5.5.

Sense organs

5.5.1. Skin

The skin is one of the largest organs in the human body in surface area and weight. It is a remarkably complex
organ which carries out a number of important functions in human body. It gives you senses of touch, temperature
and pain.

The skin:

 Contains a huge variety of sense organs (touch, temperature, pressure, pain).

 Forms a waterproof layer around the body tissues, which protects against the loss of water by evaporation
and prevents gaining water by osmosis while swimming in the river or wash.
 It protects the body from the entry of bacteria and other pathogens.
 It protects the body from damage by UV light.
 It is an excretory organ (nitrogenous wastes are lost with the sweat).
 It is vital in controlling the body temperature.

Basic components of the human skin

The human skin is the largest organ of the body, with a total area of about 20 square feet. The skin protects us from
microbes and elements, helps regulate body temperature, and permits the sensations of touch, heat, and cold. Skin
has three main layers. These are epidermis, dermis and hypodermis.

 The epidermis, the outermost layer of skin, provides a waterproof barrier and creates our skin tone.
 The dermis, beneath the epidermis, contains tough connective tissue, hair follicles, and sweat glands.
 The deeper subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis) is made of fat and connective tissue.
 The lower layer, the hypodermis, contains fatty tissue which is both an energy store that acts as an
insulation layer, protecting against heat loss.
 The middle layer or dermis contains the blood vessels, the sweat glands, the sensory receptors and the
hair follicles. This layer is closely involved in temperature control in homeostasis and in your sense of
touch.
 The upper layer or epidermis is made up of dead cells. Keratinocytes, melanocytes and Langerhans cells
are some of the important cells found in the epidermis.
Keratinocytes- produce the protein known as keratin, the main component of the
epidermis. Keratin makes up hair, nails, and the surface layer of the skin. Keratin is what
forms the rigidity of your skin and helps with the barrier protection that your skin offers.
 Melanocytes produce skin pigment, which is known as melanin.
Langerhans cells, which prevent things from getting into your skin. Epidermal layer of
the skin stop water loss and also protect against the entry of pathogens.

The dermis is a complex combination of blood vessels, hair follicles, and sebaceous (oil) glands. In the dermis,
there are collagens and elastin proteins necessary for skin health because they offer support and elasticity (the
skin’s ability to go back to its original state after being stretched). Collagen is the most plentiful protein in the skin,
making up 75-80% of the skin.

Collagen and elastin are responsible for warding off wrinkles and fine lines. Over time, the environment and aging
reduce the body’s ability to produce collagen. It is the dermis which is particularly involved in the homeostatic
mechanisms of the skin.

The thickness of the epidermis and dermis may vary. Due to variation in the thickness the skin can be categorized
as thick and thin. Thin skin covers most of the body and can vary in thinness, with the thinnest skin covering the
eyelids. Thick skin is present on the soles of the feet and palms of the hands. In addition to differing thicknesses,
the skin also differs in what is available in the layers. For example, thick skin has no hair follicles or sebaceous
glands, whereas thin skin does.

5.5.2. The Tongue

The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth. The tongue is covered with moist, pink tissue called mucosa. Tiny
bumps called papillae give the tongue its rough texture. Thousands of taste buds cover the surfaces of the
papillae. Taste buds are collections of nerve-like cells that connect to nerves running into the brain.

The tongue is anchored to the mouth by webs of tough tissue and mucosa. The tether holding down the front of the
tongue is called the frenum. In the back of the mouth, the tongue is anchored into the hyoid bone. The tongue is
vital for chewing and swallowing food, as well as for speech.
The sensory receptors of the tongue and those found in the nostrils are sensitive to solutions of certain chemical
substances. The sensory receptors of taste are located on the upper surface of the tongue, and to a lesser extent on
the surface of the throat. The receptors for smell are located in the upper parts of the nasal passages. There are five
basic taste sensations. The first four are sweet, sour, bitter and salt. We have known too much about these for many
years. Scientists have also discovered a fifth taste called umami (a very savoury flavour found in foods such as
meat, cheese, broth and mushroom). For many years it was thought that the receptors for the four known senses had
their areas of greatest concentration on different parts of the tongue. It has now been clearly shown that in fact all of
the five different taste organs are spread out all over the tongue, although some of them may seem to be in a greater
concentration in certain places.

5.5.3. The Nose

The human nose is a sense organ of smell. Another word for smell is olfaction. The olfactory receptors in the nose
help to identify food, mates, predators, and provides both sensual pleasure in the odor of flowers and perfume, as
well as warnings of danger. For example, spoiled food, fire or chemical dangers. For both humans and animals, it is
one of the important means by which the environment communicates with us. Another function of the nose is the
conditioning of inhaled air, which the nose makes it more humid and warmer. Hairs inside the nose prevent large
particles from entering the lungs.
 Anatomy and Physiology

The nasal passages not only allow the passage of air for respiration through the nose but also warm and
filter the air.
The nasal concha or turbinate bone is a long, narrow and curled bone shelf that protrudes into the breathing
passage of the nose. In humans, the turbinates divide the nasal airway into four groove like air passages,
and are responsible for forcing inhaled air to flow in a steady, regular pattern around the largest possible
surface of cilia and climate controlling tissue.

How do you smell?

Specialized receptor cells of the olfactory epithelium detect and recognize smells. The air passes through the nasal
cavity and through a thick layer of mucus to the olfactory bulb. The olfactory bulb is situated in the forebrain. The
smells are recognized here because each smell molecule fits into a nerve cell like a puzzle piece. The cells then
send signals to the brain via the olfactory nerve. The brain then interprets those molecules as the sweet flowers, or
the curdling milk that you have held up to your nose.

For human being to be able to taste and smell, chemicals must go into solution in the form of liquid coating the
membranes of receptor cells before they can be detected. The major functional difference between the two kinds of
receptors is that smell receptors are more specialized for detecting vapors coming to the organism from distant
sources. Taste receptors are specialized for detection of chemicals present in the mouth itself. Furthermore, smell
receptors are much more sensitive than taste receptors.

5.5.4. The eye structure, function, and defects

The eye transmits visual stimuli to the brain for interpretation and thereby functions as sensory organ of vision. The
eyeball is located in the eye orbit, a round, bony hollow formed by several different bones of the skull. In the orbit,
the eye is surrounded by a cushion of fat. The bony orbit and fat cushion protect the eyeball. To perform a thorough
assessment of the eye, it is crucial to understand the external structures of the eye, the internal structures of the eye,
the visual fields and pathways, and the visual reflexes.

External structures of the eye

The parts of the eye that include the following are visible externally. The eyebrows protect the eyes by preventing
perspiration from running down the forehead and into the eyes, causing irritation. They also help shade the eyes
from direct sunlight.
The eyelids (upper and lower) with their associated lashes are two movable structures composed of skin and two
types of muscle: striated and smooth. Their purpose is to protect the eye from foreign bodies and limit the amount
of light entering the eye. In addition, they serve to distribute tears that lubricate the surface of the eye (see Figure
5.21). The eyelids join at two points: the lateral (outer) canthus and medial (inner) canthus. The medial canthus
contains the puncta, two small openings that allow drainage of tears into the lacrimal system, and the caruncle, a
small, fleshy mass that contains sebaceous glands.

Figure 5.21 External structures of the eye

The white space between open eyelids is called the palpebral fissure. When closed, the eyelids should touch.
When open, the upper lid position should be between the upper margin of the iris and the upper margin of the pupil.
Eyelashes are projections of stiff hair curving outward along the margins of the eyelids that filter dust and dirt from
air entering the eye.

The conjunctiva is a thin, transparent, continuous membrane that is divided into two portions: a palpebral and a
bulbar portion. The palpebral conjunctiva lines the inside of the eyelids, and the bulbar conjunctiva covers most of
the anterior eye, merging with the cornea at the limbus.

This transparent membrane allows for inspection of underlying tissue and serves to protect the eye from foreign
bodies. The lacrimal apparatus consists of glands and ducts that serve to lubricate the eye (Figure 5.22). The
lacrimal gland, that is located in the upper outer corner of the orbital cavity just above the eye, produces tears. The
extraocular muscles are the six muscles attached to the outer surface of each eyeball (Figure 15.23). These muscles
control six different directions of eye movement. Four rectus muscles are responsible for straight movement, and
two oblique muscles are responsible for diagonal movement.

Internal structure of the eye

The eyeball is composed of three separate coats or layers (Figure 5.24). The external layer consists of the sclera and
cornea.

 The sclera is a white visible portion. It is a dense, protective, white covering that physically supports the
internal structures of the eye. It is continuous interiorly with the transparent cornea (the “window of the
eye”).

 The cornea is the transparent, anterior or front part of our eye, which covers the pupil and the iris. The main
function is to refract the light along with the lens. The cornea permits the entrance of light, which passes
through the lens to the retina. It is well supplied with nerve endings, making it responsive to pain and touch.
 Iris: It is the pigmented, colored portion of the eye, visible externally. The main function of the iris is to
control the diameter of the pupil according to the light source.
 Pupil: It is the small aperture located in the centre of the Iris. It allows light to enter and focus on the retina.
 The lens is a biconvex, transparent, avascular, encapsulated structure located immediately posterior to the
iris. Suspensory ligaments attached to the ciliary muscles support the position of the lens. The lens functions
 to refract (bend) light rays onto the retina. Adjustments must be made in refraction depending on the
distance of the object being viewed. The refractive ability of the lens can be changed by a change in the
shape of the lens (which is controlled by the ciliary body). The lens bulges to focus on close objects and
flattens to focus on far objects. The choroid layer contains the vascularity necessary to provide nourishment
to the inner part of the eye and prevents light from reflecting internally. Anteriorly, it is continuous with the
ciliary body and the iris. Once the light has travelled through the cornea it has to pass through the pupil in
the center of the iris. The iris is the colored part of the eye, but it is not there simply to look pretty. The iris
is made up of muscles that contract or relax to control the size of the pupil and to control the amount of light
reaching the retina. The circular muscles run around the iris, whereas the radial muscles run across it like the
spokes of a bicycle wheel. When the light is relatively dim, the radial muscles contract and the circular
muscles relax and the pupil is pulled open wide (it dilates). When the pupil is dilated, lots of light can get
into the eye that enables us to see even in relatively low light conditions.

In bright light, however, the circular muscles of the iris contract and the radial muscles relax, which makes the
pupil very small (it constricts). This reduces the amount of light that goes into the eye so that the delicate light-
sensitive cells are not damaged by too much bright light (see Figure 5.25).

The innermost layer, the retina, extends only to the ciliary body anteriorly. It receives visual stimuli and sends it
to the brain. The retina consists of numerous layers of nerve cells, including the cells commonly called rods and
cones. These specialized nerve cells are often referred to as “photoreceptors” because they are responsive to
light. The rods are highly sensitive to light, regulate black and white vision, and function in dim light.

The cones function in bright light and are sensitive to color. The optic disc is a cream-colored, circular area
located on the retina toward the medial or nasal side of the eye. It is where the optic nerve enters the eyeball.
Figure 5.25 Figure showing the constriction and relaxation of pupil

When an image is produced on the retina, the light-sensitive cells are stimulated. They send impulses to the brain
along affector (sensory) neurons in the optic nerve. When the brain receives these messages it interprets the
information and enable the person to see. At the point where your optic nerve leaves the eye there is no retina but
there is a blind spot.

A retinal depression known as the fovea centralis (see Figure 5.21) is located adjacent to the optic disc (blind spot)
in the temporal section of the fundus. This area is surrounded by the macula, which appears darker than the rest of
the fundus. The fovea centralis and macular area are highly concentrated with cones and form the area of highest
visual resolution and color vision. The eyeball contains several chambers that serve to maintain structure, protect
against injury, and transmit light rays. The anterior chamber is located between the cornea and iris, and the
posterior chamber is the area between the iris and the lens (see Figure 5.24).

These chambers are filled with aqueous humour, a clear liquid substance produced by the ciliary body. Aqueous
humour helps to cleanse and nourish the cornea and lens as well as maintain intraocular pressure. The aqueous
humour filters out of the eye from the posterior to the anterior chamber then into the canal of Schlemm through a
filtering site called the trabecular meshwork.

Another chamber, the vitreous chamber, is located in the area behind the lens to the retina. It is the largest of the
chambers and is filled with a clear and gelatinous vitreous humour.

5.5.5. The Structure, Functions, and Defects of the ear

Ears are specialized organs for hearing. They are also concerned with the balance and position of the body. The ear
is divided into three regions: the outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.

The outer ear consists of a flap called a pinna (auricle). Leading from the pinna is a tube, the ear canal. In a human
being, this is about 2 cm long. The pinna helps to trap and funnel sound into the ear. This is particularly important
in animals, which can move the pinna to pick up sounds with longer ears than humans. At the end of the ear canal
that closes the tube is a sheet of very thin membrane called the eardrum or tympanum.

The pinna, ear canal and the eardrum form the outer part of the human ear. At the entrance of the ear canal are a
number of small hairs. These filter out dust particles from the air entering the ear canal. The cells lining the ear
canal produce waxy material which traps dust and germs, and lubricates the eardrum.

Behind the eardrum is a cavity filled with air. This cavity contains three tiny bones and forms the middle ear. The
three tiny bones– called the malleus (hammer), the incus (anvil) and the stapes (stirrup) (see Figure 5.28) are the
smallest bones in the human body. They form joints with one another, with the malleus attached to the eardrum and
the stapes to the oval window.

The cavity of the middle ear is connected to the throat by a tube called the Eustachian tube. This is usually closed
but when the pressure in the middle ear increases, the tube opens until the air pressure in the middle ear is equal to
that in the throat and therefore to the atmosphere.

At one end of the middle ear, opposite to the eardrum, there are two openings: one of them is oval in shape and
hence it is called the oval window. The other is round and is called the round window. The openings are covered by
very thin membranes.

The inner ear consists of a cavity filled with a fluid, two sac-like structures called the sacculus and utriculus, three
semicircular canals and a coiled tube called the cochlea. The sacculus, utriculuss and semicircular canals and the
cochlea are filled with a liquid. The sacculus, utriculuss and semicircular canals are part of the balancing system. A
cross section of the cochlea reveals that it is made up of three tubes in one (Figure 5.29). The floor of the middle
tube is lined with sensory cells linked to affector neurons. These nerve fibers join to form the auditory nerve which
leads to the brain.
 Figure 5.28 Structure of human ear

The mechanism of hearing

The pinna collects sound waves and directs them to the eardrum through the ear canal. When sound waves hit the
eardrum, it vibrates. This magnifies the vibrations which are then transmitted through the ear ossicles (the small
bones) to the oval window. The three bony ossicles are called the malleus, incus, and stapes. These three ossicles
connect the tympanic membrane to the inner ear allowing for the transmission of sound waves. The ear ossicles also
amplify the vibrations (make them bigger).

The vibrations of the stapes make the membrane at the vibrations of the fluid cause the hair-like sensory cells to
move. These movements in turn cause production of nerve impulses in the affector nerve fibres. These impulses are
transmitted to the brain for interpretation.

The human ear is sensitive to vibrations ranging from those of a very low note of about 20 vibrations per second, to
a very high note of about 30 000 vibrations per second. High notes are detected in the first part of the cochlea and
low notes are recorded in the last part of the cochlea.
Figure 5.29 The cross section of a cochlea

The sense of balance and movement

The semicircular canals in the inner ear are concerned with the detection of motion. The swellings on each of the
semicircular canals (the ampullae) contain sensory cells attached to the sensory nerve endings. The sensory cells
have hairs which are enclosed in a core of jelly substance called a cupula (Figure 5.30). Whenever the body or the
head moves, the semicircular canals move with the head. The fluid in the semicircular canals also starts to move but
it lags behind in its motion, so it apparently moves in the opposite direction.

The moving fluid causes the cupula to tilt, thus pressing the hairs of the sensory cells. The pressing of the sensory
hairs creates nerve impulses in the sensory nerve endings. The nerve impulses are transmitted to the brain. The
brain then interprets the direction and speed of the motion of the body or head.

The semicircular canals are all at right angles to each other, so each one is sensitive to movement in a different
plane. One canal responds to nodding, one to shaking and one to head tilting. Fast spinning of the body followed by
instant interruption causes dizziness. This is because the fluid in the semicircular canals keeps on moving after the
spinning has stopped.