Created by Turbolearn AI

CHAPTER-1 PERIODIC PROPERTIES AND VARIATIONS OF

PROPERTIES

Topic-1: Concepts covered: Features of Modern Periodic Table, Trends of the periodic
properties in periodic table.

General Introduction of Periodic Table

According to the modern periodic table, "The physical and chemical properties of elements are the periodic function of
their atomic number."
Niels Bohr gave the extended form of the table known as the long form of the modern periodic table.
A tabular arrangement of elements in groups (vertical columns) and periods (horizontal rows) highlighting the regular
trends in properties of elements is known as the periodic table.

Salient Features of the Modern Periodic Table

Groups
There are 1 to 18 vertical columns arranged from left to right in the modern periodic table known as groups. It is assigned
depending upon the number of the valence electrons.

Group 1 elements: called alkali metals. They form strong alkalis with water.
Group 2 elements: called alkaline earth metals. They form weaker alkalis as compared to group 1.
Group 13 elements: known as boron family.
Group 14 elements: known as carbon family.
Group 15 elements: known as nitrogen family (Pnictogen).
Group 16 elements: known as oxygen family or chalcogen family.
Group 17 elements: called halogen family. They form salts with metallic elements.
Group 18 (zero group) elements: called noble gases or inert gases. Due to stable electronic configuration, they hardly
react with other elements.
The elements of groups 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 are known as the main group elements or representative elements.
The outermost shell of all the elements of these groups are incomplete.
The elements of group 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 are known as transition elements. They have their two outermost
shells incomplete.

Periods
There are seven horizontal rows in the modern periodic table, called periods. The number of shells present in an atom
determines its period.

First period: the shortest period containing only two elements, i.e., hydrogen and helium.
Second period: a short period containing eight elements (Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, and Ne).
Third period: also a short period containing eight elements (Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, and Ar).
Fourth and fifth periods: long periods, each containing eighteen elements (atomic numbers 19 to 36 in the fourth period
and atomic numbers 37 to 54 in the fifth period).
Sixth and seventh periods: longest periods, each containing 32 elements (atomic numbers 55 to 86 in the sixth period and
atomic numbers 87 to 118 in the seventh period).

Page 1
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Periods Number of elements

1 2
2 8
3 8
4 18
5 18
6 32
7 32
In group 3 and sixth period, the elements from atomic numbers 57 to 71 are present which are called Lanthanides (rare
earth metals).
In group 3 and seventh period, the elements from atomic numbers 89 to 103 are present which are called Actinides
(radioactive elements).

Periodicity
The recurrence of elements with similar properties after certain regular intervals when these are arranged in the
increasing order of their atomic number is called periodicity.

The recurrence of similar electronic configuration, i.e., having the same number of electrons in the outermost orbit is the
cause of periodicity.
The chemical properties of elements depend upon the number of electrons in their outermost shell, so elements of the
same group have similar properties.

Example: Characteristics of Halogens:

They are coloured nonmetals.
They form anions, e.g., Cl-.
They are very reactive and so, found in combined state.
Their melting and boiling points increase on moving down the group.
They are good oxidising agents.

Atomic Size (Atomic Radius)

Atomic size is the most probable distance from the centre of the nucleus to the outermost shell of electrons.

Atomic size depends upon the number of shells and nuclear charge.

Factors Affecting Atomic Size:

(i) Number of shells: An increase in the number of shells increases the size of an atom, because the distance between the
outermost shell electrons and the nucleus increases.
(ii) Number charge: The positive charge present on the nucleus of an atom is called nuclear charge. An increase in nuclear
charge decreases the size of the atom because the nucleus attracts the electrons more closer towards itself leading to the
decrease in atomic size.

Trends in Atomic Size:

(i) Down a group: Atomic size increases on moving down a group, i.e., from top to bottom due to the increase in the number
of shells which over-weighs the increased nuclear charge.
(ii) Across a period: Atomic size decreases from left to right across a period due to an increase in the effective nuclear
charge (atomic number).

Metallic Character
It refers to the tendency of a metal to lose their valence electrons to form a cation (positive ion). Thus, the larger the
tendency of a metal to lose their valence electrons, the greater is their metallic character.

Page 2
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Trends in Metallic Character:

(i) Down a group: Metallic character increases down a group due to the increase in atomic size and nuclear charge.
(ii) Across a period: Metallic character decreases across a period i.e., on moving from left to right.

Non-Metallic Character
Non-metallic character refers to the tendency of a non-metal to gain electrons to form an anion (negative ion).

Trends in Non-metallic Character:

(i) Down a group: Non-metallic character decreases down a group due to the increase in atomic size and nuclear charge.
(ii) Across a period: Non-metallic character increases across a period (left to right) due to the decrease in atomic size.

Mnemonics

Mnemonics for first 20 elements : (1 to 20)

First 10 elements.
Mnemonics: Hi, Hello Listen BBC News on Friday Night
Interpretation:
Hi - Hydrogen
Hello - Helium
Listen - Lithium
B - Beryllium
B - Boron
C - carbon
News - Nitrogen
On - Oxygen
Friday - Fluorine
Night - Neon
Second 10 elements.
Mnemonics: Na Mango Aman Se Pepsi Soda Cola Aur Keemti Car
Interpretation:
Na - sodium
Mango - Magnesium
Aman - Aluminium
Se - Silicon
Pepsi - Phosphorus
Soda - Sulphur
Cola - Chlorine
Aur - Argon
Keemti - Potassium
Car - Calcium

Key Terms

Page 3
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Periodic Table:

It is an arrangement of various elements in such a way that the similar property bearing elements are grouped
together and dissimilar property bearing elements are separated from each other.

Modern Periodic Law:

The physical and chemical properties of the elements are the periodic functions of their atomic numbers.

Periodic Properties:

These are the properties related to the electronic configuration of elements that change periodically down a
group and across a period.

Periodicity:

The recurrence of elements with similar properties after certain regular intervals when these are arranged in the
increasing order of their atomic number is called periodicity.

Cause of Periodicity:

The cause of periodicity is the recurrence of similar electronic configuration, i.e., the same number of electrons in
the outermost orbit. In a particular group, electrons in the outermost orbit remain the same, i.e., electronic
configuration is similar.

Valency:

It is the combining capacity of an atom of the element. For normal elements, valency is equal to the number of
valence electrons in an atom of the element (Ex: group 1, 2 and 13) or eight minus number of electrons in the
valence shell of an atom (Ex: Group 15,16 and 17).

Key Terms
In the modern periodic table,

Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.

The vertical columns of elements with similar properties are called groups.
The horizontal rows are called periods.
Valency depends on the number of electrons in the outermost shell.
If the number of electrons in the outermost shell = 1, 2, 3, or 4 then their valency = 1, 2, 3, or 4 respectively.
If the number of electrons present in the outermost shell = 5, 6, or 7 then their valency = 8 - 5 = 3, 8 - 6 = 2 and 8 - 7 = 1
Valency is the combining capacity, so it is always positive.

Topic-2: Concepts covered: Periodicity on the basis of: 1. Atomic number, 2. Nuclear
charge, Study of different groups in periodic table

Atomic Number and Mass Number

The atomic number (Z) of an element is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus. However, it is a unique property of
an element because no two elements have the same atomic number.

AtomicN umber(Z) = N umberof protons(p) = N umberof electrons(e)

Atomic number

Page 4
 Created by Turbolearn AI

(i) It gives the electronic configuration of an element, e.g., an element with atomic number 13 will have electronic
configuration 2, 8, 3.

(ii) It helps in finding the position of element in periodic table. For example, the element with atomic number 17 will have
electronic configuration 2, 8, 7. This element will be placed in the 3rd period of group 17, i.e., VIIA, because it has:

(i) three energy shell and

(ii) seven electrons in its outermost shell.

The mass number (A) of an element is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of that
element.

M assN umber(A) = N umberof protons(p) + N umberof neutrons(n)

However, if we look at the electronic configurations of lighter elements it reveals that those elements which have even
number of protons, for example, atomic numbers like 4H e, 12C , etc., have their mass numbers twice the atomic numbers
except 9Be and 40Ar.
Elements which have odd number of protons like 7Li, 11B, 19F , 23N a, etc., have their mass numbers twice the atomic
numbers +1 (A = 2Z + 1) except 14N and 1H .

Neutron-Proton Ratio
(i) Elements with n/p (neutron/proton) ratio around 1 are stable, e.g., light metals like sodium, potassium, calcium, etc.
(ii) Elements with n/p ratio 1.5 and above are radioactive, i.e., they emit radiations. They are unstable elements, e.g., heavy
metals like uranium.

Ionization Energy or Ionization Potential:

(First) Ionization enthalpy is the amount of energy required to remove one valency electron from an isolated neutral
gaseous atom.

Trends in Ionization Energy:

(i) Down a group: Ionisation energy decreases due to an increase in atomic number and atomic size as one moves down a
group.
(ii) Across a period: Ionisation energy tends to increase across a period. This is because as one moves from left to right, the
atomic size decreases due to the increase in the nuclear charge. Thus, more energy is required to remove the electron(s).

Electron Affinity (EA) or Electron Gain Enthalpy:

The amount of energy released when one electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom to form a monovalent negative
ion.
− −
X(g) + e → X (g) + EA

Where X is any element taken in its gaseous state.

Trends in Electron Affinity:

(i) Down a group: As we move from top to bottom in a group, the atomic size increases more than the nuclear charge, so
there is a net decrease in electron affinity.
(ii) Across a period: As we move from left to right, the atomic size decreases and nuclear charge increases and the electron
affinity increases.

Electronegativity:
Electronegativity is the relative tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared pair of electrons towards
itself. Noble gases have complete octet, so they do not have tendency to attract electrons.

Trends in Electronegativity

Page 5
 Created by Turbolearn AI

(i) Down a group: Electronegativity decreases down a group.

(ii) Across a period: Electronegativity increases from left to right in a period. This is due to an increase in atomic number and
nuclear charge.

Key Words
Metals:

The elements, which possess a tendency to lose their valence electrons and form a positive ion, are considered
as metals.

Non-metals:

The elements, which possess a tendency to gain electrons, in order to attain octet in their outermost orbit, are
considered as non-metals.

Atomic Number:

The number of protons in the nucleus.

Mass Number:

It is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom of that element.

Key Terms
∘
−10
1A = 10 m
−12
1pm = 10 m

In group 17, the size of fluorine is smallest. F < Cl < Br < I < At

64pm < 99pm < 114pm < 133pm < 140pm

In the third period, the sodium atom is largest in size and chlorine atom is smallest. N a > M g > Al > Si > P > S > Cl

186pm > 160pm > 143pm > 117pm > 110pm > 104pm > 99pm

Exceptionally, the atomic size of inert gases is bigger. It is due to the fact that the outer shell of the inert gas is complete.
They have the maximum number of electrons in the outermost orbit so the electronic repulsions are maximum. (Noble
gases have fully filled outer shell due to which their radius is expressed as Vander Waal's radius which represents the
overall size of the atom which includes its valence shell in a non-bonded situation.) Thus, the size of the atom of an inert
gas is bigger.
Cation is always smaller than the parent atom, because cation is formed by the loss of electrons, so protons are more than
electrons in a cation. Therefore, electrons are strongly attracted by the nucleus, hence the size decreases.
Anion is larger than the parent atom, because the anion is formed by the gain of electrons, so the number of electrons are
more than protons. The effective positive charge in the nucleus is less so less inward pull takes place. Hence, the size of the
anion increases.
The ions having the same number of electrons are called isoelectronic ions. Greater is the nuclear charge, smaller is the
size. e.g., M g (10 electrons) N a (10 electrons) F (10 electrons) O (10 electrons)
2+ + − 2−

Elements which lose electrons to complete their octet are called reducing agents. Metals are good reducing agents. Greater
the tendency to lose electrons (s), stronger is the reducing agent.
The oxides of elements in a particular period show decreasing basic nature and finally become acidic. e.g.,
N a 2 O > M gO > Al 2 O 3 > SiO 2 > P 2 O 5 > SO 3 > Cl 2 O 7

Strongly basic > Basic > Amphoteric > Feebly acidic > Acidic > More acidic > Most acidic
The basic nature of oxides of metals increases down the group.
Helium will have the highest ionization energy (I E : 2372kJ ⋅ mol ) whereas caesium will have the lowest ionization
−1

energy (375kJ ⋅ mol ). −1

Metals usually have low I.E. while non-metals have high I.E.
The elements of the second period exhibit resemblance in properties with the elements of the next group of the third
period, due to very less electronegativity difference. This leads to a diagonal relationship. e.g., Li and Mg, Be and Al, B and
Si. These elements are known as bridge elements.
Group 1 2 13 14

Period 2 Li Be B C
Period 3 Na Mg Al Si

Page 6
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Atomicnumber(Z) = N umberof protons(p) = N umberof electrons(e)

M assnumber(A) = N umberof proton(p) + N umberof neutrons(n)

CHAPTER-2 CHEMICAL BONDING

Topic-1: Concepts covered: Electron dot structures, Electrovalent bonding and its
properties, Covalent bonding and its properties.

Electrovalent and Covalent Bonding

Stability of an atom means possessing the electron arrangement of an inert gas, i.e., octet in its outermost shell. To attain
stability, atoms tend to combine chemically by the redistribution of electrons in the outermost shell or valence electrons in
the outermost shell so that they attain a stable electronic configuration (duplet or octet).
Chemical combination occurs due to tendency of elements to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration in their outermost
orbit.
An atom is electrically neutral. The number of positively charged particles (i.e., proton) is equal to the number of negatively
charged particles (i.e., electrons). Every atom tries to attain the stable configuration of nearest inert gas, i.e., eight electrons
in the valence shell. Atoms attain the stable electronic configuration by either losing, gaining or sharing electrons.
The force of attraction that holds two atoms together to maintain the stability of a molecule is called a chemical bond.
Atoms form chemical bonds in order to attain stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas with the release of
energy.

A stable electronic configuration is achieved by:

(i) transfer of valence electrons from one atom to another (ionic bond or electrovalent bond).
(ii) sharing the pairs of electrons between two atoms (covalent bond).
(iii) donation of a pair of electrons from one atom to another (coordinate bond).

Electrovalent Bond
A chemical bond formed by the transfer of valence electrons from one atom (metal) to another atom (non-metal) is
called an electrovalent or an ionic bond.

Electrovalency
The number of electrons lost or gained by an atom to form an electrovalent bond is called electrovalency.

Conditions for the formation of an electrovalent bond are:

(i) Low ionisation potential
(ii) High electron affinity
(iii) Large electronegativity difference

Electron Dot Structure

The symbolic representation of an element indicating their valence shell electrons is called electron dot structure or
Lewis structure. For example, Electron dot structure for hydrogen is H ⋅ and for oxygen is ⋅O⋅

Electron Dot Structure of Some Electrovalent Compounds:

(i) N aCl
(ii) M gCl 2

(iii) CaO
] or CaO
2+ 2−
Ca ⋅ + ⋅ O⋅ → [Ca ][O

Calcium + Oxygen → Calcium Oxide

(2, 8, 8, 2) (2, 6) (2, 8, 8) (2, 8)

Page 7
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Properties of Electrovalent Compounds:

(i) Electrovalent or Ionic compounds are hard solids. As their constituent particles are ions that are held by strong
electrostatic forces of attraction, hence they cannot be separated easily.
(ii) Ionic compounds have high melting point and boiling point. They are non-volatile solids. As in these compounds ions
are held by strong electrostatic forces of attraction so there exists a large amount of attraction between the ions.
(iii) Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in their solid state as the ions are not free. They are held by strong
electrostatic forces of attraction. However, they can conduct electricity in their fused, molten, and in their aqueous solution.
However, in their molten state the strong forces of attraction get weakened and thus, the ions become free to conduct
electricity. In aqueous solution, the high dielectric constant overcomes strong electrostatic forces of attraction thus, the ions
become free to carry the electric current so they also act as strong electrodes.
(iv) Ionic compounds are soluble in water but they are insoluble in organic solvents. As water has maximum dielectric
constant, the force of attraction decreases between the ions and thus it forms free ions and hence they dissolve.
(v) On passing electric current through molten, fused, and aqueous solution of ionic compounds, the ions dissociate and
migrate towards electrodes.
(vi) Ionic compounds undergo fast reactions in their aqueous solutions.

Covalent Bond
The bond formed as a result of neutral sharing of electrons is called a covalent bond. The covalent bond formation
takes place between two non-metallic elements.

Conditions for the Formation of a Covalent Bond

The combining atoms should have:

(i) Four or more electrons in the outermost shell

(ii) High electronegativity
(iii) High electron affinity
(iv) High ionisation energy
(v) Electronegativity difference should be zero or negligible.

Types of covalent bonds

(i) A single covalent bond is formed by the sharing of one pair of electrons between the atoms, each atom contributing only
one electron. A single covalent bond is denoted by putting a single short line (-) between the two atoms.
(a) Formation of hydrogen molecule (H = 1)
H ⋅ + ⋅ H → H − H H2

(b) Formation of chlorine molecule (Cl = 2, 8, 7)

Cl ⋅ + ⋅ Cl → Cl − Cl Cl 2

(ii) A double covalent bond is formed by the sharing of two pairs of electrons between the two atoms to acquire stable
electronic configuration. A double covalent bond is denoted by putting a double line (=) between the two atoms.
Formation of oxygen molecule (O = 2, 6)
⋅O ⋅ + ⋅ O⋅ → O = O O2

(iii) A triple covalent bond is formed by the sharing of three pairs of electrons between the two atoms. A triple covalent
bond is denoted by putting three short lines (≡) between the two atoms.
Formation of nitrogen molecule (N = 2, 5)
N ⋅ + ⋅ N → N ≡ N N2

(iv) Polar covalent bonds: The covalent compounds in which the combining elements have a large difference in their
electronegativity are called polar covalent compounds.
Example: Hydrogen chloride gas (H Cl), Water (H O) and Ammonia (N H ).
2 3

(v) In the case of hydrogen chloride gas, chlorine is more electronegative than hydrogen, therefore chlorine attracts the
shared pair of electrons towards its side. Hence, chlorine acquires a partial negative charge and hydrogen acquires a partial
positive charge. Thus, the bonds become polar.
+ −
H ⋅ + ⋅ Cl → H Cl

Mutual sharing - Chlorine is more electronegative than hydrogen

(vi) The compounds formed by the mutual sharing of electrons are called covalent compounds.

Page 8
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Properties of covalent compounds:

(i) Covalent compounds are liquids or gases. Their constituent particles are held together by weak van der Waals forces.
(ii) Covalent compounds are volatile compounds with low melting point and boiling point. As in these compounds, the
molecules are held by weak van der Waals forces, so less amount of energy is required to overcome these forces of
attraction.
(iii) Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity as they do not contain ions. They only contain molecules.
(iv) On passing electric current through the covalent compounds, they do not ionise as they contain only molecules and not
ions. However, polar covalent compounds on dissolving in water produce ions and thus act as electrolytes.
(v) Covalent compounds are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
(vi) Covalent compounds only contain molecules and their dissociation to ions does not take place.
(vii) Covalent compounds undergo slow speed of reactions.

Mnemonics
1. Concept: Bonding
Mnemonics: Share Coconuts Together
Interpretation:
S- Shared pair of electrons
C- Covalent bond
T- Transfer of electrons
Mnemonics: India Bond
Interpretation:
I - Ionic bonding
B - Bond
2. Concept: Oxygen has a double Covalent bond, Nitrogen has a triple Covalent bond, Hydrogen has a single Covalent
Bond
Mnemonics: DO NOT SHUT CARE BOX
Interpretation:
D - double bond
O - Oxygen
N - Nitrogen
T - Triple bond
S Single bond
H - Hydrogen
C Covalent

Key Words

Page 9
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Ion:

Charged species of particles which exist freely in the solution.

Cation:

When an atom loses an electron, it gets converted to a positively charged particle called a cation.

Anion:

When an atom gains an electron, it gets converted to a negatively charged particle called an anion.

Octet rule:

It is the tendency of the atoms of the element to have eight electrons in its valence shell.

Noble Gases:

Gases that are chemically unreactive and have eight electrons in their valence shells (except helium which has
only two electrons in the first orbit).

Electropositive elements:

The elements that easily lose electrons and acquire a positive charge are called electropositive elements. Metals
are electropositive elements. Example: N a , K , Ca , M g , Al , etc.
+ + 2+ 2+ 3+

Electronegative elements:

The elements that easily gain electrons and acquire a negative charge are called electronegative elements. Non-
metals are electronegative elements. Example: Cl , Br , I , F , O , S , N , etc.
− − − − −

2
2− 3−

Electrovalency:

It is the number of electrons lost or gained by an atom of the element during the formation of an ionic bond.

Crystal Lattice:

It is the definite, three-dimensional geometrical arrangement of constituent atoms or ions in space.

Covalency:

It is the number of electrons contributed by an atom of the element for mutual sharing during the formation of a
covalent bond.

Key Terms
Sharing of one, two, or three pairs of electrons between two atoms to form a covalent or molecular bond.
The cation and anion being oppositely charged attract each other and form a chemical bond. Since this chemical bond
formation is due to the electrostatic force of attraction between a cation and an anion, it is known as the electrovalent or
ionic bond.
Caesium fluoride (CsF ) is the most ionic compound.
Bonds formed between metals and non-metals are ionic or electrovalent.
The electropositive atom undergoes oxidation while the electronegative atom undergoes reduction. This is known as the
redox process.
The process by which covalent compounds are converted into ions is known as ionisation.
The molecule that possesses both a partial positive charge (∂+) and a partial negative charge (∂−) is called a dipole
molecule.
Hydrogen can combine with all non-metals of Group IVA to VIIA with the help of covalent bonds.

Topic-2: Concepts covered: Introduction of coordinate bond, Characteristic properties of

coordinate bond, Formation of ammonium ion, hydronium ion and hydroxyl ion

Page 10
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Coordinate Bonding
The bond formed between two atoms by sharing a pair of electrons both of which are contributed by only one of the
bonding atoms but shared by both the atoms is called a coordinate bond.

The atom that provides the electron pair for the formation of a coordinate bond is known as the donor.
The atom or ion sharing the donated electron pair is known as the acceptor.
Coordinated bond has properties of both covalent and ionic bonds; thus, it is also known as a co-ionic bond.
A pair of electrons is not shared with any other atom for the formation of a coordinate bond.
The coordinate bond is shown by an arrow with its head pointing away from the donor to the acceptor atom (→).

Conditions for the Formation of Coordinate Bond

One of the two atoms must have at least one lone pair of electrons.
While another atom should be deficient of at least one lone pair of electrons.

Formation of Ammonium Ion (N H ) 4

+

Ammonium ion (N H ) is formed from ammonia molecule and hydrogen ion.

+

+ +
N H3 + H → NH
4

Coordinate Bonds and Ion Formation

Formation of Ammonium Ion (N H ) 4

+

An ammonium ion is formed through a coordinate bond between ammonia (N H ) and a hydrogen ion (H ). The nitrogen atom
3
+

in ammonia has a lone pair of electrons that it donates to the hydrogen ion.
+ +
N H3 + H → NH
4

Formation of Hydronium Ion (H 3O

+
)
A hydronium ion is formed from a water molecule (H O) and a hydrogen ion (H ). The oxygen atom in a water molecule has
2
+

two lone pairs of electrons. One of these lone pairs is donated to the hydrogen ion.
+ +
H + H2 O → H3 O

Here, water acts as an acceptor molecule, and the hydrogen ion forms a coordinate bond with it, resulting in the formation of a
hydronium ion.

Formation of Hydroxyl Ion (OH ) −

A hydroxyl ion (or hydroxide ion) is formed when one hydrogen ion (H ) is removed from a water molecule (H O). After
+
2

removing the hydrogen ion, the shared pair of electrons remains with the oxygen, as oxygen is more electronegative. This gives
the hydroxyl ion a negative charge.

Self-ionization of Water
Water can undergo self-ionization to form hydronium and hydroxide ions:
+ −
2H 2 O ⇌ H 3 O + OH

Acids, Bases, and Salts

Acids

Page 11
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Acids are compounds containing one or more hydrogen atoms that, when dissolved in water, produce hydronium ions
(H O ) as the only positively charged ions.
3
+

Examples of acids include hydrochloric acid (H Cl), sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ), and nitric acid (H N O ). 3

Ions Present in Acids

Mineral acids (inorganic acids) like H Cl, H SO , and H N O ionize completely in solution, resulting in a high concentration
2 4 3

of hydronium ions (H O ). Hydronium ions are hydrated hydrogen ions.

3
+

Organic acids like acetic acid (CH COOH ) and oxalic acid (H C O ) do not ionize completely in solution and contain both
3 2 2 4

ions and molecules.

Classification of Acids
1. Depending on their sources:

Organic acids: Obtained from plants and contain carbon along with hydrogen.

Example: CH 3
COOH (Acetic acid)

Inorganic acids: Obtained from minerals and do not contain carbon (except carbonic acid H 2
CO 3 ).

Example: H 2
SO 4 (Sulphuric acid), H Cl (Hydrochloric acid)

2. Depending on their strength:

Strong acids: Vigorously ionize in aqueous solution, producing a high concentration of hydronium ions (H 3
O
+
).

Example: H Cl, H 2
SO 4

Weak acids: Ionize only partially in aqueous solution, producing ions as well as molecules.

Example: CH 3
COOH (Acetic acid)

3. Depending on their concentration:

Concentrated acid: Contains less water.

Dilute acid: Contains more water.

4. Depending on molecular composition:

Oxy-acids: Contain oxygen along with hydrogen and another element.

Example: Nitric acid, Sulphuric acid

Hydro-acids: Contain hydrogen and a non-metallic element, but no oxygen.

Example: Hydrochloric acid

5. Depending on their basicity:

Basicity of an acid is defined as the number of hydronium ions (H 3

O
+
) that can be produced by ionization of one
molecule of that acid in aqueous solution.

Acid Basicity

Monobasic acid H Cl → H
+
+ Cl
−

Dibasic acid H 2 SO 4 → 2H
+
+ SO
2−
4

Tribasic acid H 3 P O 4 → 3H
+
+ PO
3−

Physical Properties of Acids

Page 12
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Acids have a sour taste in their aqueous solutions.

Acids turn blue litmus paper red.
The aqueous solution of all mineral acids contains hydrogen ions.
Mineral acids such as H Cl, H N O , H SO , etc., are highly corrosive and cause painful burns on the skin.
3 2 4

Conc. H SO stains the skin black.

2 4

Conc. H Cl stains the skin amber-colored.

Chemical Properties of Acids

Reaction with Metals: Metals more electropositive than hydrogen react with dilute H Cl and dilute H 2
SO 4 to liberate
hydrogen gas.
Zn(s) + 2H Cl(aq) → ZnCl 2 (aq) + H 2 (g)

H N O does not liberate hydrogen gas, except when Mg and Mn react with very dilute nitric acid.
3

Reaction with Metal Oxides: Acids react with metal oxides to form the corresponding salt and water.
CaO(s) + 2H Cl(aq) → CaCl 2 (aq) + H 2 O(l)

M nO 2 (s) + 4H Cl(aq) → M nCl 2 (aq) + 2H 2 O(l) + Cl 2 (g)

Reaction with Bicarbonates and Carbonates: Bicarbonates and carbonates are decomposed by dilute acids with the
liberation of carbon dioxide (CO ) gas.
2

N aH CO 3 (s) + H Cl(aq) → N aCl(aq) + H 2 O(l) + CO 2 (g)

CaCO 3 (s) + 2H N O 3 (aq) → Ca(N O 3 ) 2 (aq) + H 2 O(l) + CO 2 (g)

Reaction with Bisulphites and Sulphites: Bisulphites and sulphites are decomposed by dilute acids to liberate sulphur
dioxide (SO ) gas.
2

2N aH SO 3 (s) + H Cl(aq) → N aCl(aq) + H 2 O(l) + SO 2 (g)

N a 2 SO 3 (s) + H 2 SO 4 (aq) → N a 2 SO 4 (aq) + H 2 O(l) + SO 2 (g)

Reaction with Metal Sulphides: Dilute acids react with metal sulphides and liberate hydrogen sulphide gas.
F eS(s) + H 2 SO 4 (aq) → F eSO 4 (aq) + H 2 S(g)

Reaction with Common Salt: Hydrogen chloride gas is produced when concentrated sulphuric acid is added to common
salt.
2N aCl(s) + H 2 SO 4 (aq) → N a 2 SO 4 (aq) + 2H Cl(g)

Reaction with Nitrates: When sodium or potassium nitrate is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid, vapours of nitric acid
are evolved.
KN O 3 (s) + H 2 SO 4 (aq) → KH SO 4 (aq) + H N O 3 (g)

General Uses of Some Acids

Acid Use

Boric acid Antiseptic for Eye-wash

Oxalic acid Ink stain remover
Tartaric acid Baking powder
Citric acid Food preservative
Carbonic acid Flavoured drink
Phosphoric acid Fertilizers

Bases
A base is either a metallic oxide or a metallic hydroxide which reacts with hydronium ions of an acid to form salt and
water only.

An alkali is a basic hydroxide which when dissolved in water produces hydroxyl (OH ) ions as the only negatively
−

charged ions.
+ −
N aOH (aq) → N a + OH

Classification of Bases

Page 13
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1. On the basis of strength:

Strong base: Undergoes almost complete ionization in aqueous solution to produce a high concentration of OH . −

Example: Sodium hydroxide (N aOH ), potassium hydroxide (KOH ).

Weak base: Ionizes only to a small extent when dissolved in water.

Example: N H 4 OH , Ca(OH ) , etc.

2

2. On the basis of acidity:

The number of hydroxyl ions [OH ] which can be produced per molecule of the base in aqueous solution or the
−

number of hydrogen ions (of an acid) with which a molecule of that base will react to produce salt and water.

Base Acidity

Monoacidic base N aOH → N a

+
+ OH
−

Diacidic base Ca(OH ) 2 → Ca

2+
+ 2OH
−

Triacidic base Al(OH ) 3 → Al

3+
+ 3OH
−

3. Concentration of a base depends on the amount of water present in it.

A concentrated base has more quantity of base and a little or no water.

A dilute base has more water and less base.

Preparation of Bases
1. From Metals: Metals react with oxygen to give bases.
4N a + O 2 → 2N a 2 O

2M g + O 2 → 2M gO

2. By the action of water on metals (like sodium, potassium, and calcium):

2N a + 2H 2 O → 2N aOH + H 2

2K + 2H 2 O → 2KOH + H 2

Ca + 2H 2 O → Ca(OH ) 2 + H 2

3. By the action of water on soluble metallic oxides:

N a 2 O + H 2 O → 2N aOH

K 2 O + H 2 O → 2KOH

4. By Double Decomposition: Aqueous solution of salts with a base (alkali) precipitate the respective metallic hydroxide.
F eCl 3 + 3N aOH → F e(OH ) 3 + 3N aCl

CuSO 4 + 2N aOH → Cu(OH ) 2 + N a 2 SO 4

5. By the action of oxygen on metal sulphides:

2ZnS + 3O 2 → 2ZnO + 2SO 2

2P bS + 3O 2 → 2P bO + 2SO 2

6. By Decomposition of salts:
CaCO 3 → CaO + CO 2

CuCO 3 → CuO + CO 2

2Ca(N O 3 ) 2 → 2CaO + 4N O 2 + O 2

2Zn(N O 3 ) 2 → 2ZnO + 4N O 2 + O 2

Physical Properties of Bases

Alkalis have a bitter taste and are soapy to touch.
Alkalis turn red litmus paper blue.

Chemical Properties of Bases

Page 14
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Reaction with Acids: Alkalis react with acids to form salt and water.
2N aOH (aq) + H 2 SO 4 (aq) → N a 2 SO 4 (aq) + 2H 2 O

CuO(s) + H 2 SO 4 (aq) → CuSO 4 (aq) + H 2 O(l)

Reaction with Ammonium Salts: Alkalis react with ammonium salts to liberate ammonia gas with a pungent smell.
2N aOH (aq) + (N H 4 ) 2 SO 4 (aq) → N a 2 SO 4 (aq) + 2H 2 O(l) + 2N H 3 (g)

Reaction with Salts of Heavy Metals: Alkalis react with solutions of salts of heavy metals (copper, iron, zinc, lead, etc.) to
form insoluble precipitates of metal hydroxides.
CuCl 2 (aq) + 2N aOH (aq) → Cu(OH ) 2 + 2N aCl(aq)

F eCl 3 (aq) + 3N aOH (aq) → F e(OH ) 3 + 3N aCl(aq)

ZnCl 2 (aq) + 2N aOH (aq) → Zn(OH ) 2 + 2N aCl(aq)

Amphoteric Nature: Hydroxides of zinc, lead, and aluminum behave like acids in the presence of strong alkalis, while they
behave like bases in the presence of strong acids, so as to from salt and water.
Zn(OH ) 2 (aq) + 2N aOH (aq) → N a 2 ZnO 2 (aq) + 2H 2 O(l)

Zn(OH ) 2 (aq) + H 2 SO 4 (aq) → ZnSO 4 (aq) + 2H 2 O(l)

Al(OH ) 3 (aq) + N aOH (aq) → N aAlO 2 (aq) + 2H 2 O(l)

Al(OH ) 3 (aq) + 3H Cl(aq) → AlCl 3 (aq) + 3H 2 O(l)

Decomposition on Heating: All bases except N aOH and KOH decompose on heating to from their respective oxides.
H eat
Ca(OH ) 2 (aq) → CaO(aq) + H 2 O(l)

H eat

2Al(OH ) 3 (aq) → Al 2 O 3 (aq) + 3H 2 O(l)

Corrosive Nature: Caustic alkalis (N aOH and KOH ) are corrosive to the skin as they combine with the oils and fats in the
skin.

Uses of Bases
1. Aluminium hydroxide: Used as a foaming agent in fire extinguishers.
2. Sodium hydroxide: Used in the manufacture of soaps.
3. Ammonium hydroxide: Used for removing grease and stains from woollen clothes.
4. Potassium hydroxide: Used in the manufacturing of soft soaps and alkaline batteries.
5. Calcium hydroxide: Used in the manufacture of bleaching powder, softening of hard water, neutralising acidity of soil, as a
general germicide and in making mortar.

Neutralization Reaction
The reaction between an acid and a base to form salt and water is known as a neutralisation reaction.

H Cl(aq) + N aOH (aq) → N aCl(aq) + H 2 O(l)

Or,
+ −
H + OH → H 2 O(l)

Farmers reduce acidity of the soil by adding slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) to it.

Antacid tablets containing magnesium hydroxide are given to person suffering from acidity to neutralise excess acid produced in
the stomach.

Cold milk which is alkaline also helps a person in neutralising the hydrochloric acid present in the stomach.

The sting of ants and bees contains formic acid. This can be neutralised by rubbing soap which contains free sodium hydroxide,
on the affected area of the skin.

The sting of yellow wasps contains an alkali. This is neutralised by rubbing acetic acid (vinegar) on the affected area of the skin.

pH Scale
The acidity or alkalinity of a liquid is expressed in terms of pH. It is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration of the solution.
+
pH = −log[H ]

Page 15
 Created by Turbolearn AI

A pH of 7 indicates a neutral solution (pure water).

Numbers less than 7 indicate acidic solutions.
Numbers greater than 7 indicate alkaline solutions.

A reasonably accurate value of the pH of the solution can be determined by putting two or three drops of the solution on a wide
range pH paper. A colour will appear and by matching this colour with the chart provide by the supplier, the pH can be
determined.

Acidity/Basicity pH Range

Acidic <7
Neutral =7
Alkaline >7

Chemical Reactions & Properties

Weak Bases and Hydrolysis

Weak bases undergoing hydrolysis can result in acidic, alkaline, or neutral solutions depending on the dissociated ions and
undissociated molecules present.

Examples:
Ammonium acetate ([CH_3COONH_4])
Ammonium carbonate ([(NH_4)_2CO_3])

Water of Crystallization
It is that definite amount of water with which the substance is associated when crystallizing out from an aqueous
solution.

Example: Copper (II) sulphate crystallizes as a pentahydrate ([CuSO_4 \cdot 5H_2O]), meaning one mole of copper (II)
sulphate is associated with five moles of water.

Hydrated Salts
Compounds that crystallize out of their saturated solutions with a fixed number of water molecules are called hydrated
salts.
These water molecules are in loose chemical combination with the salt.
The crystalline nature of hydrated salts is owed to these water molecules.

Examples of Salts Containing Water of Crystallization

Common Name Chemical Name Formula

White vitriol Zinc sulphate heptahydrate (ZnSO_4 \cdot 7H_2O)

Glauber's salt Sodium sulphate decahydrate (Na_2SO_4 \cdot 10H_2O)
Washing soda Sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na_2CO_3 \cdot 10H_2O)
Potash alum Potassium aluminium sulphate (KAl(SO_4)_2 \cdot 12H_2O)
Epsom salt Magnesium sulphate heptahydrate (MgSO_4 \cdot 7H_2O)
Green vitriol Iron(II) sulphate heptahydrate (FeSO_4 \cdot 7H_2O)
Blue vitriol Copper(II) sulphate pentahydrate (CuSO_4 \cdot 5H_2O)
Lime saltpetre Calcium nitrate (Ca(NO_3)_2 \cdot 4H_2O)

Hygroscopic Substances
Certain substances absorb moisture from the atmosphere without dissolving in it when exposed to ordinary
temperatures. This property is called hygroscopy.

Page 16
 Created by Turbolearn AI

These substances are used for drying gases in the lab.

Examples: Concentrated sulphuric acid ((H_2SO_4)), quick lime ((CaO)), silica gel, phosphorus pentaoxide ((P_2O_5)).

Drying/Desiccating Agents
Substances that remove moisture from other substances.

Almost all hygroscopic substances can act as desiccating agents.

Examples: Concentrated sulphuric acid, phosphorus pentaoxide, quick lime.

Dehydrating Agents -
Substances that can remove water molecules even from compounds.

Example: Concentrated sulphuric acid can remove water molecules from blue vitriol ((CuSO_4 \cdot 5H_2O)):

CuSO 4 ⋅ 5H 2 O + H 2 SO 4 → CuSO 4 + 5H 2 O

Key Chemical Processes

Displacement: A chemical change where a more active element displaces a less active element from its salt solution.
Decomposition: A chemical change where a compound breaks down into its elements or simpler compounds.
Hydrolysis: The reaction of a salt (formed by a weak acid/base and a strong base/acid) with water to produce an acidic or
alkaline solution.

Properties of Salts
Acid salts ionize in water to give hydronium ions, exhibiting acidic properties.
Soluble salts are obtained through evaporation and crystallization.
Some soluble salts like zincates and aluminates exist only in solution and cannot be crystallized.
Insoluble salts can be obtained from other insoluble salts via double decomposition.
Solubility guidelines:
Soluble: at least 1 g dissolves in 100 mL water at 298 K.
Partially soluble: 0.1 g to 1 g dissolves in 100 mL water at 298 K.
Insoluble: less than 0.1 g dissolves in 100 mL water at 298 K.
All metallic oxides and hydroxides are insoluble, except those of sodium, potassium, and ammonium. Calcium hydroxide is
slightly soluble.
(NaHCO_3) is sparingly soluble, while (KHCO_3) is fairly soluble in water.
Efflorescent substances lose weight, while hygroscopic and deliquescent substances gain weight when exposed to the
atmosphere.
Commercial table salt (NaCl) contains impurities like (MgCl_2) and (CaCl_2), which are deliquescent, causing it to turn
moist.

Analytical Chemistry

Qualitative Analysis
Qualitative analysis is carried out with the help of reagents. A reagent is a substance that reacts with another
substance.

Alkalis like (NaOH), (KOH), and (NH_4OH) are important lab reagents, giving characteristic tests with metal ions.

Colors of Salts and Ions

Salts of normal elements (Groups 1, 2, 13-17) are generally colorless.
Salts of transition elements (Groups 3-12) are generally colored.

Page 17
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Colorless Ions

Cation Symbol

Ammonium ion (NH_4^+)

Sodium ion (Na^+)
Potassium ion (K^+)
Calcium ion (Ca^{2+})
Magnesium ion (Mg^{2+})
Aluminium ion (Al^{3+})
Lead ion (Pb^{2+})
Zinc ion (Zn^{2+})
Anion Symbol

Chloride ion (Cl^-)

Sulphate ion (SO_4^{2-})
Carbonate ion (CO_3^{2-})
Nitrate ion (NO_3^-)
Hydride ion (H^-)
Bicarbonate ion (HCO_3^-)
Bromide ion (Br^-)
Acetate ion (CH_3COO^-)
Sulphide ion (S^{2-})

Colored Ions

Cation Symbol Colour

Cupric ion (Cu^{2+}) Blue

Ferrous ion (Fe^{2+}) Light green
Ferric ion (Fe^{3+}) Yellow/brown
Nickel ion (Ni^{2+}) Green
Chromium ion (Cr^{3+}) Green
Manganese ion (Mn^{2+}) Pink
Anion Symbol Colour

Permanganate ion (MnO_4^-) Pink or Purple

Dichromate ion (Cr_2O_7^{2-}) Orange
Chromate ion (CrO_4^{2-}) Yellow

Reactions with Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

Precipitate Solubility in Excess

Salt Ion Reaction with (NaOH)
(Colour) (NaOH)

(MgSO_4) (Mg^{2+}) (MgSO_4 + 2NaOH \rightarrow Mg(OH)_2 + Na_2SO_4) White Insoluble

(FeSO_4) (Fe^{2+}) (FeSO_4 + 2NaOH \rightarrow Fe(OH)_2 + Na_2SO_4) Dirty green Insoluble
(FeCl_3) (Fe^{3+}) (FeCl_3 + 3NaOH \rightarrow Fe(OH)_3 + 3NaCl) Reddish brown Insoluble
(CuSO_4) (Cu^{2+}) (CuSO_4 + 2NaOH \rightarrow Cu(OH)_2 + Na_2SO_4) Pale blue Soluble
(ZnSO_4) (Zn^{2+}) (ZnSO_4 + 2NaOH \rightarrow Zn(OH)_2 + Na_2SO_4) White gelatinous Soluble
(Zn(OH)_2 + 2NaOH \rightarrow Na_2ZnO_2 + 2H_2O) (Colourless)
(Pb(NO_3)_2 + 2NaOH \rightarrow Pb(OH)_2 +
(Pb(NO_3)_2) (Pb^{2+}) Chalky white Soluble
2NaNO_3)
(Pb(OH)_2 + 2NaOH \rightarrow Na_2PbO_2 + 2H_2O) (Colourless)
(Ca(NO_3)_2 + 2NaOH \rightarrow Ca(OH)_2 +
(Ca(NO_3)_2) (Ca^{2+}) White Sparingly Soluble
2NaNO_3)

Page 18
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Reactions with Ammonium Hydroxide ((NH_4OH))

Precipitate Solubility in Excess

Salt Ion Reaction with (NH_4OH)
(Colour) (NH_4OH)

(MgCl_2) (Mg^{2+}) (MgCl_2 + 2NH_4OH \rightarrow Mg(OH)_2 + 2NH_4Cl) White Insoluble

(FeSO_4) (Fe^{2+}) (FeSO_4 + 2NH_4OH \rightarrow Fe(OH)_2 + (NH_4)_2SO_4) Dirty green Insoluble
(FeCl_3) (Fe^{3+}) (FeCl_3 + 3NH_4OH \rightarrow Fe(OH)_3 + 3NH_4Cl) Reddish brown Insoluble
(CuSO_4 + 2NH_4OH \rightarrow Cu(OH)_2 +
(CuSO_4) (Cu^{2+}) Pale blue Soluble
(NH_4)_2SO_4)
(Cu(OH)_2 + (NH_4)_2SO_4 + 2NH_4OH \rightarrow
(Deep blue)
[Cu(NH_3)_4]SO_4 + 4H_2O)
(ZnSO_4 + 2NH_4OH \rightarrow Zn(OH)_2 +
(ZnSO_4) (Zn^{2+}) White gelatinous Soluble
(NH_4)_2SO_4)
(Zn(OH)_2 + (NH_4)_2SO_4 + 2NH_4OH \rightarrow
(Colourless)
[Zn(NH_3)_4]SO_4 + 4H_2O)
(Pb(NO_3)_2 + 2NH_4OH \rightarrow Pb(OH)_2 +
(Pb(NO_3)_2) (Pb^{2+}) Chalky white Soluble
2NH_4NO_3)

Action of Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) on Metals

Zinc:

Zn + 2N aOH → N a 2 ZnO 2 + H 2

Aluminum:

2Al + 2N aOH + 2H 2 O → 2N aAlO 2 + 3H 2

Lead:

P b + 2N aOH → N a 2 P bO 2 + H 2

Reactions with potassium hydroxide (KOH) are similar.

Action of Alkalis on Amphoteric Metal Oxides/Hydroxides

Zinc Oxide:

ZnO + 2N aOH → N a 2 ZnO 2 + H 2 O

Zinc Hydroxide:

Zn(OH ) 2 + 2N aOH → N a 2 ZnO 2 + 2H 2 O

Lead Oxide:

P bO + 2N aOH → N a 2 P bO 2 + H 2 O

Lead Hydroxide:

P b(OH ) 2 + 2N aOH → N a 2 P bO 2 + 2H 2 O

Aluminum Oxide:

Al 2 O 3 + 2N aOH → 2N aAlO 2 + H 2 O

Aluminum Hydroxide:

Al(OH ) 3 + N aOH → N aAlO 2 + 2H 2 O

Reactions with KOH are similar.

Page 19
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Key Concepts
Analysis: Determination of chemical components in a given sample.
Analytical chemistry: Branch of chemistry dealing with the experimental study of samples via qualitative and quantitative
methods.
Qualitative analysis: Identification of unknown substances in a sample using chemical tests.
Quantitative analysis: Determination of the composition of a mixture.
Precipitation: Formation of an insoluble solid substance in water.
Reagent: Substance that reacts with another substance.

Important Points
Adding (NaOH) solution to metallic salt solutions precipitates metal hydroxides.
The color of the precipitate identifies the specific metal ion.
Adding (NH_4OH) solution to metallic salt solutions forms hydroxide precipitates, identified by their colors.
Some metallic hydroxides are soluble in excess (NH_4OH) due to the formation of soluble amino compounds.
Certain metals (Zn, Al, Pb) react with hot concentrated caustic alkalis (NaOH or KOH) to form soluble salts and liberate
hydrogen.
Amphoteric oxides and hydroxides react with both acids and alkalis to form salt and water.

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Gay-Lussac's Law of Combining Volumes

Whenever gases react, they do so in volumes which bear a simple whole number ratio to one another and to the
volumes of gaseous products, provided all volumes are measured under similar conditions of temperature and
pressure.

Valid only for gases; volumes of solids and liquids are considered zero.
Expresses the relationship between pressure and temperature for a given mass and constant volume of an ideal gas.

Example:

H 2 + Cl 2 → 2H Cl

1 Vol. + 1 Vol. -> 2 Vol.

Simple ratio: 1:1:2

Avogadro's Law Explanation

Avogadro's Law states that under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different gases contain the
same number of molecules. This explains Gay-Lussac's Law, as substances react in simple ratios by the number of molecules.

H 2 + Cl 2 → 2H Cl

1 vol + 1 vol -> 2 vol [by Gay-Lussac's law]

Mnemonic
Can These Guys Possibly Be Victorious?

Charles - Temperature
Gay Lussacs Law - Pressure
Boyles - Volume

Key Terms

Page 20
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Absolute Scale or Kelvin Scale: A temperature scale with absolute zero (Zero Kelvin) as the starting point.
Limiting Reagent or Reactant: The reactant which is completely used up in a reaction.
Stoichiometry: Measures the quantitative relationship to determine the amount of products or reactants that are produced
or required in a given reaction.
Atom: The smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction.
Molecule: The smallest particle of an element or a compound that can exist by itself.

Important Notes
Standard values for gas volumes:
0°C or 273 K for temperature
1 atmospheric pressure or 760 mm or 76 cm of Hg for pressure.
Absolute zero = 0K = -273°C
Gay-Lussac's Law is valid only for gases.
The relative atomic mass of any element is the weighted average of the relative atomic masses of its natural isotopes.
Example: Chlorine (35 and 37 in the ratio of 3:1)
Molecular Mass = Atomicity * Atomic Mass

Relative Molecular Mass and Mole Concept

Relative Molecular Mass

The mass of one molecule of an element or compound compared to the mass of an atom of carbon-12, which is
assigned a value of 12.00.

Gram molecular mass is the mass of one mole of a substance (e.g., (O_2 = 32) g, (HNO_3 = 63) g).

Vapour Density (V.D.)

The relative molecular mass of a gas or vapor is twice its vapor density.
Relative molecular mass of a gas = 2 * V.D.
The molar mass of any gas is its relative molecular mass expressed in grams.
The molar volume of any gas at STP is equal to 22.4 (dm^3).
The volume of a gas containing (6.023 \times 10^{23}) molecules is always 22.4 (dm^3) at STP.

Mole Concept
A mole is a collection of (6.023 \times 10^{23}) (Avogadro's number) elementary particles (atoms, ions, or molecules).

One mole of atoms contains (6.023 \times 10^{23}) atoms, with a mass equal to its gram atomic mass.

Mole Relationships
Mass of the substance

M ass of the substance

N umber of moles =
Gram molecular mass of the substance

Number of particles

N umber of particles in the substance

N umber of particles =
23
6.023 × 10

Examples

Page 21
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1 mole of (H_2SO_4 = (2 \times 1) + 32 + (4 \times 16) = 98) g (= 6.022 \times 10^{23}) molecules of (H_2SO_4)
1 mole of (NH_3 = 14 + (3 \times 1) = 17) g (= 6.022 \times 10^{23}) molecules of (NH_3)
1 mole of (Na = 23) g (= 6.023 \times 10^{23}) atoms of (Na)
Volume occupied by 1 mole of (NH_3 = 22.4) liters at STP
Volume occupied by 1 mole of (O_2 = 22.4) liters at STP

Relative Vapour Density

The ratio between the masses of equal volumes of gas (or vapor) and hydrogen under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure.

M ass of volume of the gas under similar conditions

Relative V . D. =
M ass of volume of hydrogen gas under similar conditions

(Relative \space vapour \space density \space (VD) = Relative \space molecular \space mass \space of \space a \space gas)

Mnemonic
My Mom is equal to 2 vestern Dancer

Molecular mass = 2 * Vapour density

Key Terms
Relative Atomic Mass: The number of times one atom of the element is heavier than 1/12 time of the mass of an atom of
C-12.
Atomic Mass Unit: 1/12 the mass of a carbon atom C-12.
Relative Molecular Mass: The number representing how many times one molecule of the substance is heavier than 1/12 of
the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
Gram Atomic Mass: The atomic mass of an element expressed in grams.
One Gram Atom: The quantity of the element which weighs equal to its gram atomic mass.
Gram Molecular Mass: The molecular mass of a substance expressed in grams.
Avogadro's Number: The number of atoms present in 12 g of C-12 isotope, i.e., (6.023 \times 10^{23}) atoms.

Key Terms
One mole of oxygen atoms contains (6.023 \times 10^{23}) atoms of oxygen and weighs 16 g.
1 G.M.M. of the substance = 1 mole of that substance = (6.02 \times 10^{23}) molecules of that substance = 22.4 L at S.T.P.
The relative vapor density of a gas (or a vapor) is the ratio between the masses of equal volumes of gas (or vapor) and
hydrogen under the same conditions of temperature and pressure.
The relative molecular mass of a gas or vapor is twice its vapor density.

Formulas

Page 22
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Mass of one atom:

Atomic mass
M ass of one atom =
23
6.023 × 10

Mass of one molecule:

M olecular mass
M ass of one molecule =
23
6.023 × 10

Number of molecules:
23
N umber of molecules = moles × 6.023 × 10

Number of atoms:
23
N umber of atoms = moles × 6.023 × 10

Percentage Composition, Empirical and Molecular Formula

Molecular Formula
It is the symbolic representation of a molecule of a substance which indicates the actual number of atoms of various
elements present in one molecule of it.

Example: Molecular formula of benzene = (C_6H_6)

Calculating Percentage of an Element in a Compound

T otal mass of the element
P ercentage of an element in a compound = × 100
M olecular mass of the the compound

Empirical Formula
It gives the simplest whole number ratio between the atoms of various elements present in one molecule of it.

Empirical formula of benzene = (CH)

Empirical formula of glucose = (CH_2O)

Relationship between Empirical and Molecular Formula

The molecular formula of a compound is a simple whole number multiple of its empirical formula.

M olecular f ormula = n × empirical f ormula

Where n is a simple whole number.

M olecular f ormula
n =
Empirical f ormula

M olecular mass
n = = 2 × V apour density of a gas or vapour/Empirical f ormula mass
Empirical f ormula mass

Mnemonic
MF Tyres Not Easy To Fail

Molecular Formula = n * Empirical Formula

Key Terms

Page 23
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Molecular formula of Blue vitriol is (CuSO_4 \cdot 5H_2O).

The empirical formula of glucose ((C_6H_{12}O_6)) is (CH_2O).
It indicates that the ratio of C, H and O atoms in a molecule of glucose is 1:2:1.

Electrolysis

Electrolytes and Non-electrolytes

Electrochemical Changes
Chemical changes accompanied by the flow of electricity.

Electrolysis: Using electricity to carry out a reaction.

Electricity production: Producing electricity as a result of indirect redox reactions.

Conductors
Metallic Conductors: Conduct electricity in the solid state without chemical decomposition.
Examples: Copper, silver, gold, graphite, etc.
Electrolytes: Conduct electricity in solution or molten state with chemical decomposition.
Examples: Sodium chloride (NaCl), hydrogen chloride (HCl), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), etc.
Non-electrolytes: Do not conduct electricity in molten or dissolved state.
Examples: Urea, Sucrose, Glucose, Fructose, etc.

Differences between Metallic Conductors and Electrolytes

Feature Metallic conductors Electrolytes

Flow of electricity Movement of electrons Movement of ions

Conductivity vs temperature Decreases with increasing temperature Increases with increasing temperature
State of conductivity Solid state Molten or dissolved state
Flow of matter No flow Flow of matter
Chemical decomposition No chemical decomposition (physical change) Chemical decomposition (chemical change)

Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation (Svante Arrhenius, 1887)

Electrolytes dissociate into free mobile ions (cations and anions) when dissolved in water.
Ions carry electric charge and are responsible for current flow.
Conductivity depends on ion concentration.
The solution is in electrolyte equilibrium, with an equal number of positive and negative charges.
Non-electrolytes do not ionize in solution.
The degree of dissociation is the extent to which an electrolyte breaks up into ions.

Electrolysis Process
The process by which ionic substances are decomposed into simpler substances when an electric current is passed
through them.

Characteristics of Electrolysis

Page 24
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Metallic ions (cations) migrate toward the cathode, and non-metallic ions (anions) migrate toward the anode.
The number of electrons gained by the anode equals the number of electrons donated by the cathode.
Hydrogen gas and metals are liberated at the cathode (electropositive elements).
Non-metals are liberated at the anode (electronegative elements).
Electrolysis is a redox reaction.
Cathode: Reduction of cations (gain electrons).
Anode: Oxidation of anions (lose electrons).

Example: Electrolysis of NaCl

+ −
N aCl → N a + Cl

At Cathode:
+ −
Na + e → N a (Reduction)

At Anode:
− −
Cl → Cl + e (Oxidation)

Cl + Cl → Cl 2

Overall Reaction:

2N aCl → 2N a + Cl 2

Important Points
Alternating current (AC) does not cause chemical change and does not help electrolysis.
Electrolysis is caused by direct current (DC).

Electrochemical Series
Elements are arranged based on how readily they ionize (discharge difficulty).

Elements that ionize most readily are placed at the top.

Electrochemical Series Table

Metal Cation Cathode Behavior Anode Behavior Anion

K K+ Discharged with most difficulty SO42-

Ca Ca2+
Na Na+ NO3-
Positive ions (cations) discharged at the cathode by Negative ions (anions) discharged at the anode by
Mg Mg2+
the gain of electrons the loss of electrons
The tendency of cations to get reduced at the
The tendency of anions to get oxidized at the anode
Al Al3+ cathode increases on descending the Cl-
increases on descending the electrochemical series
electrochemical series
Zn Zn2+ Br-
Fe Fe2+
Pb Pb2- I-
H H+
Cu Cu2+ OH-
Hg Hg2+
Ag Ag+ Discharged most easily Discharged most easily

Selective Discharge of Ions

Page 25
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The preferential discharge of ions at the respective electrodes.

Depends on:
Relative position in the electrochemical series.
Concentration of the ions in the electrolyte.
Nature of the electrode.

Concentration of Ions
Higher concentration increases the probability of discharge at the respective electrode.

Example: Electrolysis of Concentrated NaCl Solution

+ −
N aCl ⇌ N a + Cl

+ −
H2 O ⇌ H + OH

## Electrolysis of NaCl Solutions

Electrolysis of Dilute NaCl Solution

When electrolyzing a dilute solution of NaCl:

NaCl dissociates into Na+ and Cl- ions.

H2O dissociates into H+ and OH- ions.

At the cathode, Na+ ions are discharged.

At the anode, OH- ions are discharged.

The concentration of Na+ and Cl- ions is much higher than H+ and OH- ions.

The reactions can be represented as:

+ −
N aCl ⟶ N a + Cl

+ −
H2 O ⟶ H + OH

Nature of the Electrode

Electrodes used in electrolysis can be either inert or active.

Active Electrodes: If an active electrode (e.g., Cu, Ni, Ag) is used, it participates in the chemical reaction. Anions (e.g., SO42-
and OH- ions) migrate to the anode but are not discharged. Instead, the active electrode loses electrons and forms ions
(e.g., Cu2+, Ag+).
Inert Electrodes: If an inert electrode (e.g., iron, graphite, platinum) is used, it does not participate in the electrolyte
reaction.

Electrolysis Examples

Electrolysis of Molten Lead Bromide

Electrolyte: Molten Lead Bromide (PbBr2)
Temperature: Above 380°C
Electrolytic Cell: Crucible made of silica
Electrodes: Graphite plates (inert)
Ions Present: Pb2+ and Br-

Electrode Reactions:

Page 26
 Created by Turbolearn AI

At the cathode:
2+ −
Pb + 2e ⟶ Pb

At the anode:
− −
Br ⟶ e ⟶ Br

Br + Br ⟶ Br 2

Overall Reaction:

P bBr (l) ⟶ P b (s) + Br 2(g)

Observations:

Dark reddish-brown fumes of bromine evolve at the anode.

Greyish-white metallic lead is formed on the cathode.

Electrolysis of Acidified Water Using Platinum Electrodes

Electrolyte: Acidified water (Water + Dilute H2SO4)
Electrodes: Platinum foils
Ions Present: H+, OH-, SO42-

Electrode Reactions:

At the cathode:
+ −
H + e ⟶ H

H + H ⟶ H2

At the anode:
− −
OH ⟶ OH + e

OH + OH ⟶ H 2 O + O

O + O ⟶ O2

Overall Reaction:
ElectricCurrent

2H 2 O
− → 2H 2(g) + O 2(g)

The ratio of hydrogen and oxygen liberated at the cathode and anode is 2:1 by volume.

Electrolysis of Copper Sulphate Solution Using Platinum Anode and Copper or Platinum
Cathode
Electrolyte: Saturated solution of Copper (II) Sulphate in distilled water with a small amount of conc. H2SO4.
Particles present: Cu2+, H+, SO42-, OH- and H2O molecules
Ions present: Cu2+, H+, SO42-, and OH-

Electrode Reactions:

At the cathode:
2+ −
Cu + 2e ⟶ Cu

At the anode:
− −
4OH ⟶ 4e ⟶ 4OH

2OH + 2OH ⟶ 4H 2 O + O 2

Products:

Page 27
 Created by Turbolearn AI

At the anode: Oxygen

At the cathode: Pink or reddish-brown copper is deposited.

Electrolysis of Aqueous Copper Sulphate Using Copper Electrodes

Electrolytic Cell: Iron crucible/glass voltmeter

Electrolyte: Aqueous Copper Sulphate

Electrodes: Cathode: Copper, Anode: Copper

Dissociation:
2+ 2−
CuSO 4 ⟶ Cu + SO
4

+ −
H2 O ⟶ H + OH

Ions present: Cu2+, H+, SO42-, OH-

Electrode Reactions:

At the cathode:
2+ −
Cu + 2e ⟶ Cu (reduction)

At the anode:
2+ −
Cu ⟶ Cu + 2e (oxidation)

Products:

At the cathode: Brownish-pink metallic Cu is deposited.

At the anode: Nil [copper ions formed]

At the cathode, Cu2+ ions and H+ ions migrate, but Cu2+ ions are discharged in preference to H+ because Cu2+ is
lower in the electrochemical series.

Mnemonics for Remembering Concepts

Electrochemical Series
Mnemonic: "Like Kings Can Not Make A Zebra. I Like His Cars Huge Silvery Gate."

Interpretation:

Li (Lithium)
K (Potassium)
Ca (Calcium)
Na (Sodium)
Mg (Magnesium)
Al (Aluminum)
Zn (Zinc)
I (Iron)
H (Hydrogen)
Cu (Copper)
Ag (Silver)
Au (Gold)

Electrode Reactions
Mnemonic: "An OIL RIG CAT"

Page 28
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Interpretation:

At the Anode, Oxidation Involves Loss of electrons.

Reduction Involves Gaining electrons at the Cathode.

Key Words
Electrochemistry:

The branch of chemistry dealing with the relationship between electrical and chemical energy.

Conductors:

Substances that conduct electric current (e.g., copper, silver, gold, graphite).

Insulators:

Substances that do not conduct electric current (e.g., rubber, wood, plastic, glass, sulfur).

Ionization:

The process by which a polar covalent compound is converted into ions in aqueous solutions.

Dissociation:

The process of separation of ions of an ionic solid in aqueous solutions.

Degree of Ionization or Dissociation:

The fraction of the total number of moles of electrolytes that undergo ionization or dissociation in solution at
equilibrium.

Electrolytic Cell:

The vessel in which electrolysis is carried out, also called a voltameter.

Electrodes:

Rods or plates of metals (or graphite) dipped in the electrolyte through which electric current enters or leaves.

Anode:

The electrode connected to the positive terminal of the battery. Oxidation takes place at the anode.

Cathode:

The electrode connected to the negative terminal of the battery. Reduction takes place at the cathode.

Ions:

Atoms or groups of atoms carrying a positive or negative charge.

Anions:

Ions that migrate to the anode during electrolysis.

Cations:

Ions that migrate to the cathode during electrolysis.

Key Terms

Page 29
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Term Definition

Electrolysis The process of separating ionic compounds through the flow of electricity.
Conductors Materials that allow the flow of electric current.
Non-conductors Materials that do not allow the flow of electric current.
Electrolytic cell Converts electrical energy into chemical energy.
Electrochemical cell Converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
Oxidation Loss of electrons, addition of oxygen, or removal of hydrogen.
Reduction Gain of electrons, removal of oxygen, or addition of hydrogen.
Dil. H2SO4 Preferred for making acidified water because it is non-volatile.

Applications of Electrolysis

Electroplating
A process where a thin film of metal is deposited on another metallic article using electricity.

Electroplating with Silver

Electrolyte: Sodium argentocyanide, Na[Ag(CN)2]
Cathode: Article to be plated
Anode: Pure silver plate

Reactions:
+ +
N a[Ag(CN ) 2 ] ⟶ N a + Ag + 2CN

+ −
H2 O ⟶ H + OH

Electrode Reactions:

At the cathode: $$Ag^+{(aq)} + e^- \longrightarrow Ag{(s)}$$

At the anode:
+ −
Ag (s) ⟶ Ag + e
(aq)

Electroplating with Nickel

Electrolyte: Nickel Sulphate, NiSO4
Cathode: Pure nickel plate
Anode: Pure nickel plate

Reactions:
2+ 2−
N iSO 4 ⟶ N i + SO
4

+ −
H2 O ⟶ H + OH

Electrode Reactions:

At the cathode: $$Ni^{2+}{(aq)} + 2e^- \longrightarrow Ni{(s)}$$

At the anode:
2+ −
N i (s) ⟶ N i + 2e
(aq)

Reasons for Electroplating:

Prevents corrosion or rusting.

For decoration purposes, making articles attractive and expensive-looking.

Conditions to Maintain During Electroplating:

Page 30
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The article to be plated is always the cathode.

The metal to be plated is always the anode.
The electrolyte solution must contain the metal ions.
Use less current for a longer time.
Use only direct current (DC).

Electro-refining
A process where impure metals are purified electrolytically.

Impure metal is the anode.

A thin sheet of pure metal is the cathode.
Electrolyte contains a suitable metal electrolyte.

Reactions:

At the cathode:
2+ −
Cu + 2e ⟶ Cu (deposited)

At the anode:
− 2+
Cu ⟶ 2e ⟶ Cu

Electro-metallurgy
The process of extracting metals from their fused or molten ores using electrolysis.

Mnemonics for Reactions at Electrodes

Mnemonic: "Red cat attack an ox"
Red: Reduction
Cat: Cathode
An: Anode
Ox: Oxidation

Key Terms for Applications of Electrolysis

Term Definition

Electroplating A process in which a thin film of a metal is deposited on another metallic article with the help of electricity.
A process by which metals extracted from their ores by chemical methods are freed from impurities
Electro-refining
electrolytically to obtain metals in their pure state.
Electro-
The process of extraction of metals that are higher in the electrochemical series from their ores by electrolysis.
metallurgy
During electrorefining, the impurities present in the crude metal either pass into the solutions or settle down as
Anode Mud
anode mud.

Key Terms
Brass objects are frequently plated with silver to give them a shining appearance and beauty.
Iron tools are often electroplated with Ni, Cr, or Zn to protect against rusting.
The article to be electroplated is always placed at the cathode.
During electrolytic reaction, the metal is always deposited at the cathode by gaining electrons.
The thickness of the coating depends on the duration of the current passed.
Metals like Zn, Pb, Hg, Ag, and Cu are refined by electrolysis.
Reactive metals are not extracted from their aqueous salt solutions by electrolysis because the aqueous solution will
contain H+ ions. On passing electric current, the H+ ion gets discharged in preference to metal.

Electrolytic Reduction of Alumina

Page 31
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Electrolyte: Alumina, Cryolite, Fluorspar (1:3:1)

Cathode: 4Al + 12e → 4Al
3+ −

Anode: 6O → 12e + 3O
2− −
2

C + O → CO 2

Purification by Electrolysis
Cathode: Al + 3e → Al
3+ −

Anode: Al → 3e + Al − 3+

Preparation of Hydrogen Chloride Gas in Laboratory

Hydrogen chloride gas is prepared by the reaction of metallic chloride with concentrated sulphuric acid. Sodium chloride is
preferred over other metallic chlorides as it is easily and cheaply available.
∘
below200 C

N aCl + H 2 SO 4 (conc. )
− → N aH SO 4 + H Cl

∘
above200 C

2N aCl + H 2 SO 4 (conc. )
− → N a 2 SO 4 + 2H Cl

Precautions
The reaction mixture should not be heated beyond 200°C. Above 200°C, a sticky mass of sodium sulphate is formed which
sticks to the glass apparatus and is difficult to remove.

Heat energy is wasted if heated above 200°C.

Hydrogen chloride gas is dried by passing through concentrated sulphuric acid.

It is not dried by passing through phosphorous pentaoxide and calcium oxide as both of these drying agents undergo
chemical reaction with hydrogen chloride gas.

2P O 5 + 3H Cl → P OCl 3 + 3H P O 3

CaO + 2H Cl → CaCl 2 + H 2 O

Hydrogen chloride gas is collected by upward displacement of air as the gas is heavier than air and it is not collected over
water as it is highly or extremely soluble in water. Therefore, it forms hydrochloric acid.

When the gas jar is completely filled with the gas, dense white fumes appear at the mouth of the jar.

In order to know whether the gas jar is full of hydrogen chloride gas, bring a glass rod dipped in ammonium hydroxide near
the mouth of the jar. If dense white fumes appear immediately, then it shows that the gas jar is full of hydrogen chloride
gas.

Hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in water with the help of special arrangement called funnel arrangement to prevent the
back suction of water and gives greater surface area for the absorption of gas.

Physical Properties of Hydrogen Chloride Gas

Page 32
 Created by Turbolearn AI

It is a colourless gas having a pungent suffocating smell which gives dense fumes in moist air.

It is highly or extremely soluble in water. This extreme solubility is demonstrated by the fountain experiment.

Hydrogen chloride gas is heavier than air.

It is seen that the dense white fumes appear more closer to the hydrogen chloride gas suggesting that the gas is
heavier than air as it has travelled less distance as compared to air.

Hydrogen chloride gas is neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion.

Hydrogen chloride gas is thermally decomposed to give chlorine.

∘
500 C

2H Cl
− → H 2 + Cl 2

Metals which are lying above hydrogen in the metal activity series displace hydrogen when heated with hydrogen chloride
gas.

M g + 2H Cl → M gCl 2 + H 2

Zn + 2H Cl → ZnCl 2 + H 2

F e + 2H Cl → F eCl 2 + H 2

Ca + 2H Cl → CaCl 2 + H 2

Hydrogen chloride gas reacts with ammonia to form dense white fumes of ammonium chloride.

N H 3 + H Cl → N H 4 Cl

Hydrogen chloride gas is a polar covalent compound which on dissolving in water produces ions. Hydrogen chloride gas on
dissolving in water produces strong, monobasic acid (Hydrochloric acid).
+ −
H Cl + H 2 O → H 3 O + Cl

Dry hydrogen chloride gas and liquefied hydrogen chloride gas has no effect on litmus, showing the neutral (non-acidic)
character of the dry gas.

Polar Covalent Bond: A type of chemical bond where a pair of electrons is unequally shared between two atoms.

Key Terms
Sodium chloride is cheap and therefore it is preferred for preparation of HCl over other metal chlorides.
Conc. Nitric acid is not used during the preparation of HCl because it is volatile and may volatilise out along with hydrogen
chloride.
When hydrogen chloride gas is exposed in air, it gives white fumes, due to the formation of hydrochloric acid on reacting
with atmospheric water vapour.
The blue litmus solution turns red due to the acidic nature of hydrogen chloride gas.

Mnemonic
Concept: Physical properties of HCl.
Mnemonic: Call Gauri Phone Se ESHA
Interpretation:
C: Colourless
G: Gas
P: Pungent
S: Smell
E: Extremely
S: Soluble (In water)
H: Heavier than
A: Air

Page 33
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrogen chloride gas when dissolved in water produces hydrochloric acid.
+ −
H Cl + H 2 O → H 3 O + Cl

Hence, hydrochloric acid is a solution of hydrogen chloride in water.

Preparation of Hydrochloric Acid

Hydrochloric acid is prepared by dissolving hydrogen chloride gas in water using a special funnel arrangement.

The funnel arrangement prevents or minimises back-suction of water and it also provides a large surface area for the absorption
of HCl gas.

If back-suction occurs, the water rises up the funnel and the level outside the funnel falls creating an air gap between the rim of
the funnel and the surface of water. The pressure outside and inside equalise and the water which had raised in the funnel falls
down again.

Precaution
An empty flask (anti-suction device) is put between the generative flask and the water trough. In case, the back-suction occurs,
the water will collect in it and will not reach the generating flask.

Properties of Hydrochloric Acid

Physical Properties
(i) Colour, odour and taste: Colourless, pungent choking smell and acidic.

(ii) Physiological action: Concentrated acid which is corrosive.

(iii) Solubility: Readily soluble in water.

(iv) Boiling point: 110°C

(v) Acidic nature: The presence of H +

in HCl imparts acidic properties. It is monobasic in nature.

H2 O
+ −
H Cl
− → H (aq) + Cl (aq)

Chemical properties

Page 34
 Created by Turbolearn AI

(i) Action on metals: Hydrochloric acid reacts with metals which are above hydrogen in the activity series and form metal
chlorides and hydrogen.

M g + 2H Cl → M gCl 2 + H 2

(ii) Action on oxides and hydroxides: Hydrochloric acid reacts with oxides and hydroxides to form salt and water only.

ZnO + 2H Cl → ZnCl 2 + H 2 O

Zn(OH ) 2 + 2H Cl → ZnCl 2 + 2H 2 O

(iii) With salts of weaker acids: HCl acid decomposes salts of weaker acids, e.g., carbonates, bicarbonates, sulphates,
sulphides.

N a 2 CO 3 + 2H Cl → 2N aCl + H 2 O + CO 2

N aH CO 3 + H Cl → N aCl + H 2 O + CO 2

N a 2 SO 3 + 2H H Cl → 2N aCl + H 2 O + SO 2

F eS + 2H Cl → F eCl 2 + H 2 S

(iv) Action on thiosulphates: It reacts with thiosulphate to produce SO gas and yellow sulphur is precipitated.
2

2N a 2 S 2 O 3 + 2H Cl → 2N aCl + H 2 O + SO 2 + S

(v) Reaction with Nitrates: Lead nitrate and mercury(I) nitrate react with hydrochloric acid to give white precipitate of lead
and mercury(II) chloride.

P b(N O 3 ) 2 + 2H Cl → P bCl 2 + 2H N O 3

H g 2 (N O 3 ) 2 + 2H Cl → H g 2 Cl 2 + +2H N O 3

Silver nitrate gives thick curdy white precipitate of silver chloride.

AgN O 3 + H Cl → AgCl + H N O 3

+ −
AgCl + 2N H 4 OH → [Ag(N H 3 ) 2 ] Cl + 2H 2 O

Sunlight

2AgCl
− → 2Ag + Cl 2

Oxidation of Hydrochloric acid

Powerful oxidising agents such as manganese dioxide (M nO ), lead oxide (P bO ), red lead (P b
2 2 3 O4 ), potassium permanganate (
KM nO ) and potassium dichromate (K Cr O ) oxidise conc. HCl liberating chlorine gas.
4 2 2 7

M nO 2 + 4H Cl → M nCl 2 + 2H 2 O + Cl 2

P bO 2 + 4H Cl → P bCl 2 + 2H 2 O + Cl 2

P b 3 O 4 + 8H Cl → 3P bCl 2 + 4H 2 O + Cl 2

2KM nO 4 + 16H Cl → 2KCl + 2M nCl 2 + 8H 2 O + +5Cl 2

2K 2 Cr 2 O 7 + 14H Cl → 2KCl + 2CrCl 3 + 7H 2 O + 3Cl 2

Formation of Aqua-regia
Mixture of 3 parts of conc. HCl and 1 part of conc. H N O is called aqua-regia.
3

3H Cl + H N O 3 → N OCl + 2H 2 O + 2[Cl]

Nascent chlorine reacts with noble metals like gold and platinum to give their soluble chlorides.

Page 35
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Au + 3[Cl] → AuCl 3

P t + 4[Cl] → P tCl 4

Test for Hydrogen Chloride and Hydrochloric Acid

HCl gas gives thick white fumes of ammonium chloride (N H 4 Cl ), when a glass rod dipped in N H is held near the mouth
3

of the tube.

N H 3 + H Cl → N H 4 Cl

With silver nitrate solution both give white precipitate of silver chloride.

AgN O 3 + H Cl → AgCl + H N O 3

Precipitate is insoluble in nitric acid but soluble in ammonium hydroxide.

When hydrochloric acid is heated with manganese dioxide, then greenish yellow gas, i.e., chlorine is evolved which turns
moist iodide paper blue black.

M nO 2 + 4H Cl → M nCl 2 + 2H 2 O + Cl 2

Back Suction: The effect in which the pressure in the delivery tube and flask is reduced and the atmospheric pressure
from outside forces the water back upto the delivery tube is called back suction.

Pickling of metals: It is a process of removal of oxide before they are painted, electroplated or galvanised.

Key Terms
When hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in water, hydrochloric acid is formed.

HCl ionises in water due to its polar nature.

+ −
H Cl + H 2 O → H 3 O + Cl

Liquified hydrogen chloride does not conduct electricity. It shows covalent nature of hydrogen chloride.

Dry hydrogen chloride gas and liquefied hydrogen chloride do not turn blue litmus paper red, showing non-acidic character
of the dry gas.

The aqueous solution of HCl gas is called hydrochloric acid.

A constant boiling mixture or azeotrope is a solution which boils without any change in its composition. HCl acid form
constant boiling mixture at 110°C.

Hydrochloric acid is used as:

a laboratory reagent.
in the manufacture of chlorine, chlorides, dyes, drugs, etc.
in industry to pickle steel
to remove rust from iron sheets
in tanning and calico printing industry
to decrease activity of gastric juice in patients.

Ammonia
The molecular formula of ammonia is N H . The relative molecular mass is 17.3. Ammonia is a polar covalent compound.
3

Ammonia is found in free state in traces. In combined state ammonia is found in the form of ammonium salts like ammonium
chloride, ammonium sulphate, etc.

The smell in toilets is due to the bacterial decomposition of urea present in urine. As a result, ammonia gas is released.

Page 36
 Created by Turbolearn AI

N H 2 CON H 2 + 2H 2 O → 2N H 3 + H 2 O + CO 2

Preparation of Ammonia
In laboratory, ammonia is prepared by heating ammonium salts (except ammonium nitrate) with caustic alkalies like sodium
hydroxide, potassium hydroxide or calcium hydroxide.

Ca(OH ) 2 + 2N H 4 Cl → CaCl 2 + 2N H 3 + 2H 2 O

N aOH + N H 4 Cl → N aCl + N H 3 + H 2 O

The reactants are finely ground and then taken in a round bottom flask. The round bottom flask is fitted in a slanting
position bending in the downward direction.

Ammonia is dried by passing over quick lime, i.e., calcium oxide. It is not dried by passing through conventional drying
agents like conc. sulphuric acid, anhydrous calcium chloride, phosphorus pentaoxide because these drying agents undergo
chemical reaction with ammonia.

2N H 3 + H 2 SO 4 → (N H 4 ) 2 SO 4

CaCl 2 + 8N H 3 → CaCl 2 .8N H 3

6N H 3 + 3H 2 O + P O 5 → 2(N H 4 ) 3 P O 4

Ammonia is collected by downward displacement of air as the gas is lighter than air and highly soluble in water.

Ammonium nitrate is not used for the preparation of ammonia as it is explosive and gives nitrous oxide and water.

N H 4 N O 3 → N 2 O + 2H 2 O

Action of warm water on metallic nitrides

Magnesium nitride, calcium nitride and aluminium nitride on warming with water produces their respective metallic hydroxide
with the liberation of ammonia.
W arm

−
M g 3 N 2 + 6H 2 O → 3M g(OH ) 2 + 2N H 3

W arm

Ca 3 N 2 + 6H 2 O
− → 3Ca(OH ) 2 + 2N H 3

W arm

−
AlN + 3H 2 O → Al(OH ) 3 + N H 3

Manufacture of Ammonia- Haber's Process

Ammonia is manufactured by Haber's process. The ratio by volume of nitrogen and hydrogen is 1:3.

Nitrogen is obtained by the fractional distillation of liquefied air. Hydrogen is obtained by Bosch process.

Ammonia is separated from unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen by

Liquefaction: Ammonia can be easily liquefied in comparison to nitrogen and hydrogen.

By absorbing ammonia in water: As ammonia is highly soluble in water where as nitrogen and hydrogen are insoluble
in water.

The speed of the reaction can be enhanced by taking finely divided iron as the catalyst. The efficiency of a catalyst is
increased by using a promoter which is either molybdenum or aluminium oxide.

The reaction is reversible and exothermic.

N 2 + 3H 2 ⇌ 2N H 3 + H eat

The favorable conditions for the reaction are

Page 37
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Catalyst: Finely divided iron

Promoter: Molybdenum
Temperature: 450-500 °C
Atmospheric pressure: 200-1000 atm.

Physical properties of ammonia

It is a colourless gas having pungent irritating odour.
It is lighter than air.
It is highly or extremely soluble in water. The extreme solubility of ammonia is demonstrated by fountain experiment.

Ammonia is dissolved in water with the help of funnel arrangement so as to prevent back suction of water as the gas is highly
soluble in water.

Ammonia when dissolved in water produces ammonium hydroxide which is alkaline in nature.

N H 3 + H 2 O → N H 4 OH

+ −
N H 4 OH ⇌ N H + OH
4

Chemical properties of ammonia

Basic nature
It on dissolving in water produces hydroxyl ions as the only negatively charged particles.
+ −
N H 3 + H 2 O ⇌ N H 4 OH ⇌ N H + OH
4

Ammonia reacts with acids to form salts.

N H 3 + H Cl → N H 4 Cl

N H3 + H N O3 → N H4 N O3

2N H 3 + H 2 SO 4 → (N H 4 ) 2 SO 4

2N H 4 OH + H 2 SO 4 → (N H 4 ) 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O

N H 4 OH + H N O 3 → N H 4 N O 3 + H 2 O

As ammonia on dissolving in water, produces hydroxyl ions as the only negatively charged particle thus the aqueous
solution of ammonia called ammonium hydroxide which is alkaline in nature and it shows characteristic colour changes with
indicators.

Red litmus solution → blue

Phenolphthalein turns pink
Methyl orange → yellow

Burning of Ammonia in Oxygen

Ammonia is neither combustible nor it is a supporter of combustion. However, if jet of ammonia is ignited in atmosphere of
oxygen, it burns with yellowish green flame.

4N H 3 + 3O 2 → 2N 2 + 6H 2 O

Catalytic oxidation of ammonia

Ammonia reacts with oxygen at 800°C in the presence of platinum catalyst to give nitric oxide and water vapour.
∘
P t,800 C

4N H 3 + 5O 2
− → 6H 2 O + 4N O + H eat

Page 38
 Created by Turbolearn AI

2N O + O 2 → 2N O 2

The reaction is exothermic in nature.

Reducing Nature of Ammonia

Ammonia reduces heated metallic oxides such as copper oxide to give metal, water vapour and nitrogen.

2N H 3 + 3CuO → 3Cu + 3H 2 O + N 2

3CaOCl 2 + 2N H 3 → 3CaCl 2 + N 2 + 3H 2 O

Reduction of Chlorine
When ammonia is in excess: Greenish yellow chlorine disappears to give dense white fumes of ammonium chloride.

8N H 3 + 3Cl 2 → 6N H 4 Cl + N 2

When chlorine is in excess:

N H 3 + 3Cl 2 → N Cl 3 + 3H Cl

These reactions show that:

Ammonia is a reducing agent.

Chlorine has strong affinity for hydrogen.

Ammonia reacts with carbon dioxide to form urea which is a very important nitrogenous fertilizer containing 46.66% of
nitrogen.
∘
150 C,150atm

2N H 3 + CO 2
− → N H 2 CON H 2 + H 2 O

Aqueous solution of ammonia precipitates metallic hydroxides from their soluble salts.

Metallic salt solution Colour of the ppt (in small quantity) Nature of ppt (Soluble / Insoluble) in excess

Iron (III) chloride Reddish brown Insoluble

Iron (II) sulphate Dirty green Insoluble
Lead nitrate White Insoluble
Zinc nitrate White Soluble
Copper sulphate Pale blue or bluish white Soluble

Tests for Ammonia

Ammonia gives dense white fumes with concentrated Hydrochloric acid.

N H 3 + H Cl → N H 4 Cl

Ammonia turns Nessler's reagent brown.

When ammonia is passed through copper sulphate solution first a little then a bluish white precipitate is formed which
dissolves in excess of ammonia to give deep blue solution or inky blue solution or Prussian blue solution.

As ammonia is basic in nature therefore it turns moist red litmus blue, phenolphthalein from colourless to pink.

Ammonia is extensively used in the manufacture of nitrogenous fertilizers, nitric acid and other explosives. Generally, it is used as
a refrigerant and as a cleansing agent (removes grease).

Mnemonics

Page 39
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1. Concept: Conditions for Habers Process

Mnemonics: CaF Promo

Interpretation:
Ca: Catalyst
Fe: Iron
Pro: Promoter
Mo: Molybdenum

2. Concept: Colour change with different indicators in ammonia:

Mnemonics: Par: Phenolphthaleinturns Mnemonics: P: pink CaF Promo M: Methyl

Interpretation:
O: orange
Ca: Catalyst
Y: yellow
Fe: Iron
Red litmus solution blue
Pro: Promoter
Phenolphthalein turns pink
Mo: Molybdenum
Methyl orange yellow

3. Concept: Metallic Salt Solution Colours:

Mnemonics: I Cant Read Bible. Rohan Laaya Billi Par Papa Mumma Outrageously Yelled
Interpretation:
I: Iron
C: chloride(→) R: Red
R: Reddish(→) L: Litmus solution
B: brown(→) B: blue

Nessler's Solution: It is a slightly alkaline solution of potassium mercuric iodide made by adding KOH. Its chemical
formula is K H gI .
2 4

Key Terms

Page 40
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Ammonia and ammonium compounds being highly soluble in water, do not occur as minerals.

Drying of ammonia gas is done by passing it through a drying tower containing lumps of quicklime (CaO). Other drying
agents like Conc. H SO , P O and anhydrous CaCl are not used, as ammonia being basic, reacts with them.
2 4 2 5 2

2N H 3 + H 2 SO 4 → (N H 4 ) 2 SO 4

6N H 3 + P O 5 + 3H 2 O → 2(N H 4 ) 3 P O 4

CaCl 2 + 4N H 3 → CaCl 2 . 4N H 3

Ammonia gas is collected in inverted gas jar by the downward displacement of air. Its reason is that it is lighter than air and
highly soluble in water, so, it can not be collected over water.

Ammonia is liquefied easily as compared to nitrogen and hydrogen.

Ammonia burns in oxygen with yellowish green flame and produces water vapours and nitrogen.

Ammonia reduces heated yellow lead monoxide to greyish metallic lead.

3P bO + 2N H 3 → 3P b + 3H 2 O + N 2

Anhydrous ammonia is a clear, colourless liquid under pressure. It evaporates rapidly and produces cooling effect. This
makes ammonia a good refrigerant.

Aqueous ammonia emulsifies or dissolves fats, grease, etc.

Ammonia reacts with CO at 150°C and 150 atm. pressure to give urea which is a valuable nitrogenous fertiliser.
2

∘
150 C,150atm

2N H 3 + CO 2
− → N H 2 CON H 2 + H 2 O

Nitric Acid
Molecular formula: H N O 3

Molecular mass: 63
Structure of nitric acid
+ −
O = N − O − H

Nitric acid was initially called 'aqua-fortis'.

Nitric acid occurs in the free state and in the combined state.

Formation of Nitric Acid in Atmosphere

Step 1: Nitrogen present in the atmosphere reacts with oxygen to form nitric oxide

N 2 (g) + O 2 (g) → 2N O(g)

Step 2: Nitric oxide is further oxidises to nitrogen dioxide.

2N O + O 2 → 2N O 2 (g)

Step 3 : This nitrogen dioxide dissolves in rain water.

4N O 2 + 2H 2 O + O 2 → 4H N O 3

Laboratory Preparation of Nitric Acid

Page 41
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Reactants: Distilling a mixture of potassium or sodium nitrate with concentrated sulphuric acid.
∘ ∘
<200 C <200 C

KN O 3 + H 2 SO 4
−
− → KH SO 4 + H N O 3 N aN O 3 + H 2 SO 4 → N aH SO 4 + H N O 3

Products: Potassium bisulphate or sodium bisulphate and nitric acid vapours.## Preparation of Nitric Acid

Procedure
1. A mixture of equal parts by weight of sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate and concentrated sulphuric acid are heated
gently in the glass retort.

Observation
1. On heating the mixture in a glass retort, the volatile nitric acid is displaced.
2. The vapors are collected in the receiver which is cooled from outside with cold water.

Collection
1. Vapors of nitric acid are condensed to a light yellow liquid.
2. The yellow color is due to the dissolution of NO gas.
2

4HNO 3 → 2H 2 O + 4NO 2 + O 2

3. The yellow color of the acid is removed by passing dry air or CO in it.
2

Manufacture of Nitric Acid (Ostwald Process)

The process is explained in three steps:

Step 1: Catalytic Oxidation of Ammonia

1. A mixture of dry air and dry ammonia in the ratio 10:1 is compressed first and then passed into the catalytic chamber.
2. Oxidation of ammonia into nitrogen monoxide takes place.
Pt

−
4NH 3 + 5O 2 → 4NO + 6H 2 O + Heat
∘
800 C

3. Hot gases passed through a heat exchanger, mixed with air and passed into another cooling chamber called the oxidizing
chamber.

Step 2: Oxidation of Nitric Oxide in Oxidation Chamber

$$2\text{NO}{(g)} + \text{O}{2(g)} \xrightarrow{\text{50}^\circ\text{C}} 2\text{NO}_{2(g)}$$

Step 3: Absorption of Nitrogen Dioxide in Water

1. The nitrogen dioxide is passed through the absorption tower, from the top of which warm water trickles. $$4\text{NO}
{2(g)} + 2\text{H}2\text{O}{(l)} + \text{O}{2(g)} \rightarrow 4\text{HNO}_{3(aq)}$$

Chemical Properties

Stability

Page 42
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1. Pure nitric acid is colorless and unstable and decomposes slightly even at ordinary temperature and in the presence of
sunlight.

Sunlight

4HNO 3
− → 4NO 2 + 2H 2 O + O 2

2. The nitric acid stored in a plain glass bottle turns yellow.

3. To avoid the decomposition, nitric acid is generally stored in colored bottles.

Acidic Properties
1. It is a strong monobasic acid.
2. It ionizes completely in an aqueous solution.
+ −
HNO 3(aq) → H + NO
3

3. It turns blue litmus to red, methyl orange to pink, and phenolphthalein remains colorless.
4. Reaction with Alkalies: Neutralizes alkalies to form salt and water. Metallic oxides and hydroxides react with dilute HNO 3

to form salt and water.

Na 2 O + 2HNO 3 → 2NaNO 3 + H 2 O

ZnO + 2HNO 3 → Zn(NO ) 2 + H 2 O

3

NaOH + HNO 3 → NaNO 3 + H 2 O

Fe(OH) + 3HNO 3 → Fe(NO ) 3 + 3H 2 O

3 3

Mg(OH) + 2HNO 3 → Mg(NO ) 2 + 2H 2 O

2 3

5. Reaction with Carbonates and Bicarbonates: These react with dil. HNO to give salt, water, and carbon dioxide.
3

Na 2 CO 3 + 2HNO 3 → 2NaNO 3 + H 2 O + CO 2

NaHCO 3 + HNO 3 → NaNO 3 + H 2 O + CO 2

CaCO 3 + 2HNO 3 → Ca(NO ) 2 + H 2 O + CO 2

3

6. Reaction with carbonates and bicarbonates: These react with dil. HNO to form soluble metallic nitrates, water and SO
3 2

gas.

Oxidizing Properties
1. Oxidizing properties are due to nascent oxygen which it gives on decomposition.

2HNO 3 (Conc.) → 2NO 2 + H 2 O + [O]

2HNO 3 (Dil.) → 2NO + H 2 O + 3[O]

Action on Non-metals
C + 4HNO 3 → CO 2 + 2H 2 O + 4NO 2

S + 6HNO 3 → H 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O + 6NO 2

P + 20HNO 3 → 4H 3 PO 4 + 4H 2 O + 20NO 2

Action on Metals

Page 43
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1. Nitric acid reacts with all metals except gold and platinum.
2. Cold and dilute nitric acid oxidizes metal to their nitrates and liberates nitric oxide.

3Cu + 8HNO 3 → 3Cu(NO ) 2 + 4H 2 O + 2NO

3

3Zn + 8HNO 3 → 3Zn(NO ) 2 + 4H 2 O + 2NO

3

3Fe + 8HNO 3 → 3Fe(NO ) 2 + 4H 2 O + 2NO

3

3. Concentrated nitric acid oxidizes metal to their nitrates and liberates nitrogen dioxide.

Cu + 4HNO 3 → Cu(NO ) 2 + 2H 2 O + 2NO 2

3

Zn + 4HNO 3 → Zn(NO ) 2 + 2H 2 O + 2NO 2

3

Fe + 6HNO 3 → Fe(NO ) 3 + 2H 2 O + 3NO 2

3

4. Metals like Fe, Al, Co and Ni become passive (inert) when treated with pure concentrated nitric acid because of the
formation of an extremely thin layer of insoluble metallic oxide which stops the reaction.
5. Very dilute nitric acid reacts with magnesium and manganese metals.

Mg + 2HNO 3 → Mg(NO 3 ) 2 + H 2

Mn + 2HNO 3 → Mn(NO 3 ) 2 + H 2

Test for Nitric Acid and Nitrates

1. Concentrated nitric acid gives brown fumes on heating.

4HNO 3 → 2H 2 O + 4NO 2 + O 2

2. Nitrates (other than potassium, sodium, and ammonium) produce reddish-brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide [NO ] are 2

evolved, when copper reacts with nitric acid.

Cu + 4HNO 3 → Cu(NO ) 2 + 2H 2 O + 2NO 2

3

Cu + 4NaNO 3 + 4H 2 SO 4 → 4NaHSO 4 + Cu(NO ) 2 + 2H 2 O + 2NO 2

3

Brown Ring Test

1. Take an aqueous solution of nitrate or nitric acid in a test tube.
2. Add freshly prepared saturated solution of iron [II] sulphate.
3. Now add concentrated sulphuric acid carefully from the sides of the test tube, it means that it should not fall dropwise in
the test tube.
4. Cool the test tube in water.
5. A brown ring appears at the junction of the two liquids.

Reaction
6FeSO 4 + 3H 2 SO 4 + 2HNO 3 → 3Fe 2 (SO ) 3 + 4H 2 O + 2NO
4

FeSO 4 + 6H 2 O ⇌ [Fe(H 2 O)) 6 ]SO 4

[Fe(H O) 6 ]SO 4 + NO ⇌ [Fe(H O) 5 NO]SO 4 + H 2 O

2 2

Key Words and Terms

Nitrogen Fixation: The conversion of free atmospheric nitrogen into useful nitrogenous compounds in the soil.

Aqua Regia: It is a mixture of conc. nitric acid (1 part by volume) and conc. hydrochloric acid (3 parts by volume).(1:3)
It means royal water.

Page 44
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Term Definition

Chile
NaNO 3
saltpetre
Formerly known name for Nitric acid meaning strong water. It is due to the fact that it reacts with nearly all metals.
Aqua Fortis
It can even dissolve silver.
Fuming Nitric
Nitric acid up to 98% is obtained by distilling 68% HNO over conc. H SO .
Acid
3 2 4

Aqueous
An aqueous solution of nitric acid (68% concentration) forms a constant boiling mixture at 121 C. ∘

Nitric Acid
Action on Nitric acid is non-poisonous, but it has a corrosive action on the skin and causes painful blisters. It stains the skin
Skin yellow as it reacts with the protein of the skin and forms xanthoproteic acid.
Nitric acid stored in a bottle turns yellow because the color is due to dissolved NO in HNO . To avoid the
Storage
2 3

decomposition, nitric acid is normally stored in colored bottles.

Nitric acid oxidizes hydrochloric acid to chlorine. Aqua regia reacts even with noble metals like gold and platinum
Reaction
to give their chlorides. Aqua regia contains nascent chlorine which attacks these metals.
with HCl
Pt + 4[Cl] → PtCl (Soluble), Au + 3[Cl] → AuCl (Soluble)
4 3

Ferrous
In the Brown ring test, a freshly prepared ferrous sulphate solution is used because, on exposure to the
Sulfate
atmosphere, it is oxidized to ferric sulphate which will not give the brown ring.
usage

Effect of Heat on Nitrates

2NaNO 3 → 2NaNO 2 + O 2 2KNO 3 → 2KNO 2 + O 2 2Ca(NO 3 ) 2 → 2CaO + 4NO 2 + O 2 2Zn(NO 3 ) 2 → 2ZnO + 4NO 2 + O

Sulphuric Acid

Concepts Covered
1. Manufacturing sulfuric acid
2. Properties of sulfuric acid

Revision Notes
1. Sulphuric acid is called as king of chemicals.
2. It is commonly called oil of vitriol.
3. It was prepared during the distillation of green vitriol (FeSO 4
.
⋅ 7H 2 O)

2FeSO 4 ⋅ 7H 2 O → Fe 2 O 3 + SO 2 + 13H 2 O + H 2 SO 4

4. Sulphuric acid is manufactured by the Contact process.

(a) Catalytic Oxidation of Sulphur Dioxide in the Catalytic Chamber

1. The gases entering the catalytic chamber must be pure, otherwise, it would poison the catalyst.
Vanadium pentoxide

2SO 2 + O 2
− → 2SO 3
∘
450 C

2. The catalyst glows red hot because the reaction is exothermic in nature.
3. Only initial heating of the catalyst is required.

(b) Absorption Tower

Page 45
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1. SO formed in the catalytic chamber is not directly absorbed in water because:

3

The reaction is highly exothermic in nature.

It forms a homogeneous mixture i.e. a dense mist of minute particles of sulphuric acid is formed which is not easily
condensed.
2. Instead, sulphur trioxide formed is absorbed in concentrated sulphuric acid to form Pyrosulphuric acid or Oleum (H S O ).
2 2 7

SO 3 + H 2 SO 4 → H 2 S 2 O 7

(c) Dilution of Oleum

1. It is diluted by adding a calculated amount of water to obtain concentrated sulphuric acid of desired concentration.

H 2 S 2 O 7 + H 2 O → 2H 2 SO 4

2. Concentrated sulphuric acid is colorless, odorless, viscous, hygroscopic liquid which is soluble in water in all proportions.
3. It is a strong dibasic acid.
4. The salts of sulphuric acid are called sulphuricates and bisulphates.
5. Dilute sulphuric acid shows the typical properties of dilute acids.

(a) Reaction with Bases

1. It forms salt and water, and it undergoes a neutralization reaction.

2KOH + H 2 SO 4 → K 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O

2NaOH + H 2 SO 4 → Na 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O

Cu(OH) 2 + H 2 SO 4 → CuSO 4 + 2H 2 O

2NH 4 OH + H 2 SO 4 → (NH ) 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O
4

(b) Reaction with Metallic Carbonates and Bicarbonates

1. It liberates carbon dioxide.

K 2 CO 3 + H 2 SO 4 → K 2 SO 4 + H 2 O + CO 2

KHCO 3 + H 2 SO 4 → KHSO 4 + H 2 O + CO 2

Na 2 CO 3 + H 2 SO 4 → Na 2 SO 4 + H 2 O + CO 2

NaHCO 3 + H 2 SO 4 → NaHSO 4 + H 2 O + CO 2

2NaHCO 3 + H 2 SO 4 → Na 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O + 2CO 2

(c) Reaction with Active Metals

1. On reaction of active metals with dilute acids hydroxide gas is liberated.

Zn + H 2 SO 4 → ZnSO 4 + H 2

Mg + H 2 SO 4 → MgSO 4 + H 2

Fe + H 2 SO 4 → FeSO 4 + H 2

(d) Reaction with Metallic Sulphites and Bisulphites

1. On reaction of active metals with dilute acids, Sulphur dioxide gas is liberated.

K 2 SO 3 + H 2 SO 4 → K 2 SO 4 + H 2 O + SO 2

KHSO 3 + H 2 SO 4 → KHSO 4 + H 2 O + SO 2

Na 2 SO 3 + H 2 SO 4 → Na 2 SO 4 + H 2 O + SO 2

2NaHSO 3 + H 2 SO 4 → Na 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O + 2SO 2

Page 46
 Created by Turbolearn AI

(e) Reaction with Metallic Sulphides

1. On reaction of metallic sulphides of dilute sulphuric acid, hydrogen sulphide gas is liberated.

ZnS + H 2 SO 4 → ZnSO 4 + H 2 S

FeS + H 2 SO 4 → FeSO 4 + H 2 S

(f) Reaction with Metallic Oxide

1. It forms salt and water.

Al 2 O 3 + 3H 2 SO 4 → Al 2 (SO ) 3 + 3H 2 O
4

CuO + H 2 SO 4 → CuSO 4 + H 2 O

ZnO + H 2 SO 4 → ZnSO 4 + H 2 O

MgO + H 2 SO 4 → MgSO 4 + H 2 O

(g) It Shows Characteristic Color Change with Indicators

Indicator Color Change

Blue litmus Red

Phenolphthalein Remains colorless
Methyl orange Red or Pink

Concentrated Sulphuric Acid Acts As

(a) Least Volatile Acid

1. Nitrates and chlorides on reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid form their corresponding acids, which are more volatile
than sulphuric acid.

NaCl + H 2 SO 4 → NaHSO 4 + HCl

KNO 3 + H 2 SO 4 → KHSO 4 + HNO 3

(b) Dehydrating Agent

Concentrated Sulphuric acid acts as a dehydrating agent as it has a strong affinity for water. Dehydrating agent is a
chemical compound that removes chemically combined elements of water, hydrogen, and oxygen in the ratio of 2:1.

1. Dehydration of Formic acid:

HCOOH + H 2 SO 4 → CO + [H 2 O ⋅ H 2 SO 4 ]

2. Dehydration of Oxalic acid:

COOH| + H 2 SO 4 → CO + CO 2 + [H 2 O ⋅ H 2 SO 4 ]

COOH

3. Dehydration of ethanol:

C 2 H 5 OH + H 2 SO 4 → C 2 H 4 + [H 2 O ⋅ H 2 SO 4 ]

4. Dehydration of Blue vitriol (CuSO 4 :

⋅ 5H 2 O)

CuSO 4 ⋅ 5H 2 O + H 2 SO 4 → CuSO 4 + [5H 2 O ⋅ H 2 SO 4 ]

5. Dehydration of Sugar: $$\text{C}{12}\text{H}{22}\text{O}_{11} + \text{H}_2\text{SO}_4 \rightarrow 12\text{C} +

[11\text{H}_2\text{O} \cdot \text{H}_2\text{SO}_4]$$

Page 47
 Created by Turbolearn AI

(c) Oxidizing Agent

1. It oxidizes:
Metals

Zn + 2H 2 SO 4 → ZnSO 4 + 2H 2 O + SO 2

Cu + 2H 2 SO 4 → CuSO 4 + 2H 2 O + SO 2

Non-metals

C + 2H 2 SO 4 → CO 2 + 2H 2 O + 2SO 2

S + 2H 2 SO 4 → 2H 2 O + 3SO 2

Inorganic compounds

H 2 S + H 2 SO 4 → S + 2H 2 O + SO 2

(d) Drying Agent

1. Concentrated sulphuric acid acts as a drying agent, i.e., it is used to remove moisture from the gases and other compounds,
without undergoing any chemical reaction.

Mnemonics

Concept: Role of Conc. Sulphuric Acid

Mnemonic: LiVeD On Diet

V: Volatile
D: Dehydrating
O: Oxidizing
D: Drying
L: Least

Key Words and Terms

King of Chemicals: Sulphuric acid is called the king of chemicals.

Oil of Vitriol: Sulphuric acid was obtained as an oily viscous liquid by heating crystals of green vitriol. So, it is known
as oil of vitriol.

Term Definition

Barytes BaSO 4 (Barium sulphate)

Gypsum CaSO 4 ⋅ 2H 2 O

Kieserite MgSO 4 ⋅ H 2 O

Water is never poured on acid to dilute it as a large amount of heat is evolved which changes water to steam. The
Dilution of steam so formed causes spurting of acid which can cause burn injuries, so dilution is done by pouring acid on a given
acid amount of water in a controlled manner by continuous stirring. The evolved heat is dissipated in water itself and so
the spurting of the acid is minimized.

Organic Compounds

Concepts Covered
1. Unique nature of carbon atoms
2. Characteristics of organic compounds
3. Cycloalkanes
4. Hydrocarbons

Page 48
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Revision Notes
1. The word organic means pertaining to life.
2. Earlier, it was regarded that organic compounds can only be produced by nature under the influence of a living force called
vital force.
3. The vital force theory was soon discarded when a German scientist, Friedrich Wohler, synthesized an organic compound
urea in the laboratory, by heating ammonium cyanate.
Heat

NH 4 CNO
− → CO(NH 2 ) 2

4. Later on, Kolbe prepared acetic acid (CH COOH) and Berthelot synthesized methane (CH ) gas in the laboratory.
3 4

5. All organic compounds essentially contain carbon atom.

6. Carbon has 4 valence electrons.
7. Therefore, to satisfy its valency carbon shares its electrons with other carbon atoms or with the atoms of other elements.
8. As a result of sharing, it leads to the formation of straight chain, branched chain, closed chain or the ring structure.

Unique Nature of Carbon Atoms

1. Carbon has four valence electrons. It can neither lose nor gain electrons to attain octet. It forms covalent bonds by sharing
its four electrons with other atoms. It is known as tetra valency of the carbon atoms.
2. Carbon atom possesses a unique property to link with one another by means of covalent bonds to form long chains (or
rings) of carbon atoms. This property of forming bonds with atoms of the same elements is called catenation.

Characteristics of Organic Compounds

1. All organic compounds are covalent in nature.
2. Almost all the organic compounds are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents like benzene, ether, carbon
tetrachloride.
3. All have relatively low melting point and boiling point.
4. All organic compounds are combustible in nature.
5. Older chemists basically classified hydrocarbons as either aliphatic or aromatic. The classification was done on the basis of
their source and their properties.

Cycloalkanes
These hydrocarbons possess one or multiple carbon rings. The hydrogen atom is attached to the carbon ring.

Aromatic Hydrocarbons
These are also called as arenes. Arenes are compounds that consist of at least one aromatic ring.

Hydrocarbons
A compound made up of hydrogen and carbon only is called a hydrocarbon.

For example, CH , C H , C H , etc. The most important natural source of hydrocarbon is petroleum or crude oil. Hydrocarbons
4 2 2 2 6

are further divided into two main groups:

1. Aliphatic (open)
2. Cyclic (closed) chain compounds

The aliphatic compounds are further divided into saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.

Saturated Hydrocarbons
A hydrocarbon in which the carbon atoms are connected by only single bonds.

Page 49
 Created by Turbolearn AI

It is represented by the general formula $\text{C}n\text{H}{2n+2}$ where n is the number of carbon atoms.

Hydrocarbon Formula

Methane CH 4

Ethane C2 H6

Unsaturated hydrocarbons
A hydrocarbon in which two carbon atoms are connected by a double bond or a triple bond

1. Alkenes are the hydrocarbons with a double bond between two carbon atoms.
2. Alkynes are the hydrocarbons with a triple bond between two carbon atoms.
Hydrocarbon

Ethene C2 H4

Ethyne C2 H2

Difference Between Saturated and Unsaturated Organic Compounds

Saturated Organic Compounds Unsaturated Organic compounds

All the four valencies of each carbon atom are satisfied by forming The valencies of at least two carbon atoms are not fully
single covalent bonds with carbon and with hydrogen atoms. satisfied by the hydrogen atoms.
Carbon atoms are joined by double covalent bonds, or by
Carbon atoms are joined only by a single covalent bond.
triple covalent bonds.
They are less reactive due to the non-availability of electrons in the
They are nonreactive due to the presence of electrons in the
single covalent bond, and therefore they undergo substitution
double or the triple bond, and therefore, undergo reaction.
reaction.

Carbocyclic Compounds
Cyclic or closed chain hydrocarbons contain three or more carbon atoms in their molecule.

Cyclic compounds containing single, double, and triple bonds are called cycloalkanes, cycloalkenes, and cycloalkynes
respectively.

Some hydrocarbon contains at least one benzene ring in their molecules. It is a ring of six carbon atoms having C-C single and
C=C double bond in alternate positions.

Alkyl Group
1. Alkyl group is represented by R.
2. The general formula of the alkyl group is $\text{C}n\text{H}{2n+1}$ (where n = number of carbon atoms).
3. The group formed by the removal of one hydrogen atom from alkane molecules is called an alkyl group.
4. An alkyl group is named by replacing the suffix ane of the alkane with the suffix yl.
Alkane Alkyl

Methane Methyl
Ethane Ethyl

Homologous Series
When the organic compounds having similar structural formula, the same functional group is arranged in order of
increasing molecular weights, they form a homologous series.

Page 50
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Characteristics of a Homologous Series

1. They have similar general and structural formula and the same chemical properties.
2. The two adjacent members of the homologous series differ by CH unit.
2

3. The molecular mass of two adjacent homologous differ by 14 amu.

4. The members of a homologous series can be prepared by similar methods of preparation.

Homologous Series of Alkanes

(General formula $\text{C}n\text{H}{2n+2}$)

Alkane Formula

Methane CH 4

Ethane ## IUPAC Nomenclature for Organic Compounds

Selection of Carbon Chain

The first step in naming an organic compound is finding the longest chain of carbon atoms. This chain determines the parent
alkane name.

Example:

1 2 3 4 5
C - C - C - C - C

A chain of 5 carbon atoms indicates the word root 'pent'.

Alkyl Groups as Substituents

Alkyl groups attached to the main chain are considered substituents or branches. Common alkyl groups include:

Methyl (-CH3)
Ethyl (-CH2CH3)

Example:

1 2 3 4 5
CH2
|
2-ethyl

Numbering the Carbon Chain

The carbon atoms in the longest chain are numbered to give the lowest possible numbers to the alkyl substituents.

Example:

1 2 3 4 5
CH3
|
2-methyl

Functional Groups
If a functional group is present, the carbon atoms are numbered to give the functional group the smallest possible number.

Page 51
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Multiple Substituents
When different types of substituents are present, they are named alphabetically.

Example:

1 2 3 4 5 6
Br Cl
| |
2-bromo-4-chlorohexane

IUPAC Name Construction

The IUPAC name is constructed by writing the position and name of the alkyl group before the name of the parent hydrocarbon.

Multiple Alkyl Groups

Multiple identical alkyl groups are indicated using prefixes:

di (2)
tri (3)
tetra (4)

Mnemonics for Alkanes

Homologous Series of Alkanes

Mnemonic: Many elephants prefer blue pineapples

Interpretation:

Mnemonic Alkane

M Methane
E Ethane
P Propane
B Butane
P Pentane

Key Words in Organic Chemistry

Term Definition

Organic
> The study of hydrocarbons and their derivatives.
Chemistry
> The property by which atoms of the same element are linked together through covalent bonds to form long,
Catenation
straight, branched, or closed chains or rings.
Tetracovalency > Carbon atom exhibits tetracovalency because it has four electrons in its valence shell.
Functional Group > An atom, group of atoms, or structural feature that gives special properties to a compound.
Homologous > A series of compounds with similar structural formulae, the same functional group, and similar chemical
Series properties.
Structural
> Shows the relative arrangements of bonded atoms in a molecule.
Formula

Key Terms
Carbon is a necessary element in every organic compound.
Tetravalency is the characteristic of carbon that allows it to form four covalent bonds.
Catenation and tetravalency enable carbon to form a large number of compounds.

Page 52
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Classification of Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons
Alkanes
Alkenes
Alkynes

Alkanes

General Information
Saturated hydrocarbons with only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms.
General formula: C H
n 2n+2

n = number of carbon atoms

First member: Methane (CH ) 4

Second member: Ethane (C H ) 2 6

Structural Formulas
Methane:

H
|
H-C-H
|
H

Ethane:

H H
| |
H-C-C-H
| |
H H

Propane:

H H H
| | |
H - C - C - C - H
| | |
H H H

Laboratory Preparation of Methane

Reactants: Anhydrous sodium acetate (sodium ethanoate) with sodalime (N aOH + CaO)

CaO

CH 3 COON a(s) + N aOH (s)

− → N a 2 CO 3 (s) + CH 4 (g)

Laboratory Preparation of Ethane

Reactants: Heating anhydrous sodium propionate with sodalime.

CaO

−
C 2 H 5 COON a(s) + N aOH (s) → N a 2 CO 3 (s) + C 2 H 6 (g)

Page 53
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Other Methods of Methane Preparation

1. Action of water on aluminum carbide:

Al 4 C 3 (s) + 12H 2 O(l) → 4Al(OH ) 3 (s) + 3CH 4 (g)

2. Reduction of methyl iodide (iodomethane) with Zn-Cu couple/ Zn/H Cl:

Zn/CuCouple

−
CH 3 I + 2[H ] → CH 4 + H I

Other Methods of Ethane Preparation

1. Reduction of bromoethane with Zn − Cu couple or Zn/H Cl:

Zn/CuCouple

C 2 H 5 Br + 2[H ]
− → C 2 H 6 + H Br

2. Reaction of alkyl halides with sodium metal in dry ether:

dry ether

−
2CH 3 I + 2N a → H 3 C − CH 3 + 2N aI

Physical Properties of Alkanes

Methane
Colorless and odorless gas.
Melting point: -183°C
Boiling point: -162°C
Insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents.

Ethane
Colorless and odorless gas.
Boiling point: -89°C
Melting point: -172°C
Insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents.

Chemical Properties of Alkanes

Combustion
Methane and ethane burn in air to form carbon dioxide and water, releasing heat.

CH 4 + 2O 2 → CO 2 + 2H 2 O + Energy

2C 2 H 6 + 7O 2 → 4CO 2 + 6H 2 O + Energy

Substitution Reactions
Methane reacts with chlorine in diffused sunlight to form mono-chloromethane (CH 3 Cl ).

dif f used sunlight

−
CH 4 (g) + Cl 2 → CH 3 Cl(g) + H Cl(g)

With excess chlorine, hydrogen atoms are successively replaced to form dichloromethane, trichloromethane, and
tetrachloromethane.

CH 3 Cl + Cl 2 → CH 2 Cl 2 + H Cl

Page 54
 Created by Turbolearn AI

CH 2 Cl 2 + Cl 2 → CH Cl 3 + H Cl

CH Cl 3 + Cl 2 → CCl 4 + H Cl

alkene: Alkenes

General Information
Also called olefins
General formula: C H n 2n

First member: Ethene

Preparation of Ethene

Dehydration of Ethyl Alcohol

Reactants: Ethanol and conc. sulfuric acid.

By Dehydration (Industrial Preparation)

Passing ethanol vapors through alumina (Al 2 O3 ) at 300°C.
∘
Al 2 O 3 ,300 C

C 2 H 5 OH
− → C2 H4 + H2 O

Dehydrogenation
Heating an alkyl halide in an alcoholic medium.

C 2 H 5 Cl + KOH → C 2 H 4 + KCl + H 2 O

C 2 H 5 Br + KOH → C 2 H 4 + KBr + H 2 O

Physical Properties of Alkenes

Ethene is a colorless and flammable gas with a peculiar odor.
Boiling point: -102°C
Melting point: -169°C
Slightly soluble in water, highly soluble in organic solvents.

Chemical Properties of Alkenes

Addition of Hydrogen (Hydrogenation)

In the presence of a catalyst like platinum, palladium, or nickel.
∘
N i,200 C

C2 H4 + H2
− → C2 H6

Addition of Halogens (Halogenation)

Reacts with halogens in the presence of carbon tetrachloride.

Order of reactivity: F 2 > Cl 2 > Br 2 > I 2

Page 55
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Addition of Water (Hydration)

+
H

CH 2 = CH 2 + H 2 O
− → C 2 H 5 OH

Addition of HCl
Reacts with H Cl at room temperature.

Order of reactivity of hydrogen halides: H I > H Br > H Cl > H F

CH 2 = CH 2 + H Cl → CH 3 CH 2 Cl

Polymerization
Ethene polymerizes to produce polyethene.

Polymerization

n(CH 2 = CH 2 )
− → [H 2 C − CH 2 ] n

Combustion
Ethene burns in air with a sooty flame, releasing heat.

C 2 H 4 + 3O 2 → 2CO 2 + 2H 2 O + Heat

Uses of Ethene
Ripening of fruits.
Making polythene.
Making epoxy ethane.

alkyne: Alkynes

General Information
Aliphatic hydrocarbons with a triple bond (-C≡C-) between two carbon atoms.
General formula: C H n 2n−2

First member: Ethyne (C H ) 2 2

Laboratory Preparation of Ethyne (Acetylene)

Reactants: Water and Calcium carbide

CaC 2 + 2H 2 O → Ca(OH ) 2 + C 2 H 2

Preparation from 1,2-dibromoethane

Physical Properties
Colorless gas with an ether-like odor.
Boiling point: -75°C
Liquefies at -84°C
Negligibly soluble in water, highly soluble in organic solvents.

Chemical Properties

Page 56
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Oxidation
Ethyne burns in excess air with a brilliant white flame.

2CH ≡ CH + 5O 2 → 4CO 2 + 2H 2 O + heat

Addition of Hydrogen (Catalytic Hydrogenation)

In the presence of nickel, platinum, or palladium.

Ni

C2 H2 + H2
− → C2 H4

Ni

C2 H4 + H2
− → C2 H6

Reaction with Chlorine

Acetylene in an inert solvent reacts with chlorine to give dichloroethene and then tetrachloroethane.

C 2 H 2 + Cl 2 → 2C + 2H Cl

Reaction with Bromine

Ethyne reacts with bromine in carbon tetrachloride to form dibromoethene and then tetrabromoethane.

C 2 H 2 + Br 2 → C 2 H 2 Br 2

C 2 H 2 Br 2 + Br 2 → C 2 H 2 Br 4

Reaction with HCl

Uses of Ethyne
Illuminant in oxy-acetylene lamp.
Artificial ripening and preservation of fruits.
Oxy-acetylene welding at very high temperature.

Mnemonics

Preparation of Methane
Mnemonic: SAW SaiL GuM S soda

Interpretation:

S: Sodium
A: Acetate
W: With
L: Lime
G: Gives
M: Methane

Key Words

Page 57
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Term Definition

Alkanes > Hydrocarbons in which all linkages between the carbon atom are single covalent bonds.
Fire-damp > 90% methane found in cavities in coal.
Pyrolysis > Decomposition of a compound by heat in the absence of air.
Cracking > Process in which pyrolysis occurs in alkanes.

Key Terms
Alkanes are relatively unreactive under ordinary conditions, so they are called paraffins.
Alkanes with more than three carbon atoms form isomers.
Methane is a greenhouse gas.
Methane cannot be prepared by the Wurtz reaction.
Soot is used in the manufacture of printing inks and tires.
Alkanes react with chlorine, bromine, and iodine in a similar manner, producing the corresponding substituted products.
Alkenes are also known as olefins (oil-forming).
Ethyne is used for oxy-acetylene welding at very high temperature and for artificial ripening and preservation of fruits.

Page 58