CHAPTER 3

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR

 SCIENCE
Concepts
•Approach - viewpoint toward teaching •Method -
procedure employed to accomplish the lesson
objective/s
•Strategy - general design of how the lesson will
be delivered
•Technique - style or art of carrying out the steps
of a method
 Teacher-Centered vs. Learner-Centered
Teacher-Centered Teaching
Sometimes called the “Sage on the Stage” style,
the teacher-centered model positions the
teacher as the expert in charge of imparting
knowledge to his or her students via lectures or
direct instruction. In this setting, students are
sometimes described as “empty vessels,”
listening to and absorbing information.

Teacher-Centered vs.
Learner-Centered Learner
Centered Teaching
Learner centered teaching is an approach
that places the learner at the center of the
learning. This means that the learner or
student is responsible for learning while the
tutor is responsible for facilitating the
learning.

Guiding Principles in the Selection

and Use of Teaching Strategies
Learning is an active process.
We have to actively engage the learners in learning activities if we want them to learn
what we intend to teach.
Research shows
▪ 75% retention rates in learning by doing
 ▪ 90% retention rates learning by teaching others

Guiding Principles in the Selection

and Use of Teaching Strategies The more
senses that are involved in learning,
the more and the better the
learning.

Guiding
Principles in the Selection and
Use of Teaching Strategies

Teaching
Process
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 1.
REFLECTIVE
TEACHING
Introduction
Reflective teaching puts premium on the ability of
the teacher to guide students to "reflect" on their own
experiences in order to arrive at new understandings and
meanings. According to Dewey, reflective teaching is
"behavior which involves active, persistent and careful
consideration of any belief or practice." In the context of
education, it involves a thoughtful analysis of a teacher's
actions, decisions and results of teaching. It provides
insights on the efficiency and effectiveness of the
classroom procedures used.
Facilitating Reflection
Analysis is the "processing phase" which occurs after in
experience. The learner recaptures his/her experience, thinks
about it and evaluates it. Therefore, the important role of the
 teacher is that of a facilitator and a guide in developing the skill in
analyzing a past learning experience. Some pointers in facilitating
reflection are:
a. Allocate sufficient time for reflection. This must be incorporated in the learning
activity,
b. Schedule a short briefing activity so as to recall the salient events that occurred. c.
Allow students to recount the experience to others, thereby strengthening the
impression gained.
d. Attend to feelings especially the positive and pleasant ones accompanying said
events.
e. Evaluate the experience in the light of the learners

Strategies
1. Journalizing strategy. Journal writing is the best way to help one reflect on
her own teaching. A journal entry should include: a) a description of the
teaching/learning event, b) outcomes of the event, c) value or
worthiness of the outcomes and d) causes of success or failure.
2. Keeping a portfolio. A portfolio is a very personal document which
 includes frank, honest and spontaneous account of experiences. To
record faithfully instant thoughts and behavior as reactions, use a small
record book or a log book. It is handy for jotting down quickly, thus
capturing significant insights before it is forgotten at the end of the day.
The portfolio can even be a reliable means of analyzing changes in
ones values and attitudes. It is a sure way of keeping track of ones
chronology of growth and development because of its personal nature.

Strategies
3. Self-analysis. A reflective teacher is able to keep a record of
incidents, problems and issues that truly concern herself as a
professional. It can include details of her triumphs and
frustrations. It enables her to think deeply and consider matters
seriously. Writing can help clarify her own thinking.
A number of questions will help, such as:
a) Did anything significant occur? If so, what and why?
 b) Was the strategy I used the most effective one? What other strategies
might have been effective?
c) Did I exhibit flexibility in modifying my lesson according to their
responses?
d) What have I learned about my own teaching? Have I become a better
teacher?

Strategies
4. On-the-spot observations of student's responses. Some questions
that must be answered instantly are as follows;
a. Did I motivate them enough to continue on?
b. Are the students learning from the activity? If so, why? If not. why not? c.
Am I relating the lesson to their knowledge and interest? How can I do
better?
d. Did I give them opportunity to direct their own learning?
e. How good was my classroom management skill?
Summary
To sum up, learning that results from reflective
teaching is best described as one borne of experiences
that have been deeply thought of, analyzed and
evaluated. Reflection is inseparable from experience.
Experience is not yet the best learning, reflection is

2.
COOPERATIVE
 LEARNING
Cooperative Learning Approach
The conceptual basis for the present development in
Cooperative Learning could be traced from the principles
popularized by John Dewey (1916) and Herbert Thelen (1954,
1960) in their book Democracy and Education. Both supported a
pedagogy that requires teachers "to create within their learning
environment a social system characterized by democratic
procedures and scientific processes." They evolved strategies and
procedures for helping small group solve their own problems at
the same time learn democratic principles from their day-to-day
interaction.
Cooperative Learning Approach
Both agreed that the classroom should be a laboratory for
the purpose of study and inquiry into important social and
interpersonal problem, thus the emergence of the use of group
dynamics and group investigations. The small group theory as
applied in the classroom for academic learning and socialization
became the model for cooperative learning.
Features of Cooperative Learning
There are two important components in all cooperative
learning methods: a) a cooperative incentive structure, and b) a
cooperative task structure.
 A cooperative incentive structure is one wherein two or
more individuals are interdependent for a reward they will share if
they are successful as a group.
A cooperative task structure is a situation in which two or
more individuals are allowed, encouraged, or required to work
together on some tasks, coordinating their efforts to complete the
task.
Cooperative learning is described to have the following
features: 1. Students work in teams to tackle academic tasks.
2. Reward systems are group-oriented rather than individually oriented. 3.
The interactions within the group is controlled by the members
themselves. Teams are made up of mixed abilities: high, average and low
achievers.
4. Teams are composed of both sexes.

Effectiveness of Cooperative Approach

Under cooperative conditions wherein individuals are rewarded
for group success, the following are observed:
1. A strong motivation of each member of the group to complete an academic task
is developed.
2. Interdependent relationship is strengthened and reinforced when group
cooperation is rewarded.
3. Group work develops friendliness, willingness to assist and the more worthwhile
value of "caring and sharing”
4. Cooperation in groups promotes maximal generation and exchange of ideas and
influencing one another. Promotes tolerance and respect for other people's points
of view.
5. Cooperative learning groups exhibit less competitive behavior compared to
whole-class teaching classrooms.
6. The group members gain skills of cooperation and collaboration through
experience

Approaches Used
Four approaches that could be part of a teacher's plan to
conduct group work are described below:

1. Student Teams Achievement Divisions (STAD)

The teacher gives new academic information to students for
a week. The class is divided into four-or five-member learning
teams. Each member try to learn the materials and then help
each other master the materials through tutoring, quizzing one
another or carrying on team discussions. Individually, students
take weekly quizzes on the academic materials.
Approaches Used
2. Jigsaw
The students are assigned to five-or six-member study teams.
Then an academic material is presented to the students in text
form and each member is responsible for a portion of the
material. Members from different teams with the same topic meet
to study and help each other learn their topic. Then they return to
their home team and teach other members what they have
learned. After home team meetings and discussions, the students
take quizzes individually. Team scores are obtained and the high
scoring teams and individuals are recognized.
Approaches Used
3. Group Investigation
Like the first two, groups of five or six members are formed.
Here the students are involved in planning both the topics they
like to investigate, together with the procedure they have to
follow. They pursue in-depth study of chosen sub-topics and
conduct an analysis of the information obtained. The final
product is then reported to the whole class. Evaluation can be in
the form of group or individual assessment or both.
Approaches Used
4. Think-Pair-Share
Thinking Phase. The teacher poses a question or issue
associated with the lesson. Students spend time thinking alone the
answer.
Pairing Phase. Each student pair with another and talk about
the answer. They interact and share each others ideas regarding
the issues.
Sharing Phase. The teacher asks the pairs to share with the
whole class what they have arrived at. All will be given a chance
to report. Buzz groups fall under group studies. Groups of 3 to 6
discuss all ideas about a topic. Then the teacher asks the recorder
to summarize the major ideas for the class.
Procedure
The general flow or syntax of a cooperative learning lesson
includes six
a. Provide objectives for the lesson.
b. Present information either through oral and written text.
c. Organize students into learning teams.
d. Assist teams as they work and study.
e. Tests knowledge of learning materials or group presents results of their
work.
f. Recognize group and individual effort and achievement.

Suggested Grouping Patterns

A number of grouping patterns are suggested hereby: 1.
Achievement or ability grouping. Students with the same ability
level high, average, or low are put together. 2. Needs or skills
 grouping. The level of difficulty of the task or the nature of the
problem is considered by the teacher so that she can tap the
students who possess the skills required and put them in a
group.
3. Research grouping. This kind of grouping suits the approach
to cooperative learning termed group investigation.
Suggested Grouping Patterns
4. Project grouping. Also referred to as performance grouping,
usually resorted to in performing experiments. The group
may be required to carry out construction activities.
5. Friendship grouping. This is good for purposes of increasing
and strengthening motivation.
6. Interest grouping. The students' interests serve as the criterion
for forming the group.
Guidelines
In order to implement cooperative learning successfully here
are some general guidelines to follow:
1. Heterogeneous grouping wherein high, average and low
achievers are mixed in a group. It has been found out to affect
the performance of the group since the high achievers can tutor
the other members of the group, thus raising the groups
achievement level.
However, homogeneous grouping is favored depending on the
objectives of the learning tasks and the goal of the teacher.
2. Make sure that the students exhibit the necessary social
skills to work cooperatively in group situations.
Guidelines
 3. Arrange the furniture so that groups of students can sit facing
each other during sessions. Provide adequate space for ease
and speed in movement.
4. Provide adequate learning tools so as not to make others
wait at a time they are needed.
5. Encourage students to assume responsibility for individual
and group learning by offering rewards for achievement. 6.
Make sure each group understands the goals, procedures,
tasks and methods of evaluation.
Summary
Cooperative learning is a form of classroom organization in
which students work in groups or as teams to help each other
acquire academic information. Concepts from small group theory
and group dynamics serve as the basis upon which skills in
democratic procedures and collaboration are developed. It is
unique among other teaching models because it recognizes
collective effort. The incentives and task structures are group
oriented, thus achieving strong motivation and smooth
interpersonal interaction. The employment of any of the four
approaches-Student Teams Achievement Divisions, Jigsaw,
Group-Investigations and TPS promises academic as well as social
benefits.
Summary
In addition to academic learning, intergroup acceptance,
peer liking patterns and self-esteem are achieved. Regardless of
the approach, the learning environment for cooperative learning
is characterized by democratic processes, students assuming
active roles and taking responsibilities for their own learning.
Conducting a cooperative learning lesson changes the teacher's
role from being the "center-stage performer to choreographer of
small group activity." She assists in the transition from whole class
setting to small learning teams. Time is spent in helping students
work together rather than presenting and demonstrating learning
materials. Evaluation procedures stress group as well as individual
achievement and corresponding rewards for both.
Results of Studies
Studies showed that cooperative learning methodologies
contribute significantly to student achievement to an equal
extent in:
a. both elementary and secondary levels;
b. urban, suburban and rural students in all subject areas.
Cooperative learning strategies likewise increase
acceptance and understanding among educable mentally
retarded and physically handicapped students. They develop a
positive effect on students' self-esteem.

3.
EXPERIENTIAL
LEARNING
Introduction
 Educators are foremost believers in the old cliché:
"Experience is the best teacher." A natural part of learning if this
be true, is the occurrence of personal knowledge or personal
involvement. To experience an event means to "live through' ', to
actually see, feel, or encounter an incident or a certain situation.
In teaching-learning episodes experience is at the base. It is the
foundation upon which new ideas and behaviors are formed.
With prior experience, students are able to create their own
meanings, concepts and perspectives. Hence, the need for
activity-centered teaching methodologies wherein they undergo
directly an intelligent use of all their senses.
Introduction
Experiential learning is essentially a way of acquiring
knowledge or skills through direct and keen observations followed
by an analysis of what has been sensed and understood. Then,
the particular experience acquires meaning through an
intellectual process termed "reflection”. To reflect simply means to
deliberate, reason and mull over carefully.
Effectiveness
Children learn best from experiences with natural
occurrences and with concrete objects in the environment.
Experiences gained through interactions with other individuals
also promote learning situations. Such accumulated experiences
are further examined and evaluated by themselves, thus enabling
them to formulate new insights as well as gain new skills.
Experiential Learning
Experiential learning requires that;
a. a child should be personally involved in the learning task, b. the
 knowledge or information must be discovered by the child herself, and
c. the objectives of the learning activity must be clearly understood, at
the same time, allowing flexibility in their own ways of pursuing them.

Experiential Learning
Experiential learning can be distinguished from other
teaching models in that it emphasizes directly experiencing what
one is studying, also making conclusions and generalizations
based on direct experiences. But before a child can fully benefit
from an experience, she should first develop some basic skills such
as the ability to listen critically and to observe keenly through an
intelligent use of all the senses. She should be-able to develop the
ability to analyze observations upon which she can formulate new
concepts and understandings. On the part of the teacher, she
should listen carefully and be able to pick-up subtle cues from
every classroom encounter. She should lead the students in
connecting the current experience to previous ones, thus create
new insights and perspectives.
Pointers
Learning by doing" is an appropriate rationale in planning a
teaching- learning situation using this methodology. Following are
some pointers:
1. Involve the students in planning a learning activity. In addition to
capturing their interest, they would continue to find out how their plan
works. This results in complete involvement in the learning episode.
2. Allow sufficient time for student reflection. Unless analyzed and
evaluated the experience may be left to waste.
3. During analysis of a learning experience, pay attention to positive
feelings. Keep recounting value-laden situations so they will be long
remembered.
4. Encourage students to communicate their experiences to others.
Pointers
Learning by doing" is an appropriate rationale in planning a
teaching- learning situation using this methodology. Following are
some pointers:
5. Have an adequate supply of materials and tools available in order to
facilitate simple investigations and instant explorations in the
environment. This will motivate students to undertake the learning
activities, thus developing the "seeing- to -believe" attitude.
6. Include a wide variety of real-life situations in planning a lesson. The
experiences gained will be more meaningful and can insure a smooth
application of the principles and concepts arrived at.
7. Encourage the students to record their observations in order to assist in
their own recall and interpretations. This may be in the form of a
written.

Pointers
Learning by doing" is an appropriate rationale in planning a
teaching- learning situation using this methodology. Following are
some pointers:
8. account of an experience or a diary of the day's events, including their
own feelings, reactions and behavior, On the teacher's part, a journal
would be of great help in keeping track of observable changes.
The journal entry should include:
a. description of the learning event;
b. outcomes or consequences of the event;
c. causes of success and failures; and
d. value of such event.

Pointers
Learning by doing" is an appropriate rationale in planning a teaching
learning situation using this methodology. Following are some pointers: 9.
Experiential learning for beginning teachers can be promoted through interaction with
colleagues. Early in their careers they may establish close associations with the more
advanced members in their school. By observing how these teachers teach and manage
classroom situations they will gain fresh ideas and rich information about teaching practice.
Exchanging ideas with their elders enrich their induction into the profession.
Summing up, experiential learning is based on the assumption that the
students learn best when they are personally involved in the learning activity.
Learning by doing is the intended precept for all.
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guide-to-effective-teaching

4. DIRECT
INSTRUCTION
Introduction
Direct instruction is a teaching model which is aimed
at helping students master basic skills and knowledge that
can be taught in a step-by-step fashion. Often times it is
described as "straightforward and can be mastered in a
relatively short time. How to solve problems using
mathematical equations, how to write a research paper
or how to drive a car employ this instruction model. It is
best employed in performance-oriented subjects as in
Science, Mathematics, Physical Education, Music, as well
as for the skill components of other subjects.
Direct instruction is where teachers use explicit
teaching techniques to teach a specific skill to their
students. This type of instruction is teacher directed,
where a teacher typically stands at the front of a
room and presents information. Teachers match
their instruction to the task to enhance students’
understanding of a topic. This technique depends
on strict lesson plans with little room for variation. It
does not include active learning activities such as
discussions, workshops or case studies.
Direct instruction is a teacher-directed teaching method.
This means that the teacher stands in front of a classroom, and
presents the information. The teachers give explicit, guided
instructions to the students.
So, isn’t that how everything has always been taught in a
classroom? Not entirely. Nowadays, experimenting in education is
“hot”, as teachers find that not all students benefit from listening
to a teacher talk all day, and not all lessons are best taught
through direct instruction. Teachers now match the type of
instruction to the task. Using direct instruction is effective when it
suits the skill students have to learn.
Here’s an example:
• The order of the planets is best learned via direct
instruction.
• Teaching what materials are magnetic is better learned
through experimentation.

The direct instruction method is based on two core

principles:
• All students can learn when taught correctly, regardless
of history and background.
• All teachers can be successful, given effective materials
and presentation techniques.
Features of Direct Instruction
1. Direct Instruction model is designed to assist students to
learn procedural knowledge (knowledge about how
to do something) on how to perform single and
complex skills.
2. It promotes learning of declarative knowledge
(knowledge learners have about something) that can
be taught in a step-by-step fashion.
3. It emphasizes the teaching of skills. A student may know
the entire procedure but may not know how to
execute the steps.
Steps of Direct Instruction
Direct instruction doesn’t stop at the teacher explaining a concept.
There are 6 steps that are very important in the process.
Steps of Direct Instruction