temperature bath and
after thermometer comes to equilibrium with the bath, the temperature of the bath is
increased linearly at the rate of 1oC/min. (1) What is the difference between the indicated
and bath temperature at 0.25min and 3min after the change in temperature begins? (2)
What is the maximum deviation between the indicated and bath temperature and when
does it occur? (3) How many minutes does the response lag the input after long enough
time is elapsed? (May 2011)

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7. (i) Derive the response of a first order system to a pulse input.

(ii) Derive the transfer function H/Q for the liquid level system shown below; [H and Q
are the deviation variables in „h‟(m) and „q‟ (m3/min) respectively, Area A = 0.75m2]. R1 =
1 R1 = 2 (Dec 2013)

8. (i) Write the need for linearization in process control.

(ii) A liquid level process is operating at steady state and the input to the tank is
10m3/min. At t = 0, 1m3 of water is added suddenly (unit impulse) to the tank; at t = 1,
3
2m of water is added suddenly to the tank. The resistance at the exit is 0.5 and the time
constant,  = 1. Plot the response of the level in the tank and determine the level at t = 0.5,
1 and 1.5

9. (i) A tank having time constant of 1min and resistance of (1/9) min/ft2 is operating at
steady state with an inlet flow rate of 10 ft2/min. At t = 0, the flow is suddenly increased to
60 ft2/min for 0.2min by adding an additional of 10 ft3 of water to the tank uniformly over
a period of 0.2min. Plot the response in tank level and compare with impulse response.
(ii) Explain the two first order liquid level system acting in both interacting and non-
interacting manner.

10. (i). For a typical reactor, write the balance equations and obtain the transfer function for
the same.
(ii) A liquid level system has a cross sectional area of 2 ft2 The valve characteristics are q
= 5 h1/2; where „q‟ is the flow rate in ft3/min and „h‟ is the level in „m‟. Calculate the time
constant for this system if the operating level is 2ft and 7ft. (May 2014)( May 2015)

11. (i) Derive the transfer function of two tank non-interacting systems in series.
(ii) There are „N‟ storage tanks of volume „V‟ arranged so that when water is fed into the
first tank, an equal volume of water overflows form the first tank into the second tank, and
so on. Each tank initially contains component „A‟ at some concentration „Co‟ and is
equipped with a perfect stirrer. At time zero, a stream of initial concentration is fed into
the first tank at a volumetric rate „q‟. Find the resulting concentration in each tank as a
function of time. (May 2011) (Dec 2013)

12. For two interacting liquid level tanks connected in series, Derive the transfer function
relating the level in the second tank to the inflow to the first tank. Show that this second
order system is over damped.

13. A step change of magnitude 4 is introduced into the system having the transfer function;

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Determine (i) Percent overshoot (ii) Decay ratio (iii) Period of oscillation (iv) Rise time
and (v) Settling time.

14. Derive the transfer function of a mercury manometer assuming the flow in the manometer
to be laminar and steady state friction law for drag force in laminar flow to apply at each
instant. Write the transfer function in the standard form and comment on how the
parameters are related to physical nature of the problem. [May-2014]

UNIT-III
Part-A (Questions & Answers)
1. What are the components of feedback control system?
The components of feedback control system are
(i) Process
(ii) Measuring element
(iii)Controller
(iv) Final control element

2. Explain negative and positive feedback system. (May 2015)

If the signal to the comparator (the controlled variable is, measured and, compared with
the desired value or set point) were obtained by the difference between measured variable
and set point, then the system is said to be Negative feed back system (ensures that the
difference between measured variable and set point is used to adjust the control element so
that the tendency is to reduce error).
If the signal to the comparator were obtained by adding the measured variable and set
point, then the system is said to be Positive feed back system (which is inherently
unstable).

3. Why negative feedback is invariably preferred in closed system?

Negative feed back systems ensure that the difference between measured variable and set
point is used to adjust the control element so that the tendency is to reduce error, and are
stable. But the positive feed back systems are inherently unstable. That is why the negative
feedback is invariably preferred in closed system.

4. Write the closed loop equation for a feedback control system.

The closed loop equation (transfer function of the negative feed back system is
C(s)/R(s) = G(s)/[1 + G(s) H(s)]
Where G(s) = Gc(s).Gv(s).GP(s)
Gc(s) = transfer function of the controller
Gv(s) = transfer function of the control valve (final control element)
GP(s) = transfer function of the process
H(s) = transfer function of the measuring element

5. Draw the block diagram for a positive and negative feedback control system. [May-
2012] (Dec 2013)

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6. Define load and set-point variable.

The load variable is represented by „U‟, its response is obtained by setting R = 0
(represents the solution to the regulator problem).
The set-point variable is represented by „R‟, its response is obtained by setting U = 0
(represents the solution to the servo problem).

7. Distinguish between servo and regulator problem. (May 2011)

 The study of the variation of the controlled variable with set point „R‟ with time for
constant value of the load variable (dU/dt = 0) is known as Servo problem.
Its transfer function is C/R = G/[1 + GH]
 The study of the variation of the controlled variable with the variation in the load
variable „U‟ with time for constant value of the set point (dR/dt = 0) is known as
Regulator problem.
Its transfer function is C/U = GP/[1 + GH]

8. Explain the mechanism of control valve.

Control valve (pneumatic) is hardware component of the control loop, which is most
commonly used final control element that implements the control action. It receives the
pneumatic output pressure of a controller, which acts on the diaphragm of the control
valve and adjust the valve of the manipulate variable.
The pneumatic control valve has spring and diaphragm actuator. The function of the
actuator is to convert the controller signal to valve opening. The output of the controller
has to be converted to the corresponding change in the valve opening. So, a control valve
is opened or closed by the actuator. The actuator converts the controller signal to a
mechanical movement to position the valve plug to give the desired flow rate of air
flowing through the orifice of the control valve.

9. List the various characteristics of control valve. (May 2011) (May 2015)
 The relation between the flow through the valve and the valve stem position (or
lift) is called the Inherent valve characteristics (pressure drop across valve is
constant).
Quick-Opening Characteristic: Maximum possible flow as soon as the stem starts
to move from a closed position. This characteristic is usually selected for two-
position rather than modulating valves.
Linear Characteristic: This flow-lift relationship, if plotted on rectilinear
coordinates, approximates a straight line, giving equal volume changes for equal
lift changes, regardless of percent of valve opening.
Equal Percentage Characteristic (Increasing sensitivity): In a valve having an equal
percentage characteristic, like movements of the valve stem at any point of the
flow range changes the existing flow an equal percentage regardless of the existing
flow.

 When a valve is placed in a line that offers resistance to flow, the inherent
characteristic of the valve will be altered. The relation between flow and stem
position (or valve-top pressure) for a valve installed in a process line will be called
the Effective valve characteristic.
10. Distinguish quick opening and equal percentage valve characteristics.
 The linear (quick opening) valve is one for which the sensitivity is constant and the
relation between flow and lift is linear. For linear valve, the relation between flow
„m‟ and lift „x‟ is
(Sensitivity) dm/dx = α. Where „α‟ is constant.
 The equal percentage valve is of the increasing sensitivity type and the relation
between flow and lift is non-linear. A valve that does shut tight is said to be equal
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percentage. For linear valve, the relation between flow „m‟ and lift „x‟ is
(Sensitivity) dm/dx = β m. Where „β‟ is constant

11. Define rangeability and turndown ratio of a control valve.

 In order to express the range over which an equal percentage valve will follow the
equal percentage characteristics, the term „Rangeability‟ is used. Rangeability is
defined as the ratio of maximum flow to minimum controllable flow over which
the valve characteristic is followed.
Rangeability = mmax/mmin, controllable
 Turndown ratio is defined as the ratio between maximum usable flow and the
minimum controllable flow; usually less than the rangeability.
In comparing rangeability and turndown, we may say that rangeability is a measure of
the predicted stability of the control valve, and turndown is a measure of the actual
stability of the valve.

12. What is the difference between electronic and pneumatic controller?

13. List any two disadvantages of pneumatic controller.

The disadvantages of pneumatic controller are;
 The cost of the controller is more
 It cannot be used for very long distance because of the transportation lag in the
transmission line.
 The knob calibrations for the various controller parameters like gain, integral time
and derivative time are essential.

14. Explain reverse acting controller.

The action of a controller is defined as:
 If an increase in the measured variable results in an increase in output, the
controller is direct acting.
 If an increase in the measured variable results in a decrease in output, the controller
is reverse acting.
In other words, the controller is direct acting if the gain (KC) is positive and reverse acting
if the gain (KC) is negative.

15. What is proportional band? Explain reset rate.

The proportional band (pb) is defined as the error (expressed as a percentage of the range
of measured variable) required to move the valve from fully closed to fully open. A
frequently used synonym is bandwidth.
Reset rate is defined as the reciprocal of the integral time „I‟ and is given by Reset rate =
1/I.

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16. Give the importance of integral mode in a PI controller. [May-2014]

The addition of integral mode to a proportional controller eliminates the offset; the
controlled variable ultimately returns to the original value. This advantage of integral
action is balanced by the disadvantage of a more oscillatory behavior.

17. Give the importance of derivative mode in a PD controller.

The addition of derivative mode to a proportional controller gives a definite improvement
in the response. The rise of the controlled variable is arrested more quickly and it is
returned rapidly to the original value with little or no oscillation.

18. Write short notes on On-Off control.

A special case of proportional control is on-off control. If the gain „Kc‟ is made very high,
the valve will move from one extreme position to the other, if the pen deviates only
slightly from the set point. This very sensitive action is called on-off action because the
valve is either fully open (on) or fully closed (off); that is, the valve acts like a switch.
This is a very simple controller and is exemplified by the thermostat used in a home-
heating system. The bandwidth of an on-off controller is approximately zero.

19. Define offset. What type of controller eliminates offset? [May-2014] [May-2015]
With proportional action only, the control system is able to arrest the rise of the controlled
variable and ultimately bring it to reset at a new steady-state value. The difference between
this new steady-state value and the original value is called „Offset‟.
The PI controller eliminates this offset, because the addition of integral mode to a
proportional controller eliminates the offset.

20. Will there be any offset in a feedback control system with PD controller?
Yes. There will be offset because the addition of derivative mode will fasten up the response
not reduces the offset caused by proportional mode.

21. Write the transfer function of a PID controller.

The transfer function of PID controller is
P(s)/ε(s) = Kc [1 + D s + (1/I s)].
Where Kc = controller gain, D = derivative time and I = integral time

22. Explain transportation lag or delay. [May-2014] (Dec 2013)

A phenomenon that is often present in flow systems is the Transportation lag„d‟.
Synonyms for this term are distance velocity lag and dead time. It is simply the time
needed for a particle of fluid from the entrance of the pipe to the exit, and it can be
calculated from the expression
d = volume of the pipe/volumetric flow rate.
The transfer function of a transportation lag is Y(s)/X(s) = e- s
d

23. Define stability of linear system. (May 2015)

A control system is defined to be stable, if the bounded inputs (which is a function of time
and has a definite value within fixed bound) produce the bounded outputs. Or A stable
system will be defined as one for which the output response is bounded for all bounded
inputs.
A control system is defined to be unstable if it produces the unbounded or unlimited output
response for every bounded input. Or A system exhibiting an unbounded response to a
bounded input is unstable.

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24. State Routh‟s stability criterion. (May 2015)

The Routh‟s procedure is used to determine the locations of roots off the polynomial
characteristic equation, lie in the right of the imaginary axis of the complex plane without
actual calculations of the values of the roots of the characteristic equation to determine the
stability of the closed-loop control system.
 If all the roots of the characteristic equation lie in the left half of the complex plane
and the roots have negative real parts (coefficients of polynomial must be positive),
then all the elements of the first column are non-zero and positive indicating a
Stable control system.
 If any coefficient of polynomial is negative, the system is definitely unstable.

25. Give the limitations of Routh„s stability criterion. (May 2015)

This criterion suffers from two limitations:
(1) It is applicable only to systems with polynomial characteristic equations, and
(2) It gives no information about the actual location of the roots and, in particular, their
proximity to the imaginary axis.
However, they are difficult to apply to systems containing transportation lags. Also,
they require a reasonably accurate knowledge of the theoretical process transfer function.

Part-B (Questions)

1. (i) Discuss various controller modes.

(ii) A proportional controller is used for two non-interacting liquid level system, time
constants for the tanks are 1 and 0.5. The value of the gain of controller is 5. Assume unity
feedback control system. The set point of control system is given step change of
magnitude 0.4. Determine the offset.

2. (i) Explain the functioning of a pneumatic PI controller.

(ii) Explain with a neat sketch, the working of a P and PD mode of control. Why can‟t the
derivative controller be used independently? (May 2015)

3. (i) Discuss the closed loop response of a P controller to first order process for a step
change in load or set point. Also, evaluate the offset. (May 2011)
(ii) Discuss the characteristics of P, PI and PID controllers and list the advantages of PID
controller over other controllers.

4. Discuss the closed loop response of a PI controller to first order process for a step change
in load or set point. Also, evaluate the offset. (Dec 2013)

5. (i) What are the advantages of pneumatically operated controllers? List the components
involved.
(ii) With a neat sketch, explain the working of a pneumatic proportional controller for an
industrial process. (May 2011)

6. Load „U1‟ and „U2‟ enter at two different points as shown below. Show that for the closed
loop the response frequency is same for both load changes, but the offset is different.
(May 2011)

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7. (i) Obtain the transfer function of PID controller and derive the step response of it.
(ii) A PI controller indicates an output of 12 mA when the error is zero. The set point is
suddenly increased to 14 mA and the controller output is recorded and is given below;
Time, t (sec) 0 10 20 30

Output (mA) 14 16 15 20

Find KC and τI.

8. (i) Explain Routh stability method.

(ii) The set point of the control system shown below is given a step change of 0.1unit.

Determine (1) The maximum value of „C‟ and the time at which it occurs. (2) The
offset (3) The period of oscillation (4) Sketch C(t) as a function of time (5) whether the
closed loop system is oscillatory.

9. (i) Compare Pneumatic and Electronic controller. [May-2014]

(ii) For a unit step change in set point, find the response „C‟ for the system given below
and represent graphically.

10. (i) Discuss Servo and Regulator problem.

(ii) For the control system shown below;

(1) Obtain the closed loop transfer function C/U

(2) Evaluate the proportional gain for which the closed loop damping coefficient is 2.
(3) Find the offset for a unit step change in „U‟, if KC = 2.
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11. (i) A pneumatic proportional controller is used to control temperature within the range of
60 to 100oF. The controller is adjusted so that the output pressure goes from 3 psi (valve
fully open) to 15 psi (valve fully closed) as the measured temperature goes for 71 to 75oF
with the set point held constant. Find the gain and the proportional band.
(ii) Show that the feedback control system with PI controller is free from offset fro both
the servo and regulatory control.

12. Consider the feed back control of a first order process with a transfer function G(s)
= 1/(s + 1). Let the controller be PI controller with GC(s) = KC/[1+(1/τI s)]. Assuming the
transfer functions of final control element and measuring instrument to be unity, compute
the overshoot, decay ratio and period of oscillation for a step change in set point for KC = 1
and τI = 0.5. Also show that the feed back system has zero offset.

13. (i) Sketch and explain the block diagram for automatic closed loop control system.
(ii) Apply Routh‟s criterion to test the stability of the system described by the following
characteristic equation;
s5 + 0.5 s4 + 3 s3 + 1.5 s2 + 0.5 s + 0.5 = 0

14. For the system shown below, check the value of KC for which the system is stable.

15. A feed back control system has the following transfer functions;
Process: Gp(s) = 5/[(2s + 1) (s + 1)]
Measurement: H(s) = 1/(0.5s + 1)
Valve: GV(s) = 0.2/(0.1s + 1)
Controller: GC(s) = KC
Using Routh‟s stability criteria, find out the value of KC for which the system is stable.

16. (i)Derive the transfer function for different types of controllers.

(ii) Discuss the effect of P-controller on a first order process for servo and regulator
problems. [May-2012]

17. (i) Sketch and explain the block diagram for automatic closed loop control system.
(ii) A pneumatic proportional controller is used to control temperature within the range of
60oC to 100oC. The controller is adjusted so that the output pressure goes from 3 kg/cm2
(valve fully open) to 15 kg/cm2 (valve fully closed) as the measured temperature goes for
71o C to 75oC with the set point held constant. Find the gain and the proportional band.
[May-2012]
18. A control system has a transfer function as 2/(s+1)(s+2) and the measuring device transfer
function transfer function as 3/(s+3).If the proportional controller is used, check out the
values of the controller gain for which the system will be stable. (May 2015)

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UNIT-IV

Part-A (Questions & Answers)

1. What is frequency response?

Frequency response is a valuable tool in the analysis and design of control systems. The
design of control systems using frequency response is based on the characteristic of the
frequency response analysis which determines the features of the output sinusoidal wave,
when a linear system is subjected to a sinusoidal input. It also helps us to select the
optimum values of the parameters like gain, integral time and derivative time in the design
of controller.

2. Give the expressions for Amplitude ratio and Phase lag for the transfer function
G(s) = 1/(s + 1)3
From the given transfer function, we get  = 1.
Amplitude Ratio, AR = 1/( ω + 1) = 1/(ω2 + 1)3/2
2 2 3/2

Phase angle, φ = 3 tan-1(-ω) = 3 tan-1(-ω)

3. For a system with transfer function G(s) = e-2S/(5S + 1), calculate Amplitude ratio and
Phase lag.
From the given transfer function, we get  = 1 and d = 2
Amplitude Ratio, AR = 1/(2ω2 + 1)1/2 = 1/(25ω2 + 1)1/2
(For transportation lag, AR = 1)
Phase angle, φ = tan-1(-ω) -57.3ωd = tan-1(-5ω) -114.6ω

4. What is Resonant frequency?

The frequency at which the maximum AR is attained is called the resonant frequency and
is given by ωr = (1/) (1 - 2ξ2)1/2

5. What do you mean by Bode diagrams?

Bode diagram is known in then honor of H. W. Bode and it is a convenient tool for
analyzing the frequency response of a linear control system.
Bode diagrams are the graphical representation of the AR and phase angle, dependence on
frequency. It consists of two graphs – logarithm of AR vs. logarithm of frequency „ω‟ and
phase angle „φ‟ vs. logarithm of frequency „ω‟.

6. Define corner frequency.

The frequency where the low frequency asymptote and high frequency asymptotes
intersect is known as the corner frequency. It is given by ωc = 1/.

7. Define „Decibels‟ in control theory.

The decibel in control theory is defined by Decibels = 20 log10(AR)
Thus, an AR of unity corresponds to zero decibels and an AR of 0.1 corresponds to -20
decibels.

8. Write the rules applied to the asymptotes on the Bode diagram.

The following rules apply to the asymptotes on the Bode diagram;
 The overall AR is obtained by adding the individual AR‟s.
For this graphical addition, an individual AR that is above unity on the frequency
response diagram is taken as positive; an AR that is below unity is taken as
negative.
 The overall phase angle is obtained by addition of the individual phase angles.

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 The presence of constant in the overall transfer function shifts the entire AR curve
vertically by a constant amount and has no effect on the phase angle.

9. Explain the frequency response for transportation lag.

- s
The transfer function of a transportation lag is Y(s)/X(s) = e d . Then,
AR = 1
φ = -ω (radians) = -57.3 ω (degrees)

10. State Bode stability criterion. (May 2014) (Dec 2013)

Bode stability criterion states that “A control system is unstable if the open-loop frequency
response exhibits an AR exceeding unity at the frequency for which the phase lag is 180o”.

11. When Bode criterion fails? (May 2011) (May 2015)

It applies readily to systems for which the gain and phase curves decrease continuously
with frequency. However, if the phase curve appears as shown below – the Bode criterion
fails.

12. Define cross-over frequency. Explain its significance. [May-2014]

The frequency at which the phase lag is 180o, in the Bode diagram, is called Cross-over
frequency „ωco‟. At ωco,
 If AR < 1then the system is stable.
 If AR = 1 then the system will continue to oscillate with constant amplitude even if
there is no change in the load variable or in the set point.
 If AR > 1then the system is unstable and the system exhibit oscillatory response
because of the increase in the amplitude of the system.

13. Define gain and phase margin. (May 2011) [May-2014]

If the AR at which the phase lag is 180o (at ωco) is „A‟ then the gain margin is defined as
Gain margin = 1/A
Phase margin is the difference between the phase lag 180o and the phase lag at AR =
0
1. It is defined as Phase margin = 180 – φAR=1

14. Show graphically gain and phase margin.

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15. What do you mean by Nyquist diagram?

The Nyquist diagram is a polar plot of the frequency response for the open-loop transfer
function G(s). The gain is plotted as the radius vector and the phase shift is plotted in
degrees clockwise from the right-hand abscissa. There is a separate points for each
frequency; the frequencies are indicated next to a few of the points, or an arrow is used to
show the direction of increasing frequency. Some times a dotted line is used for negative
frequencies, and the result from ω = -∞ to ω = +∞ form a closed curve.

16. State Nyquist stability criterion.

A control system is unstable if the plot encircles the (-1) point in a clockwise direction.
This occurs if the plot for positive frequencies passes to the left of the (-1) point, which
just means that the overall gain is greater than 1 at 180o phase lag. (Or)

The closed-loop control system is stable if the number of denominator roots of G(s) with
positive real parts is equal to the number of counterclockwise encirclements of the (-1)
point.

17. Draw the Nyquist diagram for a first order system. [May 2012]

18. What is meant by tuning of controllers? (Dec 2013)

The adjustment of the controller parameters to achieve satisfactory control is called
„Tuning‟. The process of „Tuning‟ can vary from a trial-and-error attempt to find suitable
control parameters for „good‟ control to an elaborate optimization calculation based on a
model of the process and a specific criterion of optimal control.

19. Define ultimate gain and ultimate period.

According to the Bode criterion, the gain of a proportional controller which would cause
the closed-loop control system to be on the verge of instability is (1/A); this is said to be
the ultimate gain „Ku‟. Thus, Ku = 1/A.
The ultimate period „Pu‟ is defined as the period of the sustained cycling that would occur
if a proportional controller with gain „Ku‟ were used. It is given by Pu = 2π/ωco,
(time/cycle).

20. Name any two experimental methods available for tuning of controller settings.
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The experimental methods available for tuning of controller settings are;

 Zeigler-Nichols method (closed-loop tuning method)
 Cohen-Coon method (open-loop tuning method)

21. Write the Zeigler-Nichols controller settings for PID controller.

The Zeigler-Nichols controller settings for PID controller are;
 Controller gain, Kc = 0.6 Ku
 Integral time, I = Pu/2
 Derivative time, D = pu/8
Where „Ku‟ and „Pu‟ are the ultimate gain and the ultimate period.

22. When Bode criterion fails?

It applies readily to systems for which the gain and phase curves decrease continuously
with frequency. However, if the phase curve appears as shown below –the Bode criterion
fails.

Part-B (Questions)

1. For the transfer function shown below, sketch the Bode magnitude plot.

2. A control loop contains first order lags with time constants 10 and 30 secs and a time delay
of 6 secs. Plot the open loop Bode diagram and determine the value of KC to give 30o
phase margin. Only a proportional controller is used in the loop.

3. Draw a Bode plot for the following open-loop transfer function;

Design a PID controller using Zeigler-Nichols procedure.

4. Consider a feed back control system with open loop transfer function given below;

Using Bode stability criteria, calculate the value of KC at which the closed loop system
becomes unstable.

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5. Plot the Bode diagram for the system whose overall transfer function is given by

What value of KC leads to instability?

6. The transfer function of the process and measuring element connected in series is given by

Sketch the open loop Bode diagram. Determine the „P‟ and „PI‟ controller parameters by
Zeigler-Nichols method.

7. The transfer functions of the process, Control valves and measuring element are
given below;

Sketch Bode plot and calculate ultimate gain and ultimate period. Using Zeigler-Nichols
rules, find the controller constants for a PID controller. (MAY 2015)

8. Open loop transfer function of a feed back control system is given below;

Using Bode stability criteria, calculate the value of KC for which the system is stable.

9. Draw the Bode plot for the open loop transfer function shown below;

Evaluate the PI controller settings using Zeigler-Nichols rules. (May 2011)

10. (i)Discuss the criteria of controller tuning for a good controller (May 2015)
(ii)Briefly explain the precaution to be taken in applying Zeigler Nichols Method.

11. By Nyquist stability criterion, find the value of K for which the system is just stable.

12. Design a proportional controller for the open-loop transfer function

with a gain margin of 2, using Nyquist plot or stability criterion.

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13. Consider a feed back control system with open loop transfer function given below;

Sketch the Nyquist plot. Using Nyquist stability criteria, calculate the limiting value of KC
at which the closed loop system is unstable.

14. Draw a Nyquist plot for the open loop transfer function

Design a proportional controller assuming gain margin as 2. (May 2011)

15. A control loop contains first order lags with time constants 10 and 30 sec and a time delay
of 6 sec. Plot the open loop Bode diagram and determine the value of KC to give
30o phase margin. Only a proportional controller is used in the loop. [May2012]

16. Draw the Bode diagram for the system having the transfer function
Enlist the Zeigler-Nichols controller settings for different mode of control. [May2012]
[May2014]

UNIT-V

Part-A (Questions & Answers)

1. When to go for advanced control schemes?

If the response of the simple feedback system is unsatisfactory because of large
uncontrolled load changes (even if the minor changes such as reducing a time delay or one
of the smaller time constants was done) then advanced control (multi-loop systems)
schemes can be considered.

2. Write briefly on „Cascade control‟.

Cascade control is often used to regulate the flows, temperatures and compositions (that
are load variables or inputs to the process) by using additional controller.
For example, the flow rate and temperature of the feed to a distillation column are often
controlled by separate feedback systems to make it easier to achieve close control of
product composition.
The output of the primary controller (master controller) is used to adjust the set point of a
secondary controller (Slave controller), which in turn sends signal to the control valve. The
process output is fed back to the primary controller, and a signal from an intermediate
stage of the process is fed back to the secondary controller.

3. Give an example for cascade control.

Cascade control is often used for temperature control of chemical reactors because a slight
deviation in temperature may lead to poor product quality and sometimes to a runway
reaction. The primary controller acts on the difference between the set point and the
measured variable, and the output is a pressure signal to the set point bellows of the
secondary controller (In most newer pneumatic controllers, the set point is changed by
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changing the air pressure in a bellow rather than by moving a mechanical linkage). The
secondary controller adjusts the flow of coolant to keep the jacket temperature at the value
determined by the primary controller.

4. Explain the importance of Cascade control.

Cascade control is especially useful in reducing the effect of a load disturbance that is
located far from the control variable and which moves through the system slowly. The
presence of the inner loop reduces the lag in the outer loop with the result that the cascade
system (which has a high natural frequency) responds more quickly to a load disturbance.

5. Enlist the advantages of cascade control.

The advantages of cascade control are all somewhat interrelated. They include:
Better control of the primary variable
Primary variable less affected by disturbances
Faster recovery from disturbances
Increase the natural frequency of the system
Reduce the effective magnitude of a time-lag
Improve dynamic performance
Provide limits on the secondary variable

6. Give the choice of controllers for cascade control.

The control action for the inner loop is often proportional with the gain set to a high value.
The rationale for the use of proportional control rather than two- or three mode control is
that tuning is simplified and any offset associated with proportional control of the inner
loop can be handled by the presence of integral action in the primary controller.
The action for the primary controller is generally PI or PID. The integral action is needed
to reduce offset when sustained changes in load or set point occur.

7. Distinguish between feed-back and feed-forward control.

A simple feed back system compares the set point and the measured variable, for any load
disturbances, and the control action was taken with respect to difference in the value.
A feed-forward control is considered, if a particular load disturbance occurs frequently in a
control process. The quality of control can often be improved by the addition of feed-
forward control.
To provide for load disturbances that cannot be measured or anticipated, feed-forward
control is always combined with feed-back control in a particular situation.

8. When feed forward control is used? Explain its advantages. (May 2011)
If a particular load disturbance occurs frequently in a control process, the quality of control
can often be improved by the addition of feed-forward control.
The main advantage is that it uses information fed forward from the source of the load
disturbance.
 It reacts before the effect of a load disturbance has been detected.
 It is good for system having significant transportation lag.

9. Give some examples of systems where feed forward control is used.

 The flow rate of steam on shell side in a heat exchanger can be controlled by feed
forward controller (this is frequently done to change the temperature of the tube
side fluid).
 The pressure in a distillation column is often feed-forward controlled.
 Feed-forward temperature control of CSTR.
 Feed-forward level control of drum boiler
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10. Write the limitations of feed forward control.

The limitations of feed forward control are;
 The feed-forward control is usually restricted to correcting for only one load
variable.
 The success of using a feed-forward control depends on accurate knowledge of the
process model, a luxury that may not be available in many applications.
 The change in the parameters of a process cannot be compensated by a feed-
forward controller because such change many times cannot be detected
immediately.

11. Explain „Ratio control‟.(MAY 2015)

Ratio control is widely used in industry in the blending of two component streams (A and
B) to produce a mixed stream of desired composition. It is essentially a flow-control
problem in which the flow measurement of stream „A‟ (the wild stream) is used to
compute the set point for the flow of stream „B‟ so that the desired ratio of components
will be obtained.

12. What are the controlled variables in a binary distillation column? (Dec 2013)
The controlled variables in a binary distillation column are;
 Feed rate
 Composition of both overhead and bottom product
 Liquid level in the reflux drum and in the re-boiler
 Column temperature, includes change in temperature at each plate
 Column pressure

13. Name the controlled variables in a binary distillation column. [May 2012]

Note: Column temperature, includes change in temperature at each plate.

14. Write short notes on feed forward control of distillation column.

The control objectives are the composition of the overhead and the bottom product. The
feed-forward control of distillation column depends on two principle load disturbances,
feed flow rate and feed composition. These two disturbances are measured and the signal
is transmitted through the feed-forward controller, which adjusts the steam pressure in the
re-boiler and the reflux ratio (manipulated variables).

15. Explain the cascade control of distillation column.

The cascade control is used to maintain the temperature and composition of the bottom
product of the distillation column. The temperature at the bottom of the column is
measured and the signals are transmitted through the primary controller, which is PI or
PID. The secondary (proportional) controller is used to compensate for the change in the

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flow rate of bottom product, which is coming out from the re-boiler. The secondary or the
flow control loop is always cascaded with the primary temperature control loop.

16. List the controlled variables in a double heat exchanger.

The controlled variables in a double heat exchanger are;
 Steam and condensate flow rate
 Inlet temperature of the hot fluid

17. Write short notes on feed forward control of heat exchanger.

The control objective is to keep the outlet temperature of the cold fluid, by adjusting the
steam pressure (manipulated variable). The feed-forward control of distillation column
depends on two principle load disturbances, steam (hot fluid) flow rate and cold fluid inlet
temperature. If any changes in the disturbances are detected in the inlet stream, these
disturbances are immediately measured and the signals are transmitted through the feed-
forward controller, which adjusts the control valve (for steam flow) in such a way to
prevent any change in the outlet temperature of the cold fluid, so as to keep the controlled
variable near its desired value.

18. Explain the cascade control of heat exchanger.

The control objective is to maintain the outlet temperature of cold fluid at a desired value.
The exit temperature of the cold fluid is measured and the signals are transmitted through
the primary controller. The flow rate of steam (hot fluid) is measured and the signals are
transmitted to the secondary controller, which is used to compensate for change in the flow
rate of steam and the output signal acts on the diaphragm of the control valve to regulate
the changes in the flow rate. The secondary flow control loop is cascaded with the primary
temperature control loop, in which generally PI or PID controller is used as a primary
controller and proportional (P) controller is used as the secondary controller. Here the
offset caused by proportional controller in the secondary loop does not affect in controlling
the output of the secondary controller of the cascade control system.

19. Distinguish between analog and digital controllers.

In analog controllers, the signals are pneumatic (3 – 15 psig). The energy needed to
operate these pneumatic components is a source of clean, dry air at a pressure of about 20
psig.
In digital controllers, both electronic and pneumatic powers are required to operate the
components. A transducer or converter is needed between the controller and the control
valve to convert current (4 – 20 mA) to pressure (3 – 15 psig).

20. List out the tasks of a microprocessor based controllers. (May 2011) [May 2012]
The tasks of a microprocessor based controllers are to;
 Implement classical and advanced control algorithms
 Provide static and dynamic displays on the monitor
 Provide process and diagnostic alarms
 Provide mathematical functions
 Provide data acquisition and storage (archiving)

21. List out the advantages of a microprocessor based controllers.

The modern microprocessor based control plants have several advantages, such as
 The high speed of computations with large information storage capacity
 Reduction in the function cost
 Process safety for the control system

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It provides unlimited intelligence allowing to use advanced control techniques such as

adaptive, inferential, direct digital control, supervisory computer control and programmed
computer control.
The term microprocessor is synonymous with the computer and therefore microprocessor
based control is known as computer based control system.

22. Give the elements of a computer control system.

The elements of a computer control system are;
 Process
 Measuring element
 Transducer (or ADC)
 Microprocessor based controller (linked with Monitor, Keyboard and Printer)
 Transducer (or DAC)
 Control valve

23. What is an analog to digital converter?

It is represented as ADC or A/D converter, which converts the continuous (analog) signal
to a digital signal that can be used in the computer. Since the output from the computer is a
digital signal, a DAC or D/A converter is needed on the output of the computer so that a
continuous (analog) signal is available to operate the control valve. Typical analog signals
associated with the A/D and D/A converters range from 4 – 20 mA or 1 – 5 V.

24. List the functions of computers in process control system.

The role of computers in control
Computers can respond very rapidly to change.
Systems can run 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.
Control systems can operate in places that humans would find dangerous or awkward.
Outputs are consistent and error free.
Computers can process data quickly and machines can operate faster than humans.
Computers are now used to control many types of devices such as:
Air conditioning and central heating systems in large buildings
Security systems and burglar alarms
Manufacturing processes
Traffic lights and pedestrian crossings

Part-B (Questions)

1. Explain, with an example and diagrams, the cascade control system as applicable for a
chemical process. [May 2014] [May 2015]

2. Derive the transfer function for the cascade control system and discuss its advantages.

3. (i) Explain tuning of primary and secondary controllers in the cascade control system.
(ii) Sketch and explain typical computer controlled chemical process.

4. (i) Explain the advantages of cascade system over a simple feedback system.
(ii) Analyze the concept of feed forward control system and its application in industries.

5. (i) Obtain Gf for the feed forward –feedback system, so that the output variable doesn‟t
change when load disturbance occurs.

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(ii) If Gf is a lead-lag transfer function, explain the procedure to evaluate the time constant
of the lead and lag element using Foxboro‟s rule.

6. Explain the design of feed forward controller to eliminate the effect of disturbance on the
output. If the controller is physically unrealizable, explain the procedure of approximation
for realization. (May 2011)

7. (i) Discuss the principle and the advantages of feed forward control.
(ii) Briefly explain on „Ratio control‟.

8. With a neat sketch, explain the application of different control loops (or various control
strategies) as applicable for a distillation column control. List your assumptions clearly.
(May 2011) [May 2014]

9. Discuss various control schemes used for the control of shell and tube heat exchanger.

10. With a neat block diagram, explain how the temperature of process fluid can be controlled
in a heat exchanger.

11. (i) Discuss the tasks of a micro-processor based controller. [May 2014]
(ii) Discuss in detail the implementation of distributed control system in chemical plants.

12. Explain, with an example and diagrams, the cascade control system as applicable for a
chemical process. [May 2012]

13. With a neat sketch, explain the control of a heat exchanger used in a chemical process
plant. [May 2012]

14. Explain with suitable examples – Adaptive Controller [May 2015]

15. Explain in detail the control set up for distillation column and difficulties in controlling the
temperature in it. (May 2015)

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