Introduction

Education is the cornerstone of personal and societal development,

shaping individuals and empowering communities. It encompasses a broad
spectrum of learning experiences, from formal instruction in schools
and universities to informal education through life experiences and
interactions. At its core, education fosters critical thinking,
creativity, and the ability to navigate an ever-changing world. It
plays a crucial role in promoting social equity, economic growth, and
cultural understanding, serving as a bridge that connects generations
and cultivates informed, engaged citizens. In an age marked by rapid
technological advancement and globalization, the pursuit of knowledge
has never been more vital, making education a fundamental right and a
shared responsibility.

Education in the Philippines is marked by several distinct phases,

reflecting the country’s cultural, political, and social evolution. The
history of teaching in the Philippines is rich and multifaceted,
beginning with indigenous education systems that emphasized oral
traditions and community values. Spanish colonization introduced
formal schooling in the 16th century, with religious orders
establishing schools focused on Christian education. The American
colonial period in the early 20th century brought significant reforms,
including the establishment of a public school system and the
introduction of English as the medium of instruction. Post-
independence, the education system underwent various reforms, focusing
on accessibility and quality. Today, it continues to evolve,
addressing modern challenges and striving to meet the needs of a
diverse population.

Overall, the history of education in the Philippines showcases a

continuous journey of adaptation and reform, aiming to meet the
evolving needs of its society.

1
THE TEACHING
PROFESSION
“Teaching as a Vocation is a call.
Teaching as a Mission is a Task assigned.
Teaching is the NOBLEST PROFESSION”

2
 Overview
The Teaching Profession plays a crucial role in shaping individuals and
society by imparting knowledge, skills, and values.

Teaching is a respected profession dedicated to facilitating learning and

fostering the intellectual and social development of students.

The teaching profession in the Philippines is a vital component of the

country's education system, significantly influencing national development
and cultural growth. Here’s an overview:

Educational Structure

• Basic Education: The Philippine education system follows a K-12

framework, which includes Kindergarten, six years of elementary
education, four years of junior high school, and two years of senior
high school.

• Higher Education: After secondary education, students can pursue higher

education in various colleges and universities.

Teacher Qualifications

• Education Requirements: Teachers are generally required to hold a

bachelor’s degree in education or a related field. Specialization in
specific subjects or grade levels is often encouraged.

• Licensure Examination: Aspiring teachers must pass the Licensure

Examination for Teachers (LET) administered by the Professional
Regulation Commission (PRC) to practice legally.

Roles and Responsibilities

• Curriculum Delivery: Teachers are responsible for planning, delivering

lessons, and assessing student learning.

• Student Support: They provide guidance and support to students,

fostering both academic and personal development.

• Community Engagement: Teachers often engage with parents and the

community to promote educational initiatives and student welfare.

Professional Development

• Continuous Learning: Teachers are encouraged to pursue further

education and professional development through seminars, workshops, and
graduate studies.

• DepEd Programs: The Department of Education (DepEd) offers various

programs aimed at enhancing teaching skills and updating educational
practices.

Challenges

• Classroom Conditions: Many teachers face challenges such as overcrowded

classrooms, inadequate resources, and insufficient support.

• Salary and Benefits: Teacher salaries in the Philippines are often

viewed as low compared to the demands of the profession, leading to
discussions about fair compensation and benefits.

• Workload: Teachers often experience heavy workloads, including lesson

planning, grading, and administrative tasks.

Ethics and Professionalism

• Code of Ethics: The profession is guided by a code of ethics that

emphasizes integrity, respect, and the promotion of student welfare.

• Professional Organizations: Organizations such as the Philippine

National Teachers’ College (PNTC) and various teacher unions support
educators in upholding professional standards and advocating for their
rights.

3
7. Impact on Society

• Cultural Development: Teachers play a crucial role in imparting values,

culture, and national identity to students.

• Nation-Building: As agents of change, educators contribute to national

development by equipping students with the knowledge and skills needed
to succeed in a globalized world.

The teaching profession in the Philippines is integral to shaping the future

of the nation. Despite facing various challenges, Filipino teachers remain
committed to their roles, demonstrating resilience and dedication to their
students and communities. Their influence extends beyond the classroom,
making them vital contributors to societal growth and development.

Here in Philippines we laid the Foundation of Teacher Education from:

Educational Decree 1863

FREE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM

The Educational Decree of 1863 in the Philippines established a free public

school system during the Spanish colonial period. Key features included:

Royal Decree No. 1765

ONE MAESTRO

Royal Decree No. 1765, issued in 1886, aimed to enhance the educational
system in the Philippines by establishing a "One Maestro" (One Teacher)
policy. This decree was significant in promoting basic education,
particularly in rural areas.

Act 74 of 1901
PHILIPPINE NORMAL SCHOOL WAS ESTABLISH

The instrumental in establishing the Philippine Normal School, enhancing the

training and quality of teachers, and supporting the development of public
education in the Philippines.

Spanish, American, and Japanese period

NO FORMAL TEACHER PREPARATION TRAINING

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE 1006

DECREE PROFESSIONALIZING TEACHING
BY PRESIDENT FERDINAND MARCOS 1976
IT IS TO ENSURE QUALITATIVE REQUIREMENTS IN RECRUITMENT ID NOT OVERLOOKED

Republic Act No. 7836

PHILIPPINE TEACHERS PROFESSIONALIZATION ACT OF 1994
To promote quality education by proper supervision and regulation of the
licensure examination and professionalization of the practice of teaching
profession

1. Professional Regulation: The act establishes guidelines for the

licensure examination for teachers, ensuring that only qualified
individuals can practice teaching in the country.
2. Quality Education: By setting standards for teacher qualifications, the
law aims to improve the overall quality of education provided to
students.
3. Continuous Professional Development: It encourages ongoing education
and training for teachers, promoting lifelong learning and professional
growth.

The implementation of the Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act aims to

uplift the teaching profession, ensuring that educators are well-equipped to
contribute to the academic and personal growth of their students. By
fostering a professional environment, the law seeks to enhance the overall
education system in the Philippines.

4
GLOBAL AND GLOCAL TEACHER EDUCATION

Global and glocal teacher education refers to the approaches and practices in
training educators that take into account both global standards and local
contexts.

Global Teacher Education

This aspect emphasizes:

1. International Standards: Aligning teacher training with global

educational standards and competencies, such as those set by UNESCO or
the OECD.
2. Cross-Cultural Competencies: Preparing teachers to work in diverse
environments and understand global educational trends.
3. Collaboration: Encouraging partnerships between institutions across
countries to share best practices and resources.

Glocal Teacher Education

This aspect focuses on:

1. Local Relevance: Tailoring teacher education programs to meet the

specific needs and cultural contexts of the local community.
2. Community Engagement: Involving local stakeholders in the development
of teacher training curricula.
3. Contextualized Pedagogy: Emphasizing teaching methods that resonate
with local students’ backgrounds and experiences.

Integration of Global and Glocal

Combining these approaches can enhance teacher effectiveness by:

• Building a Global Mindset: Equipping educators with a broad perspective

while ensuring they are grounded in local realities.
• Promoting Best Practices: Utilizing global innovations in teaching
while adapting them to local needs.
• Fostering Inclusivity: Creating learning environments that respect and
celebrate local cultures while preparing students for a globalized
world.

This dual approach can lead to more effective, responsive, and culturally
aware educators who can navigate both local and global educational
landscapes.

UNESCO Education 2030 Declaration

“Towards inclusive and equitable quality educational lifelong learning for

all”

Thus, INCREASE SUPPLY OF QUALIFIED TEACHERS

21ST Century Learning Goals

1. 21st Century Contents: (Emerging Content Areas)

✓ global awareness

• financial, economic, business

✓ entrepreneurial and civic literacy

✓ health and environmental awareness

Learning and Thinking Skills:

✓ Critical and problem solving

✓ Communication

5
 ✓ Creativity and innovation

✓ Collaboration and contextual learning

✓ Media literacy

Glocal Teacher

✓ Is a global teacher who is competent and armed with enough

skills, appropriate attitude and universal values to teach
learners at home or abroad.

✓ Thinks and acts both locally and globally with worldwide

perspectives

A glocal teacher:

✓ understanding how this world is interconnected

✓ recognizes that the world has rich variety of ways of life

✓ has vision of the future

✓ is creative and innovative

✓ understanding, respect and tolerant of diversity & culture

✓ facilitates digitally-mediated learning

✓ good communication skill

✓ awareness of international teacher standards and frameworks

✓ master the competency of Philippine Professional Standard for Teachers

(PPST, 2017)

Glocal Teacher Distinct Characteristics:

• Cultural and historical rootedness

• Ability to contextualize teaching-learning

• Excellence

• Responsiveness

• Accountability and integrity

• Ecological sensitivity

• Nationalism/filipinonism

• Faith in the Divine Providence

THE GLOBAL LANDSCAPE IN 21ST CENTURY

❑ Borderless “flat” world

❑ Barriers broken by ICT

❑ Globalization has opened doors for nations to co-exist

THE NEW LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

❑ Learner-centered

❑ New spaces and borderless

❑ Opportunity for creativity and innovation

❑ ICT-Oriented

6
NEW LEARNING CONTENTS

❑ Integrated/interdisciplinary

❑ Demand-driven

❑ Emphasis on learning tools

(how to retrieve knowledge)

❑ Balance, scientific, technological, cultural, global, local

concepts

NEW TYPE OF LEARNERS

❑ Confident (think critically, communicate effectively)

❑ Self-directed (take responsibility of his own)

❑ Conceived and informed citizen

❑ Member of the new generation (pop-culture, creative, responsive)

LIFE AND CAREER SKILLS

❑ Flexibility and adaptability

❑ Initiative and self-direction

❑ Social and non-cultural skills

❑ Productivity and accountabilities

NEW TYPES OF TEACHERS

❑ Clear standards and accountability

❑ Use broad pedagogies (inquiry-based, cooperative)

❑ Skillful in ICT

❑ Skillful in authentic assessment

❑ Great understanding of local and global cultures

❑ Culture & Research (Action Research)

❑ Core values & inspiring teachers

Quality Teachers: are defined by their attributes and characteristics

Teacher Quality: are defined by the standards set for the profession
validated by learning outcomes.

7
PILLARS OF LEARNING

LEARNING TO KNOW

➢ Learning to know lays the foundations of lifelong learning.

➢ It is about basic knowledge that we need to be able to understand our

environment and to live in dignity.

➢ It is about competence to acquire information and search actively of

knowledge.

➢ It is about arousing curiosity, allowing to experience the pleasures of

research and discovery.

➢ Learning to do is learning to learn.

LEARNING TO DO

➢ Learning to do refers to the acquisition of practical skills, but also

of social and psychological skills.

➢ It refers to an aptitude for teamwork and initiative, and a readiness

to take risks.

➢ It is about personal initiative and the ambition to innovate.

➢ Learning to do enables us to turn our knowledge into effective

innovations.

LEARNING TO LIVE TOGETHER

➢ Learning to live together is the pillar that the UNESCO Commission

emphasizes more than other.

➢ It refers to developing and understanding to others through dialogue –

leading to empathy, respects an depreciation.

➢ And, if we understand others, we must first know ourselves.

➢ It is about recognizing our growing interdependence, about experiencing

shared purpose, and about implementing common projects and a joint
future .

(peace, education for all, environment)

LEARNING TO BE

➢ Learning to be is founded on the fundamental principle that education

needs to contribute to the all-around development of each individual.

➢ It deals with the freedom of thought, feeling and imagination that we

need to act more independently, with more insight, more critically, and
more responsibly.

➢ The end of Education is to discover and open the talents which are
hidden like a treasure within every person.

8
DOMIANS OF EDUCATION

NCBTS vs. PPST DOMAINS

The National Competency-Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS) and the Philippine

Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST) are both frameworks aimed at
enhancing the quality of education in the Philippines by defining the
competencies expected of teachers. Here’s a comparison of their domains:

National Competency-Based Teacher Philippine Professional Standards

Standards (NCBTS) for Teachers (PPST)

The NCBTS, developed in 2000, The PPST, introduced in 2017, builds

focuses on the competencies required on the NCBTS and aligns with current
for effective teaching. It includes educational reforms. It consists of
the following key domains: the following domains:

1. Social Regard for Learning: I. Content Knowledge and

Emphasizes the teacher's role Pedagogy: Focuses on teachers’
in fostering a positive mastery of subject matter and
learning environment and effective teaching strategies.
engaging with the community. II. Learning Environment: Similar
2. Learning Environment: Focuses to the NCBTS, this domain
on creating a conducive emphasizes creating a safe and
learning atmosphere that inclusive learning space.
promotes student engagement III. Diversity of Learners:
and success. Addresses the need for
3. Diversity of Learners: teachers to understand and
facilitate the learning respond to the diverse needs
process and recognize of students.
individual differences IV. Curriculum and Planning:
4. Curriculum: Involves knowledge Involves designing and
and understanding of the implementing a relevant
curriculum and the ability to curriculum while planning
integrate it effectively into effective lessons.
teaching. V. Assessment and Reporting:
5. Planning, Assessing, and Emphasizes the importance of
Reporting: Centers on the assessing student learning and
ability to plan lessons, using data to inform
assess student learning, and instruction.
provide feedback. VI. Community Linkages and
6. Community Linkages: Highlights Professional Engagement:
the importance of establishing Highlights collaboration with
connections with the community the community and continuous
and involving stakeholders in professional development.
education. VII. Personal Growth and
7. Personal and Professional Professional Development:
Development: Encourages Encourages ongoing learning
continuous improvement and and reflection for teachers.
lifelong learning for
teachers.

Comparison

• Evolution: The PPST builds upon the foundations laid by the NCBTS,
updating and expanding its framework to address contemporary
educational challenges.
• Additional Focus: The PPST includes a specific focus on the diversity
of learners, reflecting the need for inclusive education.
• Alignment with Global Standards: The PPST is designed to align with
international standards, ensuring that Filipino teachers meet global
competencies.

Both frameworks aim to professionalize teaching and improve educational

outcomes, but the PPST offers a more comprehensive and updated approach,
incorporating elements that address current educational needs and challenges
in the Philippines.

9
PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION

Behaviorism Ivan Pavlov Form habits and change/

Burrhus F. Skinner Modify students’ behavior
John Watson to become socially
acceptable
Provide rewards for good
behavior and punishment
for bad behavior
Plan and orchestrate
favorable learning
environment s for habits
to develop

Constructivism Jerome Bruner Build learner’s knowledge

as they progress from
easy to difficult, to
unknown
Teachers facilitate the
construction of knowledge

Essentialism William Bagley Develop the mind fully to

James Koerner make a person RATIONAL
Help a person discover
his/her abilities and
attain full moral
excellence to better
serve society. Theory is
important before practice
and cultivation of
values.

Idealism Plato Develop the mind fully to

make a person RATIONAL
Help a person discover
his/her abilities and
attain full moral
excellence to better
serve society
Theory is important
before practice and
cultivation of values.

Perennialism Robert M. There are lessons that

Hutchins, Jacques are universal.
Martain Unchanging, and should be
Allan Bloom taught to all.
Develop the intellect and
the rational and moral
powers of the child
Teach the classics to all
because this is a
generalist curriculum.
Inculcate values through
the acts/teachings seen
in the classic works

Pragmatism Charles Sanders Teach practical,

John Dewey functional, and workable
George Herbert Mead concepts and skills
Focus on solving real-
life problems
Make learners appreciate
practicality

Realism Aristotle Teach facts and things

Francis Bacon that are real and
observable
Understand the material
world through inquiry

10
Progressivism John Dewey Develop skills through
hands-on learning
Value change as the only
constant in life
Prepare students for
real-world challenges in
school
Make students learn
actively through
application
Teachers become
facilitators of learning.

Reconstructivism Theodore Brameid, George Use education to “fix”

Sylvester counts society
Become agents of positive
social change
Focus on activities that
will help bring about
social reforms

ROLE OF THE TEACHER

Driving Force of Educational System

√ Resources
- resource of information √ Helping Hand
- resource specialist - take extra tasks
- should know what - meetings, activities
student are looking for
- support person √ Learner
√ Support - there is always something
- coach, leader, counselor new to learn
- related to subject matter - growing in life
√ Mentor - she never claims she knows
- to look up to teachers everything
behavior, work ethic, performance

CATEGORIES OF 21ST CENTURY SKILLS

Learning Skills (4 c’s)

- mental process how to adopt and improve in a

modern/changing environment

√ critical thinking

√ creativity

√ collaboration

√ communication

Literacy Skills (IMT) Life Skills (FLIPS)

- teaching students how to - looking at intangible

discern facts, publish outlets elements of students’ everyday life
trustworthy sources
√ Flexibility -
√ Information. deviating from plans

- understanding facts, √ Leadership –motivation

figures, statistics, data. to accomplish goal

√ Media √ Initiative –starting,

strategizing, planning
- the methods and
outlets in which information is √ Productivity –
gathered and published. maintaining efficiency

√ Technology √ Social skills –

meeting & networking with others for
- understanding the
machines that make the information mutual benefit
age.

11
POWER OF THE TEACHER

● Expert Power √ based on national position

√ mastery of the subject matter ● Reward power
√ sharing of knowledge & √ promising or granting
information’s rewards
● Referent Power √ providing privileges
√ students’ like and respect to ● Coercive Power
teacher √ threats or actual
√ “charisma” personality punishment
● Legitimate Power √ To misbehaving student
√ authority over student

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TEACHERS

● Cool ● Traditional
- go with the flow - they stick to their own
● Strict norms like glue
- maintain standard - they always compare their
inside and outside school time
● Friendly ● Talkative
- smiling in and - they like talking a lot
outside school ● Weird
● Modern - they are hard to understand
- fond of technology & - They have their in own
advancement world

For Professional Teachers

● Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers

√ RA 7836

√ PD No. 223

● Magna Carta for Public School Teachers

√ RA 4670

ELATED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

● DepEd Order No. 32 s. 2009

-Adoption and Implementation

√ NCBTS- National Competency-Based Teacher Standards

√ TSNA- Training Needs Assessment

√ IIPD- Individual Plan for Professional Development

● R.A. 8225 (Adopt-A-School Program)

√ Partnership with business, foundations, NGO

● Child-Friendly School Program

√ child protection

√ no corporal punishment

● ECARP (Every Child A Reader Program)

√ grade 1-6 can read at their level

● Mobile Teachers

√ ALS (Alternative Learning System)

√ outside classroom

● MTB-MLE

√ (Mother Tongue-Based

Multi-Learning Education)

12
CODE OF ETHICS FOR PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS
R.A. No. 7836, otherwise known as the Philippine Teachers Professionalization
Act of 1994
P.D. No. 223, as amended, the Board for Professional Teachers hereby adopt
the Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers.

Section 1: Preamble
States the importance of teachers in nation-building and the ethical
responsibilities that come with the profession.

Section 2: Scope and Limitations

Defines the applicability of the Code to all public school teachers in the
Philippines, outlining the context in which the ethical guidelines apply.

Section 3: Responsibilities to the Profession

Emphasizes the need for teachers to maintain the dignity and honor of the
teaching profession, engage in professional development, and adhere to
standards of professional conduct.

Section 4: Responsibilities to Students

Highlights the obligation to prioritize students' welfare, ensuring their
holistic development and creating a supportive learning environment.

Section 5: Teacher-Student Relationship

Stresses the importance of fostering a respectful and fair relationship with
students, avoiding any form of discrimination or abuse.

Section 6: Professional Integrity

Addresses the need for honesty, integrity, and ethical behavior in all
professional dealings, including interactions with colleagues and
stakeholders.

Section 7: Responsibilities to the Community

Encourages teachers to engage with the community, work collaboratively with
parents, and participate in local initiatives to support education.

Section 8: Compliance with Laws and Regulations

Mandates adherence to relevant laws, rules, and regulations governing
education, emphasizing the importance of lawful conduct.

Section 9: Professional Development

Advocates for continuous improvement and lifelong learning to enhance
teaching skills and knowledge.

Section 10: Promotion of the Teaching Profession

Encourages teachers to advocate for the value of the profession, inspiring
respect and recognition in society.

Section 11: Implementation and Enforcement

Discusses the mechanisms for implementing the Code and addressing violations,
including potential penalties for misconduct.

Section 12: Amendments

Provides guidelines for reviewing and amending the Code as necessary to
reflect evolving educational standards and societal expectations.

The Code serves as a comprehensive framework guiding public school teachers

in their ethical conduct and professional responsibilities, aiming to enhance
the quality of education in the Philippines.

13
THE MAGNA CARTA FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 4670 JUNE 18, 1966

The Magna Carta for Public School Teachers, officially known as Republic Act
No. 4670, was enacted on June 18, 1966, in the Philippines. This law aims to
promote and protect the rights and welfare of public school teachers.

Section 1: Declaration of Policy

The State recognizes the essential role of teachers in national development
and commits to their welfare.

Section 2: Definition of Terms

Defines key terms used in the Act, including "teacher," "public school," and
others.

Section 3: Rights of Teachers

Lists the rights of teachers, such as academic freedom and the right to
express their opinions.

Section 4: Compensation and Allowances

Provides for fair compensation, including salaries and other allowances for
teachers.

Section 5: Leave Benefits

Specifies types of leave available, including sick leave, vacation leave, and
special leave.

Section 6: Working Conditions

Mandates reasonable working hours and adequate facilities for teachers.

Section 7: Professional Development

Encourages participation in professional development programs and training.

Section 8: Promotion and Advancement

Establishes guidelines for merit-based promotions.

Section 9: Safety and Health

Ensures safe and healthy working conditions for teachers.

Section 10: Grievance Mechanism

Outlines procedures for filing grievances related to violations of teachers'
rights.

Section 11: Implementing Rules and Regulations

Empowers the Department of Education to formulate necessary regulations for
implementation.

Section 12: Funding

Discusses the necessary funding for the implementation of the Act.

Section 13: Separability Clause

States that if any provision is unconstitutional, other provisions remain
effective.

Section 14: Repealing Clause

Repeals inconsistent laws and regulations.

Section 15: Effectivity

Specifies the immediate effectivity of the Act upon approval.

Section 16: Rights and Responsibilities

Emphasizes the balance between teachers' rights and their responsibilities.

Section 17: Code of Ethics

Requires teachers to adhere to a professional code of ethics.

Section 18: Rights of Teachers to Organize

Guarantees the right of teachers to form or join organizations.

Section 19: Teaching Load

Specifies guidelines regarding teachers' workloads.

Section 20: Non-Discrimination

Prohibits discrimination against teachers based on various factors.

14
Section 21: Salary Increases
Discusses provisions for regular salary increases.

Section 22: Professional Development Leave

Provides for leave specifically for professional development activities.

Section 23: Class Sizes

Sets guidelines for appropriate class sizes to enhance teaching
effectiveness.

Section 24: Payment for Services

Details the compensation for additional duties or services performed by
teachers.

Section 25: Teachers' Conferences

Encourages participation in conferences to share best practices.

Section 26: Use of School Facilities

Ensures teachers have access to necessary school facilities for their work.

Section 27: Special Leave Benefits

Outlines provisions for special leave under specific circumstances.

Section 28: Assistance in Legal Matters

Provides assistance for teachers facing legal issues related to their
professional duties.

Section 29: Participation in Policy-Making

Encourages teachers to participate in the formulation of educational
policies.

Section 30: Documentation of Achievements

Emphasizes the importance of documenting teachers' achievements for promotion
and recognition.

Section 31: Family Welfare Benefits

Discusses benefits that support teachers’ family welfare.

Section 32: Technology and Training

Promotes the use of technology in teaching and training.

Section 33: Advocacy for Teachers' Rights

Encourages advocacy for the rights and welfare of teachers at various levels.

Section 34: Evaluation of Performance

Establishes a system for the evaluation of teachers’ performance.

Section 35: Review and Amendments

Provides for the periodic review and potential amendments to the Act.

The Magna Carta for Public School Teachers is a significant piece of

legislation that aims to improve the working conditions, rights, and welfare
of public school teachers in the Philippines. It recognizes the vital role
teachers play in education and seeks to provide them with the necessary
support and protection.

15
THE TEACHER AND
THE CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT “Not just about what we teach,
but about how we inspire minds to explore,
question, and grow."

16
 Overview

Curriculum development is a collaborative process that involves educators,

administrators, and stakeholders in creating a structured educational
framework. Central to this process is the teacher, whose role is vital in
bridging theory and practice.

Role of the Teacher: Teachers are not only implementers of the curriculum
but also active participants in its development. They bring insights from
their classroom experiences, helping to shape content that meets the
diverse needs of students.

Understanding Student Needs: Effective curriculum development begins with

understanding the learners. Teachers can provide valuable feedback on
student interests, learning styles, and areas of difficulty, ensuring that
the curriculum is relevant and engaging.

Curriculum Design Principles: Teachers should be familiar with key

principles of curriculum design, including alignment with educational
standards, flexibility to accommodate different learning paces, and
integration of interdisciplinary approaches.

Collaboration and Professional Development: Successful curriculum

development often involves collaboration among teachers. Professional
development opportunities can enhance teachers’ skills in curriculum
design, assessment strategies, and innovative teaching methods.

Assessment and Evaluation: Teachers play a critical role in evaluating the

effectiveness of the curriculum. Their observations and assessments help
inform necessary adjustments, ensuring the curriculum remains dynamic and
responsive.

Advocacy and Leadership: Teachers can serve as advocates for curricular

changes that better serve their students, taking on leadership roles
within their schools to drive meaningful improvements.

The interplay between teachers and curriculum development is essential for

creating effective, responsive educational experiences. Empowering teachers
to take an active role ensures that the curriculum not only meets academic
standards but also fosters a love of learning.

17
CURRICULUM DEFINITION AND PERSPECTIVE

Curriculum
The term "curriculum" originates from the Latin word currere, meaning "to
run." In a modern context, it refers to a structured course of study that
encompasses the learning experiences students encounter in school. Common
definitions of curriculum include:

✓ A list of subjects to be learned in school.

✓ The learning experiences (curricular, co-curricular, and
extracurricular) students have.
✓ A set of competencies or intended learning outcomes for students.
✓ A document specifying planned learning experiences for a specific
discipline.
✓ A discipline with principles, theories, and practices relevant to an
academic area.
✓ A series of topics or subject matter within each subject area.

Traditionalist Perspective
For traditionalists, the curriculum encompasses:
✓ The “what” of education, focusing on content.
✓ A structured set of outcomes and subjects to be learned.
✓ The sequence of courses and educational rudiments grounded in
philosophical, historical, psychological, and social foundations.
✓ A combination of domains of knowledge alongside research theories and
principles.
✓ Written documents or plans for achieving educational goals.

Key Figures:

Robert Maynard Hutchins emphasized the necessity of teaching classical

courses like logic and rhetoric, asserting they constitute timeless
knowledge.

Arthur Bestor argued for an intellectual focus in schools, promoting

fundamental disciplines such as grammar, mathematics, and sciences.

Joseph Schwab defined the curriculum in terms of academic disciplines,

categorizing knowledge into specific subject areas.

Progressivist Perspective
For progressivists, the curriculum is viewed as:
The total learning experience of the learner.
All learning that is planned and guided by schools and teachers.

Key Figure:

John Dewey viewed books as tools rather than authorities, advocating for a
student-centered curriculum that fosters democracy and collaborative
planning. He defined the curriculum as the sum of all educative experiences.

TYPES OF CURRICULUM

1. Official Curriculum: A set of mandated instructions guiding educators

to meet specific educational goals (e.g., the K-12 curriculum in the
Philippines).

2. Recommended Curriculum: Constructed by educational stakeholders, this

curriculum reflects policy guidelines and the influence of various
opinion shapers, such as policymakers and educators.

3. Taught Curriculum: The curriculum that teachers actually deliver,

influenced by their decisions on how to achieve intended learning
outcomes.

4. Learned Curriculum: The knowledge, attitudes, and skills that students

absorb through their educational experiences. It highlights the
learner's perspective and what is genuinely internalized.

5. Supported Curriculum: The curriculum backed by available resources,

including human (teachers) and physical (textbooks, technology)
resources. It impacts the effectiveness of teaching and learning.

18
 6. Written Curriculum: The officially sanctioned curriculum that
translates broad educational goals into specific learning outcomes. It
includes the rationale, goals, objectives, and types of learning
activities.

7. Hidden Curriculum: Refers to the unintended lessons, values, and

perspectives students acquire, which are not explicitly included in the
formal curriculum. It consists of implicit messages about social and
cultural norms learned in school.

These perspectives and types of curriculum highlight the complexity and

multifaceted nature of education, emphasizing the interplay between
structured content, teaching methods, and the overall learning environment.

TEACHER AS A CURRICULARIST

A Curricularist is an education professional who is a specialist of

the curriculum. The teacher, aside from teaching the curriculum, carries
other functions in the curriculum, possibly making him/her a Curricularist.

The following are the different functions of the teacher as a Curricularist:

1. Planner
The teacher plans daily, monthly, and yearly curricula, and this document
serves as guides in the curriculum’s implementation.

2. Writer
The teacher writes curriculum plans, supportive instructional materials, and
assessments in accordance with curriculum plans and standards.

3. Knower
The teacher must be knowledgeable about the subject matter. The mastery of
the teacher assists in the quality implementation of the curriculum.

4. Initiator
The teacher implements the curriculum with the full belief that the
curriculum he/she is initiating will enhance learning.

5. Innovator
The teacher makes adaptations in the whenever he/she sees fit.

6. Implementer
The teacher gives life to the curriculum. The implementation of the
curriculum showcases the teacher’s facilitating and managing skills.

7. Evaluator
The teacher evaluates whether the curriculum achieves the intended outcomes.
He/she also assesses whether the implementation of the curriculum is
according to what the institution intended it to be.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD CURRICULUM

1. Adaptable
A good curriculum is flexible in order to cater to the specific and current
needs of every learner, but must also be resilient to change.

2. Collaborative
A good curriculum is a product of various minds. As a curriculum caters to a
variety of learning styles and intelligences, so too must it be the
collective output of multi-sectoral and interdisciplinary planning.

3. High Quality
A good curriculum is of premium value; its conceptualization, design and
implementation must undergo rigorous processes that are endorsed by
curriculum experts and are validated by curriculum implementers.

4. Relevant
A good curriculum is up-to-date and is tailored to suit the current demands
or learning. It must also be of significance and utility to the learners.

5. Responsive
A good curriculum is built on its projected social value. It must address
specific social needs including answers to problems that have yet to be asked
or identified.
19
COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM

Key components of a good curriculum

1. Objectives – desired learning outcomes
2. Learning experiences – Interaction between and among teachers and
students where learning transpire
3. Content - The totality of what is to be taught in a school system.
4. Evaluation – Judging the quality and effectiveness of the curriculum
A. AIMS, GOALS, AND OBJECTIVES

I. Aims of Philippine Education

Based on Article XIV of the Philippine Constitution of 1987, all schools

shall aim to:
✓ Inculcate patriotism and nationalism
✓ Foster love of humanity
✓ Promote respect for human rights
✓ Appreciate the role of national heroes in the historical development
of the country
✓ Teach the rights and duties of citizenship
✓ Strengthen ethical and spiritual values
✓ Develop moral character and personal discipline
✓ Encourage critical and creative thinking
✓ Broaden scientific and technological knowledge and promote vocational
efficiency

II. Aims of the Level of Education according to BP 232

(Education Act of 1982)

Elementary Level

• Knowledge and Skills Development: Aim to provide essential knowledge

and develop skills, attitudes, and values crucial for personal growth
and participation in a dynamic society.
• Awareness of Societal Changes: Offer learning experiences that enhance
a child’s awareness of and responsiveness to societal changes.
• National Identity: Foster knowledge and identification with, as well as
love for, the nation and its people.
• Work Orientation: Promote work experiences that develop an
understanding of the world of work, preparing students for honest and
gainful employment.

Secondary Level

• Continuation of Elementary Objectives: Build upon the foundational

objectives of elementary education.
• Aptitude and Interest Development: Discover and enhance students’
different aptitudes and interests.
• Skill Acquisition: Equip students with skills necessary for productive
endeavors or prepare them for further education in tertiary
institutions.

Tertiary Level

• General Education: Provide programs that promote national identity,

cultural consciousness, moral integrity, and spiritual vigor.
• Manpower Training: Train students in the skills needed for national
development, ensuring that they are equipped to contribute effectively
to society.

These objectives are designed to create a well-rounded educational experience

at each level, ensuring that students are not only prepared academically but
also socially and culturally to participate in and contribute to their
communities.

20
III. Goals – Vision and Mission of DepEd
a. DepEd Vision

We dream of Filipinos
who passionately love their country
and whose values and competencies
enable them to realize their full potential
and contribute meaningfully to building the nation.
As a learner-centered public institution,
the Department of Education
continuously improves itself
to better serve its stakeholders.

b. DepEd Mission

To protect and promote the right of every Filipino to quality, equitable,

culture-based, and complete basic education where:
Students learn in a child-friendly, gender-sensitive, safe, and
motivating environment.

Teachers facilitate learning and constantly nurture every learner.

Administrators and staff, as stewards of the institution, ensure an
enabling and supportive environment for effective learning to happen.
Family, community, and other stakeholders are actively engaged and share
responsibility for developing life-long learners.

c. DepEd Core Values

Maka-Diyos
Maka-tao
Makakalikasan
Makabansa
IV. Institutional Objectives
a. Vision Statement – the vision of the school embodies its desired state
in the future
b. Mission Statement – the mission of the school states how they plan to
achieve their institutional vision.

OUR MANDATE
The Department of Education was established through the Education Decree of
1863 as the Superior Commission of Primary Instruction under a Chairman.
Underwent many reorganization efforts in the 20th century in order to better
define its purpose vis a vis the changing administrations and charters. The
present day Department of Education was eventually mandated through Republic
Act 9155, otherwise known as the Governance of Basic Education act of 2001
which establishes the mandate of this agency.

V. Mager’s ABCD of Objectives

According to Robert Mager, an objective must contain these four elements
in its statement:
a. Audience
b. Behavior
c. Condition
d. Degree

VI. Classroom-level Objectives

Classroom-level objectives are much more specific than institution
objectives, but they are nonetheless aligned with the mission and vision
statements. Typically, these objectives are detailed in individual
subject lesson plans and are classified under three domains: Cognitive,
Affective, and Psychomotor.

VII. Taxonomy of Objectives in the Cognitive, Affective and

Psychomotor Domains

a. Cognitive Objectives – These objectives relate to

understanding, insight and awareness and are designed to
increase the knowledge of the students.

The Original Taxonomy (1956) (Cognitive Domain Levels by Benjamin Bloom

1. Knowledge - “involves the recall of specifics and universals, the

recall of methods and processes, or the recall of a pattern, structure,
or setting.”

21
2. Comprehension – “refers to a type of understanding or apprehension such
that the individual knows what is being communicated and can make use
of the material or idea being communicated without necessarily relating
it to other material or seeing its fullest implications.”

3. Application – refers to the “use of abstractions in particular and

concrete situations.”

4. Analysis – represents the “breakdown of a communication into its

constituent elements or parts such that the relative hierarchy of ideas
is made clear and/or the relations between ideas expressed are made
explicit.”

5. Synthesis – involves the “putting together of elements and parts so as

to form a whole.”

6. Evaluation – engenders “judgments about the value of material and

methods for given purposes.”

Revised Cognitive Domain Levels by Lorin Anderson and David Krathwohl

1. Remembering – Same as knowledge
2. Understanding – Same as Comprehension
3. Applying – Same as Application
4. Analyzing – Same as Analysis
5. Judging – Same as Evaluation
6. Creating – Same as Synthesis

The domain levels were changed from nouns to verbs, and the last two
levels were interchanged to clarify that the “Create” level is higher
than the other thinking levels.

b. Affective Objectives – These objectives relate to feelings and

appreciations and are designed to change the attitudes of the
students.

Affective Domain Levels by David Krathwohl

1. Receiving – Being aware of something in the environment
2. Responding – Exhibiting behavior based on experience
3. Valuing – showing commitment or involvement
4. Organization – Integrating new value in one’s value system
5. Characterization – consistently practicing new value

c. Psychomotor objectives – These objectives relate to increasing

levels of behavior in mastering kinesthetic skills.

Psychomotor Domain Levels by Elisabeth Simpson

1. Perception – using senses to guide physical activities
2. Set – readiness to execute physical activities
3. Guided response – imitating physical activities
4. Mechanism – performing parts of complex physical activity
5. Complex Overt Response – performing complete physical activity
6. Adaptation – modifying physical activity to suit preferences
7. Origination – developing original physical activity

Psychomotor Domain Levels by Anita Harrow’s

Anita Harrow’s taxonomy of the psychomotor domain offers a structured
approach to understanding the progression of physical skills and
coordination.

1. Reflex Movements
Definition: Automatic, involuntary reactions to stimuli.
Key Verbs: Flex, stretch, relax.
Observable Behavior: Instinctive physical responses.

2. Fundamental Movements
Definition: Basic movement patterns formed by combining reflex movements;
foundational for more complex skills.
Key Verbs: Crawl, walk, jump, grasp.
Observable Behavior: Coordinated movements while changing location.

3. Perceptual Abilities
Definition: Interpretation of stimuli leading to adjustments in response;
involves cognitive and psychomotor skills.
Key Verbs: Catch, balance, distinguish, explore.

22
Observable Behavior: Discriminates and responds to visual, auditory, and
tactile stimuli.

4. Physical Abilities
Definition: Require endurance, strength, and agility for efficient bodily
function.
Key Verbs: Endure, improve, move precisely.
Observable Behavior: Performs tasks demonstrating endurance and quick
response.

5. Skilled Movements
Definition: Efficient execution of complex tasks; high level of skill
acquired through practice.
Key Verbs: Type, juggle, skate, dive.
Observable Behavior: Modifies basic movements to perform tasks with
efficiency.

6. Non-discursive Communication
Definition: Expressive bodily movements that convey emotions or meanings.
Key Verbs: Gesture, express, dance skillfully.
Observable Behavior: Communicates through body language, dance, or
performance.

This taxonomy is useful for educators and trainers in assessing and

developing physical skills across a range of activities.

Psychomotor Domain Levels by R.H Dave

Dave's Psychomotor Domain, which outlines five levels of motor skills from
initial exposure to mastery:

1. Imitation
Definition: Learning by observing and copying others. Performance may be low
quality.
Key Verbs: Attempt, copy, mimic.
Example Objective: Copy a work of art or perform a skill while observing a
demonstrator.

2. Manipulation
Definition: Performing tasks from memory or following instructions;
recognizable performance.
Key Verbs: Produce, execute, complete.
Example Objective: Build a model after following instructions or perform a
skill independently.

3. Precision
Definition: Performing tasks independently and accurately, demonstrating
expertise.
Key Verbs: Excel, perform masterfully, calibrate.
Example Objective: Perform a skill without assistance or demonstrate a task
to a beginner.

4. Articulation
Definition: Adapting and integrating multiple actions to meet new
requirements; combines skills harmoniously.
Key Verbs: Adapt, create, modify.
Example Objective: Produce a video combining music and drama or integrate
skills for a new task.

5. Naturalization
Definition: Performing skills automatically and intuitively; actions become
second nature.
Key Verbs: Create, manage, invent.
Example Objective: Parallel park a car or play the piano competently.
This taxonomy captures the progression of motor skill development,
highlighting increasing levels of competence.

23
SUBJECT MATTER

Criteria of Selection of Content according to Bilbao

1. Self-Sufficiency
Definition: Aim to help learners achieve maximum independence in learning
efficiently.
Key Idea: Provide opportunities for experimentation and field study,
encouraging independent learning. Suggests implementing weekly independent
learning activities.

2. Significance
Definition: Content should develop skills, processes, attitudes, and the
three domains of learning (cognitive, affective, psychomotor).
Key Idea: Content must be culturally sensitive and aligned with curriculum
goals, catering to diverse backgrounds.

3. Validity
Definition: Ensure the authenticity and relevance of the content.
Key Idea: Regularly update curriculum to include current and relevant topics,
avoiding outdated subjects.

4. Interest
Definition: Content should engage students and make learning meaningful.
Key Idea: A learner-centered curriculum fosters interest; a subject-centered
approach may lead to disengagement.

5. Utility
Definition: Content must be perceived as useful by students.
Key Idea: If students view certain subjects as irrelevant, they are less
likely to engage with them.

6. Learnability
Definition: Content should align with learners' existing knowledge and
experiences.
Key Idea: Use educational psychology to present and organize subjects
effectively for optimal learning.

7. Feasibility
Definition: Ensure the practical implementation of the content based on
available resources and time constraints.
Key Idea: Avoid assigning topics that are unrealistic to complete within the
given context.
These criteria emphasize the importance of relevance, engagement, and
practicality in selecting educational content.

Components of Subject Matter according to Palma

1. Balance
Definition: Fair distribution of curriculum content across a learning area.
Key Idea: While competencies may vary by grading period, they are
appropriately budgeted based on teaching days, ensuring a balanced
curriculum.

2. Articulation
Definition: Smooth connections between subject matters.
Key Idea: Subject areas in the curriculum are interconnected, encouraging
review to deepen understanding and relevance for students.

3. Sequence
Definition: Logical arrangement of subject matters.
Key Idea: Content is organized from easy to difficult and basic to complex,
helping students relate topics to their experiences.

4. Integration
Definition: Horizontal connections across subject areas.
Key Idea: Encourages the integration of concepts, such as values in all
subjects or connections between Science and Math in English or Filipino.

5. Continuity
Definition: Constant repetition, review, and reinforcement of learning.
Key Idea: Learning should extend beyond evaluations through ongoing review,
ensuring that knowledge is applicable in daily life.
These components emphasize a cohesive, relevant, and reinforcing approach to
curriculum design.
24
LEARNING EXPERIENCES

Learning experiences refers to any program, activity, or otherwise any venue

where teachers and learners interact. Consequently, it is through these
interactions that the students increase their knowledge, develop skills, and
change or improve their attitudes toward matters that concern them.

Approach vs. Method vs. Strategy vs. Technique

Clear distinction between approach, method, strategy, and technique in the

context of teaching:

I. Approach
Definition: A set of underlying assumptions about teaching and learning,
grounded in theory.
Characteristics: Axiomatic and based on evident truths.

Examples:

1. Developmental Approach: Focuses on child and adolescent development.

2. Integrative Approach: Emphasizes holistic learning by integrating
different learning areas.
3. Problem-based Approach: Centers on students solving individual and
societal problems.
4. Literature-Based Approach: Uses literary texts to facilitate learning
in language subjects.
5. Inquiry-Based Approach: Encourages student exploration of truths in
subject areas.

II. Method
Definition: The procedures teachers use to deliver content.

Characteristics:
a. Step-by-step
b. Procedural
c. Mechanical and systematic
Examples: Direct-Deductive Method (teacher-centered) and Indirect Inductive
Method (learner-centered).

III. Strategy
Definition: The techniques or styles employed by teachers to deliver content.
Characteristics:
a. Stylized
b. Flexible
c. Varied
Examples: Collaborative learning, differentiation, scaffolding.

IV. Technique
Definition: Personalized styles of executing a specific method or strategy.
Characteristics:
a. Implementational, often related to specific activities.
Examples: Specific questioning techniques, use of multimedia, or hands-on
activities.

This framework helps clarify how each component plays a role in effective
teaching and curriculum design.

Collaborative Learning

Definition: An umbrella term for educational strategies that involve joint

intellectual efforts among students or between students and teachers.

Key Features:
Students work in groups (two or more).
Focus on mutual exploration of understanding, solutions, or product creation.

Inquiry-Based Learning
Definition: An active learning approach that encourages students to ask
questions and explore new ideas.

Key Features:
Develops critical thinking, problem-solving, and research skills.
Engages students in conducting research to find answers.

Project-Based Learning (PBL)/ Project-Based Method

25
Definition: An instructional method that allows students to develop knowledge
and skills through engaging projects.

Key Features:
Projects are centered around real-world challenges and problems.
Students apply what they learn in practical, meaningful contexts.

Design Thinking Method

Definition: A non-linear, iterative process used by teams to understand users
and create innovative solutions.

Key Features:
Involves five phases: Empathize, Define, Ideate, Prototype, and Test.
Effective for tackling complex, poorly defined problems.

These approaches promote active engagement, collaboration, and critical

thinking in the learning process.

PRINCIPLES AND METHOD SELECTION IN CURRICULUM

Effective teaching methods, strategies, and techniques are essential for

implementing the curriculum and facilitating learning. Here are key
principles for selecting and using these methods:

1. Means to Achieve Ends: Teaching methods should be aligned with

educational goals and outcomes.
2. No Single Best Method: There is no universally superior teaching
method; the effectiveness depends on various factors.
3. Stimulating Desire to Learn: Methods should engage learners and
encourage their development across cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor domains.
4. Consideration of Learning Styles: Teachers should tailor their methods
to accommodate diverse learning styles among students.
5. Focus on Learning Outcomes: Each method should contribute to achieving
desired learning outcomes in all three domains (cognitive, affective,
psychomotor).
6. Flexibility: Teachers should be adaptable in their approach, adjusting
methods based on student needs and contexts.

STEPS TO CURRICULUM EVALUATION

A systematic approach to curriculum evaluation is crucial for continuous

improvement. Here are the suggested steps:

1. Focus on One Component: Select a specific aspect of the curriculum to

evaluate, such as a subject, unit, or teaching method.
2. Collect Data: Gather relevant information and assessment data from
various sources (e.g., tests, surveys, observations).
3. Organize Information: Systematically compile the data to facilitate
analysis.
4. Analyze Data: Examine the information to identify patterns, strengths,
and areas for improvement.
5. Report Findings: Present the analyzed data to curriculum decision-
makers, highlighting key insights and recommendations.
6. Recycle Information: Use the findings to provide ongoing feedback,
making necessary modifications and adjustments to enhance the
curriculum continually.
7. These principles and evaluation steps ensure that teaching methods are
effective and that the curriculum evolves to meet the needs of learners
and educational goals.

FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

Philosophical Foundations

1. Major Ideas of Philosophy and Curriculum

Philosophy is central to curriculum planning, development, implementation,

and evaluation.

b. Studying the philosophies will allow schools and curriculum developers to

better understand what curriculum the school offers.

c. Philosophy is the beginning point in curriculum decision-making.

26
d. Philosophy reflects one's background and experiences.

Philosophy, therefore, is defined as a general theory of education. It is a

way of thinking that gives meaning to our lives (Dewey).

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES

Traditional Educational Philosophies:

1. Perennialism
Definition: Based on idealism and realism; emphasizes universal truths and
the common nature of humanity.
Key Features:
Education should focus on enduring knowledge from "great books."
Curriculum includes significant subjects taught separately (e.g., history,
literature, philosophy).
Stresses intellectual development and reason.

2. Essentialism
Definition: Focuses on core academic knowledge and character development.
Key Features:
Emphasizes the "essentials" like reading, writing, and arithmetic (the three
Rs).
Prioritizes mastery of traditional academic subjects (English, science,
mathematics).
Curriculum is subject-centered, with teachers as authoritative figures in
their fields.

Modern Educational Philosophies:

3. Existentialism
Definition: Centers on individual freedom and personal responsibility.
Key Features:
Reality is subjective; values are chosen by individuals.
Education should accommodate the unique experiences and choices of each
learner.
Encourages personal exploration and self-directed learning.

4. Progressivism
Definition: Derived from pragmatism; focuses on learner-centered education.
Key Features:
Curriculum based on students' interests, needs, and abilities.
Promotes democratic schooling and social living.
Emphasizes flexible, individualized instruction and collaborative planning
between teachers and students.

5. Constructivism
Definition: Learning is relative to students' experiences; emphasizes
metacognition and learning strategies.
Key Features:
Focuses on how students construct knowledge based on their interactions and
experiences.

6. Reconstructionism
Definition: Advocates for using education to improve and reconstruct society.
Key Features:
Centers on contemporary social issues and aims for social reform.
Seeks rational discussion and critical analysis rather than indoctrination.
Involves multiple stakeholders in curriculum planning, emphasizing community
and social relevance.

These philosophies provide a framework for understanding various approaches

to education and curriculum design, influencing how educators interact with
students and structure learning environments.

27
FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

Psychological Foundations (Child development and Learning theories)

Major Ideas of Psychology and Curriculum

Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior. In education,

psychology must give insight to the following aspects that will affect
curriculum development in one way or another child development, learning,
inquiry techniques, educational objectives, learning process, teaching
method, and evaluation procedures. II. Major Theories and Theorists of Child
development, Learning, Motivation, and

Metacognition

a. Behaviorism Theorists: Pavlov, Skinner, Thorndike

b. Social Learning Theorists: Bandura

c. Cognitivism Theorists: Ausubel, Tolman, Kohler, Gestalt

d. Humanism Theorists: Anderson and Maslow

e. Constructivism Theorists Bruner and Dewey

Sociological Foundations (Functions of School and Curriculum in Social

Context)

I. Major Ideas of Sociology and Curriculum

Interconnection of School and Society:

1. The school influences society and vice versa.

2. Curriculum should address:
3. Aims of education
4. Social development and qualities
5. Vocational efficiency
6. Social change and knowledge diffusion
7. Constructive outlook and social service

II. Sociological Theories

Structural Functionalism:
Views institutions as essential for societal function.

Symbolic Interactionism:
Focuses on how people create meaning through language and symbols.

III. Historical Foundations of Curriculum in the Philippines

Pre-Spanish Period:
Informal education emphasizing customs and practical knowledge; teachers were
local shamans.

Spanish Period:
Focus on religion; introduction of formal education by friars; bilingual
education due to cultural diversity.

American Period:
Established public school system; focus on democracy and English instruction.

Japanese Period:
Emphasis on Asian pride and vocational education; discouraged Western
influences.

Contemporary Period:
Focus on globalization; implementation of K-12 curriculum to prepare students
for various future paths.

IV. Models of Curriculum Development

Tyler's Rationale Model:

Linear and traditional, emphasizing expert-driven curriculum development.

Taba's Grassroots Model:

Inductive approach where teachers play a crucial role in curriculum

development.
28
 Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis's Model:

Focuses on providing learning opportunities to meet educational goals.

Understanding by Design (UbD):
Backward design model starting with goals and objectives for deep
understanding.

V. Processes and Concerns in Curriculum Development

The P.LE Process:

Planning Phase: Identify needs, objectives, assessment methods, and

resources.

Implementation Phase: Apply selected methods, promote learning, and monitor

progress.

Evaluation Phase: Assess students and materials, revisit objectives, and

suggest modifications.

Stakeholders:
Involve learners, teachers, administrators, parents, and community agencies.

Olivia's Ten Axioms:

Emphasize the inevitability of change, the influence of time on curriculum,
and the collaborative nature of curriculum development.

VI. Curriculum Approaches

1. Behavioral Approach:
Focus on achieving specific objectives.
2. Managerial Approach:
Highlights the role of school leadership in curriculum implementation.
3. Systems Approach:
Considers interactions among all instructional elements.
4. Humanistic Approach:
Prioritizes holistic learner development.

VII. Curriculum Designs

Subject-Centered Structures:

1.
Subject Design: Focus on specific subjects.
2.
Discipline Design: Emphasizes broader disciplines.
3.
Correlation Design: Integrates subjects while maintaining identity.
4.
Broad-field Design: Combines related subjects into new ones.
5.
Learner-Centered Structures:
6.
Child-Centered Design: Tailored to individual needs.
7.
Experienced-Centered Design: Focuses on planned learning experiences.
8.
Humanistic Design: Enriches curriculum with values and practical
skills.
9. Problem-Centered Structures:
10. Life Situations Design: Addresses individual needs.
11. Core Design: Focused on societal needs.

VIII. Curriculum Implementation and Changes

Types of Changes:
1. Substitution: Complete replacement of the curriculum.
2. Alteration: Minor modifications.
3. Restructuring: Major changes.
4. Perturbation: Rapid changes.
5. Value Orientation: Adjusting to shifts in vision/mission.

IX. Curriculum Evaluation

Program Evaluation:
Overall assessment of the curriculum.
Component Evaluation:
Focus on specific aspects or components of the curriculum.
This comprehensive overview highlights the interplay between sociology and
curriculum development, showcasing how societal influences shape educational
practices and the evolution of curricula throughout Philippine history.

29
 CHILD AND
ADOLESCENT
DEVELOPMENT
“Development proceeds through different phases which exhibit typical
patterns. It shows typical capabilities, patterns of behavior, and
characteristic modes of functioning as well as typical challenges and events
in life”

30
 Overview

Child and adolescent development is a complex and dynamic process that spans
from infancy through the teenage years. This period is marked by significant
physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes, each influenced by a
combination of biological factors and environmental contexts. Understanding
these developmental stages is crucial, as they lay the foundation for
lifelong learning, behavior, and well-being.

During early childhood, children experience rapid growth, refining their

motor skills and beginning to engage in social play. As they transition into
middle childhood, they navigate social relationships and academic demands,
developing a sense of competence and identity. Adolescence introduces new
challenges, including the onset of puberty, cognitive maturation, and a
deeper exploration of self and relationships, often influenced by peer
dynamics and media exposure.

Recognizing the unique characteristics and needs of children and adolescents

is essential for parents, educators, and caregivers. By providing supportive
environments and appropriate guidance, adults can help nurture each child's
development, fostering emotional, social, and academic success. This overview
highlights the importance of understanding the interconnected stages of child
and adolescent development, preparing the groundwork for healthy growth into
adulthood.

Throughout these developmental stages, the interplay between nature

(biological factors) and nurture (environmental influences) is critical.
Family dynamics, cultural background, education, and socio-economic status
all shape a child's experiences and opportunities for growth. Supportive
relationships with caregivers and educators can foster resilience and
adaptability, helping children and adolescents navigate challenges
effectively.

Child and adolescent development principles offers several valuable insights

and benefits

Understanding Growth Patterns: Identifies typical and individual development

trajectories.

Enhancing Educational Practices: Tailors teaching strategies to developmental

stages for effective learning.

Supporting Social and Emotional Development: Promotes healthy relationships

and emotional intelligence.

Identifying Developmental Delays: Aids in early detection and timely

intervention for challenges.

Informing Parenting Strategies: Guides parents in nurturing growth and

setting appropriate expectations.

Promoting Mental Health Awareness: Recognizes challenges in identity

formation and peer pressure, facilitating support.

Guiding Policy Development: Informs initiatives that enhance child and

adolescent well-being.

Fostering Resilience: Supports the development of coping strategies for

facing challenges.

Encouraging Holistic Development: Emphasizes the interconnectedness of

various developmental domains.

Cultural Competence: Enhances understanding of how culture influences

development.

Building Stronger Communities: Supports initiatives that benefit families and

young people.

31
 Comprehensive framework for understanding how individuals grow and evolve
throughout life.

Development

• Definition: Development involves growth and positive change across

various domains—physical, economic, environmental, social, and
demographic.
• Stages: Progresses through consistent stages, with specific tasks to be
completed at each phase, influencing future success.
• Growth vs. Development: Growth is quantitative (e.g., height, weight),
while development includes qualitative changes in skills and abilities.

Language Development

• Importance: Crucial for higher-level cognitive processes and social

interaction.
• Learning Context: Language acquisition occurs socially; children learn
by engaging with caregivers and their environment.
• Techniques: Methods like labeling, echoing, and expanding enhance
language skills.

Brain Development

• Timeline: Begins in early gestation and continues significantly after

birth, with critical growth in the first few years.
• Stimulation: Early interactions shape neural connections; stimulation
is essential for healthy brain development.
• Lifelong Growth: The brain adapts and continues to develop throughout
life, highlighting the importance of ongoing learning experiences.

Growth

• Physical Changes: Measurable aspects like height and weight;

significant in childhood and adolescence.
• Professional Growth: Continues into adulthood, often manifesting as
career advancement and skill development.

Maturation

• Types: Includes physical and cognitive maturation; largely driven by

genetic factors.
• Learning Precondition: Essential for optimal learning and development.

Attachment

• Definition: The emotional bond formed between children and caregivers,

foundational for future relationships.
• Secure Base: Securely attached children explore their environment but
return to their caregiver for comfort.
• Attachment Styles: Bowlby and Ainsworth identified several attachment
styles (secure, avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized), each impacting
later development.

Understanding these processes provides insight into how individuals navigate

their growth and development, emphasizing the interplay between genetics,
environment, and early experiences. Secure attachment and positive
interactions are crucial for fostering healthy development across the
lifespan.

32
ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT

1. Physical Development refers to changes in the bodily structures and

functions of different body parts.

2. Cognitive Development refers to intellectual development: it deals with

abilities, such as processing information that includes thinking,
imagination, memorizing. learning, reasoning, decision making.

3. Language Development refers to changes in the use of speech.

4. Social Development refers to changes in forming

relationships/interaction with others.

5. Emotional Development refers to changes in feelings, causes, and

expressions of emotions/ feelings.

6. Moral Development refers to changes in reasoning about "Right" or

"Wrong".

7. Gender Development refers to changes in understanding the roles played

by males and females.

15 Invaluable Laws of Growth by John C. Maxwell

1. The Law of Intentionality. Growth Doesn't Just Happen. A person must be

intentional or want growth

2. The Law of Awareness. You must know yourself to grow yourself. Awareness
is the first step so that one can change.

3. The Law of the Mirror. You must see value in yourself to add value to
yourself. You must not compare yourself to others and limit talking
negatively about yourself.

4. The Law of Reflection. Learning to pause allows growth to catch up with

you.

5. The Law of Consistency. Motivation gets you going-discipline keeps you

growing.

6. The Law of Environment. Growth thrives in conducive surroundings.

7. The Law of Design. To maximize growth, develop strategies

8. The Law of Pain. Good management of bad experiences leads to great growth.

9. The Law of the Ladder. Character growth determines the height of your
personal growth.

10. The Law of the Rubber Band. Growth stops when you lose the tension
between where you are and where you could be.

11. The Law of Trade-Offs. You have to give up to grow up.

12. The Law of Curiosity. Growth is stimulated by asking why?

13. The Law of Modeling. It's hard to improve when you have no one but
yourself to follow.

14. The Law of Expansion. Growth always increases your capacity.

15. The Law of Contribution. Growing yourself enables you to grow others.

Development proceeds through different phases which exhibits typical patterns

It shows typical capabilities, patterns of behavior, and characteristic modes
of functioning as well as typical challenges and events in life. Important
features of each stage are

1. Each stage of life is based on the developments up to the previous stage.

It is a preparation for the next phase of life.

2. The rate of development of different aspects of his/her functioning varies

from one stage to another.

33
3. There are variations between individuals in the rate of their development
and progression from one stage to another.

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE AGES

1. Pre-natal Conception to birth

DESCRIPTION:

Approximately 9 months (280 days), biologically taking 266 days from

conception for a fetus to become ready for birth. This is divided into three
phase: Germinal period, Embryonic Period, Fetal Period.

2. Infancy Birth to 2 years old

DESCRIPTION:

1. Foundation age

2. Basic behavior patterns are recognized and many ontogenetic

maturational skills emerge.

3. New born baby can acquire survival instinct such as breathing, sucking
(breast or alternative food), and discharging body wastes.

4. Neonate displays reflexes and skills that help in the process of

development

5. The rate of growth is very rapid.

3. Early Childhood 2-6 years old

DESCRIPTION:

1. The child becomes more mobile and able to widen the sphere of her/his
activities beyond family.

2. Language and elementary reasoning are acquired and initial

socialization is experienced.

3. The child learns the rules of appropriate social behavior and develops
mental abilities that prepare

4. the child for schooling. Locomotion skills become refined.

5. The child is capable of coordinated actions while maintaining body

balance and muscle coordination

6. Capacities for sustained attention continue to improve during this

stage.

7. Children become more selective in attention, able to concentrate and

focus on relevant aspects and ignore or distract irrelevant stimuli.

4. Middle childhood/
Late childhood 6-12 years old

DESCRIPTION:

1. Age of schooling, growth becomes gradual.

2. The rate of physical change become slower.

3. Increase in proficiency in symbolic-use of symbols such as words and

images.

4. Children engage in aesthetic activities and develop hobbies.

5. Become more logical and systematic in respect of concrete objects,

events, and experiences.

6. Continuous development of hand-eye and small muscle coordination

34
5. Adolescence Puberty to 18 years old

DESCRIPTION:

1. Rapid growth spurt happens at about 11-13 years old The transition
period from childhood to adulthood

2. Period of significance for human development

3. Marks the beginning of sexual maturity and reproductive capacity

4. Characterized by rapid biological and physical change that is

associated with many psychological challenges

6. Early adulthood 19 to about 39 years old

DESCRIPTION:

1. Age of adjustment to new patterns and roles such as a spouse, parent,

and breadwinner.

2. The period where social roles and relationships are materialized.

3. A young adult becomes a fully functioning social being assuming the

role of a married family person.

4. Develops intimate social and sexual relationship

5. Process of slow decline with the aging process, reaction time, muscle
body strength, and capacity of sense organs reaches its peak

7. Middle adulthood 40 years old to retirement

DESCRIPTION:

1. Some decline in physiological functions.

2. Muscular strength and performance of major organ systems deteriorates

3. Characterized by some dramatic changes in the reproductive function and

sexual activity.

4. Women: menopause or cessation of the menstrual cycle, Men andropause

5. Recall of information from long-term memory starts to decline.

6. Minimal changes in intelligence but compensated by an increase of

wisdom and creativity.

7. Become more proficient in solving real life problems.

8. Old Age 60 years old to death 89

DESCRIPTION:

1. There is a delay in the intellectual feeling of old age due to

increasing life expectancy and longer work period.

2. Old people have to cope with other challenges like declining physical
fitness, ill health, and death of family and friends.

3. Body metabolism changes and there is wear and tear of body parts and
cells.

4. Genetic factors also limit the length of lives.

35
STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

1. Germinal Period (First two weeks after conception):

o Begins at conception, where the sperm fertilizes the egg to form
a zygote.
o Involves rapid cell division (mitosis) and begins the process of
implantation into the uterine wall.
2. Embryonic Period (2-8 weeks after conception):
o The zygote is now called an embryo.
o Cell differentiation intensifies, leading to the formation of
various organ systems.
o Development of life support systems like the placenta and
umbilical cord.
3. Fetal Period (9 weeks to birth):
o Major growth and maturation of the embryo into a fetus.
o Further development of organs, structures, and systems, leading
to increased viability outside the womb.

TERATOLOGY AND HAZARDS TO PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Teratology is the study of birth defects and congenital disorders, focusing

on factors that can negatively impact fetal development.

Hazards to Prenatal Development:

1. Drugs:
o Prescription: Certain antibiotics and medications can have
teratogenic effects.
o Nonprescription: Diet pills, aspirin, and high caffeine intake
may pose risks.
2. Psychoactive Substances:
o Nicotine, caffeine, and illicit drugs (e.g., marijuana, cocaine,
heroin) can harm fetal development and lead to complications.
3. Environmental Hazards:
o Exposure to radiation (e.g., from jobs, X-rays), pollutants,
toxic waste, and excessive heat (e.g., from saunas) can affect
fetal health.
4. Maternal Factors:
o Infections (e.g., Rubella, syphilis, genital herpes, HIV/AIDS),
nutritional deficiencies, high stress or anxiety levels, and
maternal age (too young or too old) can all influence
development.
5. Paternal Factors:
o The father's exposure to environmental toxins (like lead,
radiation, pesticides) can impact sperm quality, potentially
leading to miscarriages or congenital disorders in offspring.

This organized format helps clarify the information and highlights the
critical factors influencing prenatal development.

PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

1. Cephalocaudal Principle: Development progresses from head to toe.

Infants first gain control of head and facial movements, then arms,
followed by legs, leading to skills like crawling and walking.
2. Proximodistal Development: Growth occurs from the center of the body
outward. Central structures develop before limbs, with arms gaining
strength before hands, and hands before fingers and toes.
3. Orthogenetic Principle: Development moves from simple to complex.
Mastery of basic skills lays the foundation for more advanced tasks.

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Motor development refers to the growth of a child's physical abilities,

progressing from reflexes to gross motor skills (e.g., crawling) and finally
to fine motor skills (e.g., grasping). It is a continuous, age-related
process that involves strengthening bones and muscles.

36
REFLEXES

1. Sucking Reflex: Triggered by touch on the palate, prompting sucking.

2. Rooting Reflex: A survival instinct where stroking the mouth's corner
makes the baby turn and seek the nipple or bottle.
3. Gripping Reflex: Allows newborns to grasp objects, such as fingers,
tightly.
4. Curling Reflex: Involves toe curling when the inner foot sole is
stroked and toe spreading when the outer sole is stimulated.
5. Startle/Moro Reflex: Occurs with loud sounds or sudden movements; the
baby reacts by lifting arms and legs and curling inward.
6. Galant Reflex: A lower back stroke causes the baby to curve the hip
outward, aiding movement and preparing for crawling and walking.
7. Tonic Neck Reflex: When the head turns to one side, the corresponding
arm extends while the opposite arm bends, resembling a fencing
position.

These reflexes play crucial roles in early development and survival.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS

Sensory Motor Stage

Sensory motor stage is typically takes place within the first two years of a
child's life. It is marked by the child discovering the difference between
themselves and their environment. At that point, they will use their senses
to learn things about both themselves and their environment. It is the first
stage of Jean Piaget's Theory of cognitive development. Jean Piaget Divided
it into six sub-stages.

Occurs in the first two years, where infants learn through their senses and
actions.

Sub-stages:

1. Reflex Acts: Innate reflex responses.

2. Primary Circular Reactions: Repeating pleasurable actions
centered on their own body.
3. Secondary Circular Reactions: Repeating pleasurable actions
involving objects.
4. Coordinating Secondary Schemes: Using knowledge to achieve goals.
5. Tertiary Circular Reactions: Intentional adaptations to explore
and manipulate objects.
6. Symbolic Thought: Development of mental representations, crucial
for understanding object permanence.

This framework outlines the critical aspects of development from conception

through early childhood, emphasizing the interplay of biological and
environmental factors.

Early Childhood(The Preschooler)

1. Gross Motor Skills:

Involve large muscle movements (e.g., walking, jumping).
Essential for physical activities and overall health.
2. Fine Motor Skills:
Involve small muscle movements (e.g., grasping, manipulating objects).
Important for tasks like writing and drawing.
3. Locomotor Skills:
Include skills for movement (e.g., running, skipping).
Key for physical development and coordination.
4. Non-Locomotor Skills:
Include movements that don't involve traveling (e.g., bending,
twisting).
Help in developing body awareness and balance.
5. Manipulative Skills:
Involve interactions with objects (e.g., throwing, catching).
Crucial for sports and physical activities.

37
Preschooler’s Artistic Development

Artistic Development (Viktor Lowenfeld's Stages):

1. Scribbling Stage (2-4 years):

Disordered markings to more controlled scribbles.
Development of kinesthetic and imaginative thinking.

2. Preschematic Stage (4-6 years):

Introduction of circular images and figures.
Focus on emotional expression through color and form.

3. Schematic Stage (7-9 years):

Awareness of space and relationships between objects.
Use of realistic colors and spatial relationships in drawings.

Parten's 6 Stages of Play:

1. Unoccupied Play:
Exploration without a specific agenda.
Lays the groundwork for later manipulation and understanding.

2. Solitary Play:
Independent exploration and problem-solving.
Prepares children for social play.

3. Onlooker Play:
Watching others play.
Learning through observation.

4. Parallel Play:
Playing beside others without interaction.
Encourages gradual social engagement.

5. Associative Play:
Focus shifts to interaction with peers.
Application of social skills in play.

6. Cooperative Play:
Working together towards a common goal.
Develops teamwork, communication, and problem-solving skills.

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (The Primary Schooler)

Erik Erikson’s Fourth Stage of Psychosocial Development (INDUSTRY VS.

INFERIORITY)

INDUSTRY – Refers to the child’s involvement in situations where long,

patient work is demanded of them

INFERIORITY – Is the feeling created when a child gets a feeling of failure

when they cannot finish or master their school work.

Note: Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development can be further

discussed in “Facilitating learning”.

IMPLICATIONS TO CHILD CARE, EDUCATION AND PARENTING

Primary school children’s socio-emotional competency should be viewed in the

context of the child’s developmental age. Health-care providers, teachers and
parents should be able to:
• Gain understanding of their child’s socio-emotional strengths and
weaknesses by observing the child’s behavior at home.
• Work collaboratively with the child’s parents and health-care providers
to expand one’s insights on the child’s development
• Provide a supportive setting where children have opportunities to
practice emotional regulation and social skills with peers.
• Be a role model of healthy emotions and expressing these emotions
appropriately
• Give children activities when they can practice taking turns, sharing
and playing cooperatively.
• Demonstrate calmness and staying in control of one’s own feelings.

38
LATE CHILDHOOD (THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLER)

Early Puberty Changes

GIRLS BOYS
Breast
Small lumps from May also have swelling on
behind the nipple may their chest but tends to go
occur, which sometime could away within a year or two
be painful but eventually,
the pain goes away.

It is normal for one breast to

develop more slowly than the other

Genital

The vulva starts in increase Penis and scrotum start to

a bit. grow
The vagina gets longer Semen may be released when
The uterus gets bigger. he is awake or even during
sleep
Subtle increase testicle
size

Hair Growth

Hair will start to grow in the New hair will also grow in the
armpits and pubic areas. armpits and pubic area around a
genital.
May start developing chest and
facial hair
Hair will start to grow and
become thicker.

Insecurities

At this stage, children may become very concerned about their physical
appearance. Girls especially, may become concerned about their weight and
decide to eat less. Boy may become aware of their stature and muscle size and
strength. That is why, children must be given opportunities to engage
themselves in worthwhile activities that

a. Promote healthy growth

b. Give them a feeling of accomplishment, and
c. Reduce the risk of certain diseases.

IMPLICATIONS FOR CHILD CARE, EDUCATION, AND PARENTING

Physical Activity

• Encourage Participation: Provide ample opportunities for children to

engage in various physical activities, both at home and school. This
can include organized sports, free play, and outdoor exploration.
• Explore Interests: Support children in trying different activities
until they find what they enjoy, helping to foster a lifelong love for
physical fitness.

Nutrition

• Healthy Choices: As children gain more control over their eating

habits, parents and caregivers should offer a variety of nutritious
foods. Encourage healthy snacks and balanced meals to instill good
eating habits early on.

Emotional Development

• Build Strong Attachments: Develop a strong emotional bond with children

to help them navigate insecurities and social challenges. A secure
attachment promotes healthy emotional development.
39
 • Teach Emotional Intelligence: Encourage children to understand and
express their emotions, fostering skills such as empathy, self-
awareness, and emotion regulation. This includes:
o Reading Emotions: Helping children recognize others' feelings.
o Handling Emotions: Teaching problem-solving strategies for
emotional conflicts.
o Self-Control: Guiding children in managing their emotions
effectively.

Peer Relationships

• Understanding Peer Status: Educate parents and educators about

different peer statuses:
o Popular: Well-liked and frequently chosen as friends.
o Average: Mixed nominations; balance of friendships.
o Neglected: Not actively chosen but not disliked.
o Rejected: Often disliked, infrequently chosen as friends.
o Controversial: Liked by some but disliked by others.
• Support Social Skills: Encourage positive social interactions and help
children develop friendships, addressing any social difficulties they
may face.

ADOLESCENCE

Physical Changes

• Growth Spurts: Recognize that adolescence involves significant physical

changes, including rapid growth in height and weight. These changes
occur at different rates for boys and girls, affecting self-esteem and
social dynamics.
• Puberty: Understand the emotional and physical challenges of puberty,
as children navigate maturation and its implications for their identity
and peer relationships.

Cognitive Development

• Identity Exploration: Support adolescents in their exploration of

identity and independence. This is a crucial time for self-discovery
and establishing personal values.

Stress and Support

• Provide Guidance: Acknowledge that adolescence can be a challenging

period. Offer emotional support and open communication to help teens
manage stress and navigate their changing world.
• Encourage Healthy Coping: Teach adolescents healthy coping strategies
to deal with the pressures of growth and peer relationships.

By fostering a supportive environment that addresses the physical, emotional,

and social needs of children and adolescents, caregivers and educators can
play a vital role in promoting healthy development during these critical
stages.

FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT

Hormones are powerful and highly specialized chemical substances that

interact with bodily cells. Hormonal changes in the hypothalamus and
pituitary glands signal the entire process of sexual maturation. The process
entails:
(i) secretion of gonadotropic hormones
(ii) secretion of gonadotropic hormones
(iii) Secretion of testosterone (for male) and estrogen (for female)
• In the male, testosterone stimulates male characteristics comprised by

(i) spermarche enlargement of the testis gland;

(ii) capacity for ejaculation of male sperms;
(iii) voice change; and
(iv) facial hair development or beard growth, and continuing growth of pubic
hair.

40
 • In girls, estrogen secretion triggers the beginning of breast
enlargement, appearance of pubic hair, widening of the hips, or
menarche or first menstruation.
• Secular Trend: Physical maturation rates in adolescents have increased
due to genetic and environmental factors, improved healthcare, living
conditions, and better nutrition.
• Sexual Identity: Adolescence involves exploring and integrating
sexuality into identity, often leading to confusion, though most
develop a mature sexual identity.
• Self-Esteem: Self-esteem is vital during adolescence, influencing
identity formation. Lack of romantic success can lower self-esteem,
with girls more likely to experience depression and boys at higher risk
of suicide.
• Implications for Care and Education: Parents should foster open
communication, while educators must support students facing self-esteem
challenges related to academics and social relationships.
• Nutrition: Adequate intake of vitamins and minerals is essential for
adolescents. Poor eating habits, like skipping meals and consuming fast
food, are common.
• Body Image: Adolescents are highly aware of body image, which includes
not just appearance but also hygiene, grooming, and overall
presentation.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL LEARNERS

Adolescence is indeed a critical period for cognitive and emotional

development, where individuals begin to shift from egocentric thinking to
more abstract reasoning. Here’s a breakdown of the key aspects you mentioned:

Cognitive Growth in Adolescence

1. Decreased Egocentrism: As adolescents mature, they become less focused

on their own perspectives and more aware of others' viewpoints. This
shift is essential for social development and relationships.
2. Idealism: Teenagers often envision a better world and may critique the
realities around them, which can lead to passion for social causes or
dissatisfaction with their current situations.
3. Increased Argumentativeness: Adolescents thrive on discussions and
debates, using these interactions as a means to develop critical
thinking skills and articulate their ideas.

IMPLICATIONS FOR CARE, EDUCATION, AND PARENTING

• Engaging Adolescents: Parents and educators can foster cognitive

development by involving teens in decision-making processes at home,
encouraging them to express their opinions on various matters.
• Promoting Independence: Allowing adolescents to make choices about
their appearance, spending, and other personal matters can enhance
their sense of autonomy and responsibility.
• Interactive Learning: In schools, creating opportunities for
collaborative projects, field trips, and interactive research can help
adolescents develop teamwork and communication skills.
• Encouraging Reading and Exploration: Exposure to diverse reading
materials, such as magazines and blogs, can stimulate curiosity and
broaden their knowledge base.

Developing Occupational Skills

John Holland’s framework highlights different personality types that align

with various career paths:

1. Realistic: Prefers hands-on tasks; suited for careers in trades or

technical fields.
2. Investigative: Engages in analytical tasks; ideal for scientific and
technological careers.
3. Conventional: Thrives in structured environments; fits well with
administrative and clerical jobs.
4. Enterprising: Values leadership and innovation; drawn to
entrepreneurial ventures.
5. Artistic: Enjoys creative expression; finds fulfillment in arts and
performance.

41
By understanding these developmental trends and occupational preferences,
parents and educators can better support adolescents in navigating this
transformative stage of life, ultimately aiding in their character and
personality formation.

SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL LEARNERS

Understanding Human Emotions

Human emotions are complex responses to both internal and external stimuli,
involving physiological changes and behavioral reactions. These emotions are
often characterized by:

• Physiological Changes: Variations in heart rate, brain activity,

hormone levels, and body temperature.
• Readiness for Action: Responses can be categorized as "fight or flight"
reactions, which prepare the individual to confront or escape a
perceived threat.
• Appraisal Dependence: The emotion experienced is heavily influenced by
how the stimulus is interpreted.

The autonomic nervous system plays a crucial role in managing emotional

reactions, divided into two parts:

1. Sympathetic Nervous System: Activates and prepares the body for action.
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body and reduces arousal.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE EMOTIONS

Emotions can be classified into positive and negative categories:

• Positive Emotions: Feelings such as interest and joy encourage

continued engagement and exploration.
• Negative Emotions: Feelings like sadness and fear can lead to
withdrawal from perceived threats.

Darwin identified six basic emotions: interest, joy/happiness, sadness,

anger, disgust, and fear. This list has since expanded to include other
emotions such as love, pride, hope, gratitude, compassion, jealousy, and
anxiety.

DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL EMOTIONS

Social emotions like envy, embarrassment, shame, guilt, and pride typically
develop in early childhood. Adolescents often remember emotionally charged
experiences better than neutral ones. Gender differences also emerge:

• Girls: Generally more adept at regulating emotions but experience

higher rates of anxiety and depression.
• Boys: Often experience different emotional challenges, with varying
tendencies toward anger and moodiness.

Teachers should recognize that emotional challenges in adolescents should not

be dismissed as mere phases; addressing chronic unhappiness or moodiness is
vital.

ADOLESCENTS AND SOCIAL MEDIA

The pervasive presence of social media profoundly impacts adolescent social

development. Key issues include:

• Reduced Face-to-Face Interaction: Increased reliance on electronic

communication can impair social skills.
• Risks of Exploitation: Vulnerable adolescents may face exploitation
through unsafe interactions online.

42
IMPLICATIONS FOR ADOLESCENT CARE, EDUCATION, AND PARENTING

Emotional skills significantly influence academic success. Teachers and

schools play a critical role in fostering positive emotional development.
Effective interventions can lead to:

• Reduced Emotional Distress: Addressing emotional challenges can improve

students' mental health.
• Enhanced Academic Performance: Supportive environments can lead to
better grades and test scores.

In summary, educators must focus on promoting socio-emotional well-being

among adolescents to help them navigate their developmental challenges, both
in and out of the classroom.

ADOLESCENTS AND NUTRITION

Adolescents require sufficient vitamins and minerals, such as B12, calcium,

zinc, iron, riboflavin, and Vitamin D, to support their rapid growth and
development. A balanced diet should include vegetables alongside high-quality
protein sources from milk, dairy products, and eggs. Poor eating habits, like
skipping meals and frequently consuming fast food (e.g., hamburgers, fries,
pizza, soft drinks), can lead to nutritional deficiencies.

BODY IMAGE AND ADOLESCENTS

During adolescence, concern about body image intensifies. Body image

encompasses more than just physical appearance; it includes:

• Cleanliness and grooming

• Appropriate clothing choices
• Good posture
• Eye contact in communication
• Decorum

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL LEARNERS

Adolescence is marked by significant cognitive development, characterized by:

• A decrease in egocentric thinking

• Increased ability for abstract thinking
• The formation of character and personality, which influences future
life

PIAGET’S FORMAL OPERATIONAL THINKER

Adolescents develop propositional thinking, relativistic thinking, and the

ability to differentiate between real and possible scenarios. For example:

• Propositional Thinking: Considering assertions not based on visible

evidence.
• Relativistic Thinking: Forming opinions influenced by personal biases.
• Real vs. Possible: Evaluating potential outcomes of various situations.

SIEGLER’S INFORMATION PROCESSING SKILLS

Robert Siegler emphasizes how the environment influences adolescent thinking.

Key aspects include:

• Speed: Quick processing of information with awareness and control.

• Complexity: Ability to consider long-term implications.
• Volume: Increased capacity for information retention and recall.

43
METACOGNITION

Metacognition, or awareness of one’s thinking processes, includes skills like

perception, memory, understanding, and analysis. This ability aids
adolescents in evaluating their strategies and improving learning outcomes.

OVERACHIEVEMENT AND UNDERACHIEVEMENT

Overachievers may excel academically despite average IQ scores, often driven

by motivation, strong work habits, and a positive self-image. Key
characteristics include:

• Positive self-value
• Openness to authority
• Academic orientation
• Control over anxiety

Underachievers, in contrast, may perform below expected standards. They can

be categorized into:

• Withdrawn Underachievers: Passive and disengaged.

• Aggressive Underachievers: Disruptive and rebellious.

BEHAVIORAL TENDENCIES AND COGNITIVE GROWTH

Cognitive growth during adolescence can lead to:

• Egocentrism: Heightened self-focus and concern for social acceptance.

• Idealism: Imaginative thinking about better futures.
• Increased Argumentativeness: Engagement in discussions and debates as a
learning method.

IMPLICATIONS FOR ADOLESCENT CARE, EDUCATION, AND PARENTING

Parents and educators should recognize cognitive development stages in

adolescents and create opportunities for growth, such as:

• Encouraging family discussions on decisions.

• Allowing independence in choices.
• Facilitating school activities that promote participation.
• Developing reading skills through engaging materials.

Developing Occupational Skills

John Holland’s theory identifies personality types that align with job
preferences, including:

• Realistic: Prefers hands-on tasks.

• Investigative: Enjoys scientific and conceptual work.
• Conventional: Favors structured roles.
• Enterprising: Thrives in business and innovation.
• Artistic: Engages in creative expression.

Adolescents often begin working in entry-level positions, developing skills

like self-reliance, money management, and social responsibility.

SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL LEARNERS

Human Emotions: Emotions, both positive (interest, joy) and negative (anger,
fear), are essential to adolescent development. Social emotions like envy and
pride emerge early, with girls typically displaying better emotional
regulation but higher anxiety levels.

44
PRINCIPLES AND
STRATEGIES OF
TEACHING
"Teaching is not just about imparting knowledge;
it’s about igniting curiosity and
inspiring a lifelong love of learning"

45
 Overview

The Principles and Strategies of Teaching are foundational to creating

effective learning environments. They guide educators in their instructional
practices and ensure that students receive a quality education. Here’s an
overview of their significance:

Enhances Student Engagement. Principles and strategies emphasize active

learning, which keeps students involved and motivated. Engaged students are
more likely to participate, retain information, and develop a love for
learning.

Promotes Understanding and Retention. Clear teaching principles, such as

setting learning objectives and making real-world connections, help students
understand the relevance of their studies. Effective strategies like
scaffolding and differentiation cater to diverse learning styles, enhancing
comprehension and memory retention.

Supports Diverse Learners. Differentiated instruction and collaborative

learning strategies allow educators to address the varied needs of students.
This inclusivity ensures that all learners, regardless of their background or
abilities, have access to meaningful educational experiences.

Encourages Critical Thinking. Many teaching strategies, such as inquiry-based

learning and Socratic questioning, foster critical thinking skills. Students
learn to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information, preparing them for
real-world problem-solving.

Fosters Collaboration and Social Skills. Cooperative learning strategies

encourage teamwork and communication among students. By working together,
students develop social skills, learn to respect diverse perspectives, and
build a sense of community in the classroom.

Facilitates Continuous Improvement. The principles of reflective practice and

ongoing assessment promote a culture of improvement for both students and
educators. Teachers can adjust their methods based on feedback and assessment
data, leading to better teaching effectiveness over time.

Builds a Positive Learning Environment. Establishing clear expectations and

fostering a supportive classroom atmosphere are essential principles that
contribute to a positive learning environment. When students feel safe and
valued, they are more likely to take risks and engage fully in their
education.

Incorporates Technology Effectively. Modern teaching strategies leverage

technology to enhance learning experiences. This not only makes lessons more
engaging but also prepares students for a technology-driven world, equipping
them with essential skills.

Encourages Lifelong Learning. By instilling curiosity and a passion for

learning, effective teaching strategies help cultivate lifelong learners.
Students are more likely to pursue knowledge beyond the classroom when they
find their education relevant and engaging.

Aligns with Educational Standards. Principles and strategies provide a

framework that aligns teaching practices with educational standards and
goals. This ensures that educators are meeting curriculum requirements while
also focusing on student outcomes.

The principles and strategies of teaching are crucial for fostering an

effective, inclusive, and engaging learning environment. By grounding their
practices in these foundational elements, educators can better support their
students’ academic and personal growth, preparing them for future success.

46
LEARNING TO TEACH

Learning to teach is a complex and ongoing journey that spans an educator's

entire professional life.

Teaching: refers to the management by n instructor of the teaching-learning

situation

To develop into an expert teacher, one must acquire multiple types of

knowledge, which include:

Types of Knowledge

1. Content Knowledge:
o This refers to a deep understanding of the subject matter.
Teachers must not only know their content but also be able to
translate complex concepts into forms that are accessible and
engaging for students. Effective teaching requires teachers to
frame content in ways that students can relate to and understand.
2. Pedagogical Knowledge:
o This knowledge is rooted in research-based insights that
illuminate the connections between teaching practices and
learning outcomes. It encompasses strategies for effective
instruction, understanding learning theories, and applying
different teaching methods that cater to diverse learning styles.
3. Knowledge of Students:
o Understanding the diverse backgrounds, learning needs, and
motivations of students is crucial. This knowledge enables
teachers to tailor their approaches to meet the specific needs of
their learners, thereby facilitating a more inclusive and
effective learning environment.
4. Strategies:
o These are research-based plans for action that guide teaching
practices. Strategies include a variety of instructional
techniques designed to engage students and enhance their learning
experiences.

KEY BEHAVIORS FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING

Effective teaching is characterized by several key behaviors that contribute

to student learning:

1. Lesson Clarity:
o Teachers must communicate their ideas clearly and ensure that
students can follow along. This involves breaking down complex
topics into understandable parts and using examples and analogies
to enhance comprehension. Additionally, teachers should strive to
make their verbal delivery clear and free from distracting
mannerisms, ensuring that students remain focused on the content.
2. Instructional Variety:
o Effective teachers utilize a mix of instructional methods to
cater to different learning styles and keep students engaged.
This includes varying the use of learning materials, integrating
technology, and employing different questioning techniques to
stimulate critical thinking. Flexibility in delivery enhances
student interest and promotes a deeper understanding of the
subject matter.
3. Teacher Task Orientation:
o A successful classroom environment is one where the teacher
maximizes instructional time dedicated to teaching academic
subjects. This involves creating a classroom culture that
prioritizes intellectual engagement and fosters an atmosphere
conducive to learning. Teachers should set clear instructional
goals and develop assessments that measure student progress
toward these goals.
4. Engagement in Learning:
o Engagement refers to the active participation of students in the
learning process. This includes the time students spend on tasks,
their involvement with instructional materials, and their
interaction with peers. High engagement rates are linked to
improved learning outcomes, so teachers should design activities

47
 that motivate students to actively participate and invest in
their learning.
5. Student Success Rate:
o The success rate measures how well students understand and
complete assignments. This metric is closely tied to effective
task orientation and student engagement. Teachers should aim to
create instructional plans that yield moderate to high success
rates while also challenging students to think critically and
extend their understanding.

PRINCIPLES OF GOOD TEACHING

Insights from John Dewey

According to John Dewey, teaching is considered effective when it:

• Centers on the Child: The learner is the focal point of the educational
process.
• Is Well-Planned: Lessons should have clear objectives and a structured
approach to achieving them.
• Makes Learners Aware of Goals: Students should understand what they are
expected to learn and achieve.
• Provides Meaningful Experiences: Learning experiences should be
relevant and stimulating.
• Addresses Individual Differences: Instruction should be differentiated
to meet the varying needs of students.
• Utilizes Past Experiences: Teachers should connect new content to
students' prior knowledge.
• Stimulates Critical Thinking: Learning should encourage students to
think deeply and reason effectively.
• Is Governed by Democratic Principles: Classrooms should promote a
democratic environment where every voice is valued.
• Incorporates Multiple Methods: A variety of instructional strategies
should be employed.
• Integrates Evaluation: Assessment should be woven into the learning
process.
• Includes Drill and Review: Regular practice should reinforce learning
and retention.

James Mursell's Principles

James Mursell identified additional principles that enhance the success of

teaching:

1. Principle of Context:
o Use appropriate materials and settings for lessons. This includes
leveraging textbooks alongside supplemental materials and real-
world experiences.

Level I – Textbook only

Level II – Textbook together with supplemental materials
Level III – Non-academic and current materials
Level IV – Multi-sensory aids
Level V – Demonstration and presentation by experts
Level VI – Fields experiences

2. Principle of Focus:
o Ensure that lessons have a clear subject matter emphasis, moving
from general concepts to specific skills and knowledge.

Level I – Page assignment

Level II – Announced topic together with page or chapter references
Level III – Broad concepts
Level IV – Specific concepts, problem, skills acquisition

3. Principle of Socialization:
o Foster a social learning environment that encourages
collaboration and peer interaction.

Level I – Submission
48
Level II – Contribution
Level III – Cooperation and Collaboration

4. Principle of Individualization:
o Tailor learning experiences to individual student needs,
providing options for different learning pathways.

Level I – Uniform tasks

Level II – Homogeneous grouping
Level III – Contact plan
Level IV – Individual instruction
Level V – Large units with optional related activity
Level VI – Individual undertaking

5. Principle of Sequence:
o Structure learning tasks logically, ensuring that each lesson
builds on prior knowledge and prepares students for future
learning.

Level I – Logical succession of blocks of content

Level II – Connecting learning/lesson/course through introductions, review
Level III – Building leaner’s readiness
Level IV – Building from emerging meanings

6. Principle of Evaluation:
o Implement ongoing assessment that is aligned with learning
objectives, allowing for adjustments to teaching as needed.

Level I – Through testing

Level II – Related to objectives and processes
Level III – Total learning process and results

MANAGING INSTRUCTION

Determining Instructional Objectives

Instructional objectives are specific statements that describe what learners

should achieve by the end of instruction. These objectives help guide the
teaching process and focus efforts on desired outcomes.

Taxonomy of Objectives

• Cognitive Domain (Bloom):

o This domain focuses on knowledge acquisition and intellectual
skills, ranging from basic recall of facts to higher-order
thinking skills like analysis and synthesis.

Original Taxonomy and the Revised Taxonomy of educational objectives,

originally developed by Bloom and later updated by Anderson and Krathwohl.

Original Taxonomy

The original taxonomy is hierarchical, focusing on six cognitive domains

in increasing complexity:

1. Knowledge – Recalling previously learned material.

2. Comprehension – Restating information in one’s own words.
3. Application – Using knowledge in new situations.
4. Analysis – Breaking down knowledge into parts.
5. Synthesis – Creating something new from parts.
6. Evaluation – Judging the value of knowledge or material.

Revised Taxonomy

The Revised Taxonomy reorders and renames these categories to reflect a

more dynamic conception of cognitive processes:

1. Remember – Retrieving relevant knowledge from memory.

49
Subskills: Recognizing, Recalling.

2. Understand – Making sense of instructional messages.

Subskills: Interpreting, Exemplifying, Classifying, Summarizing, Inferring,
Comparing, Explaining.

3. Apply – Using a procedure in a given situation.

Subskills: Executing, Implementing.

4. Analyze – Breaking material into parts and understanding relationships.

Subskills: Differentiating, Organizing, Attributing.

5. Evaluate – Making judgments based on standards.

Subskills: Checking, Critiquing.

6. Create – Putting elements together to form a coherent whole.

Subskills: Generating, Planning, Producing.

ANALYSIS AND ELABORATION

The Original Taxonomy was more static, and primarily verb-based, while the
Revised Taxonomy uses more actionable verbs to highlight the dynamic
nature of cognitive processes. Additionally, "Synthesis" has been replaced
by "Create" and moved to the highest level, emphasizing that creating
something new is a complex cognitive skill that requires integration of
lower-level skills.

The Revised Taxonomy is more reflective of modern understanding of

learning processes, as it acknowledges that understanding and application
are not necessarily linear and can be interdependent. This revision is
more user-friendly for teachers to design and assess learning outcomes
with greater specificity and flexibility.

ORIGINAL TAXONOMY AND REVISED TAXONOMY changes and implications for

teaching and learning:

1. Knowledge vs. Remember

Original (Knowledge): This stage focuses on the recall of facts, terms,

basic concepts, and answers. The purpose was primarily about memorization
without a need for deep understanding.

Revised (Remember): In the Revised Taxonomy, this stage is rephrased as

"Remember," reflecting a more active process of retrieving information
from memory. The emphasis is on the learner's ability to recognize and
recall relevant information when needed, particularly from long-term
memory.

Implications: By focusing on retrieval (an active process), the Revised

Taxonomy encourages learners to think about how they can use their
knowledge base in meaningful contexts. This subtle change from "Knowledge"
to "Remember" aims to make learning less about rote memorization and more
about recalling for understanding and application.

2. Comprehension vs. Understand

Original (Comprehension): This stage involved restating learned material

in one’s own words. It was seen as the ability to grasp the meaning of
information without necessarily being able to apply or analyze it.

Revised (Understand): The term "Understand" replaces "Comprehension" and

expands upon it. This category now includes interpreting, exemplifying,
classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining,
highlighting various ways a learner can make sense of information.

Implications: This expanded definition of understanding acknowledges that

comprehension is not just about paraphrasing but also involves
contextualizing, explaining relationships, and making connections. By
including more sub-skills, educators are encouraged to design tasks that
require students to demonstrate understanding in multiple ways, not just
through verbal explanations.

50
3. Application vs. Apply

Original (Application): In the original framework, this stage was about

using learned information in new situations, solving problems, or
completing tasks based on previously learned material.

Revised (Apply): The Revised Taxonomy updates this to "Apply" and

clarifies it with subskills: executing and implementing. This distinction
captures both routine application (execution) and adaptive application
(implementation in novel situations).

Implications: By distinguishing between "executing" and "implementing,"

the Revised Taxonomy encourages educators to consider the context of
application. For example, a math problem solved using a familiar formula
(executing) differs from adapting that formula to solve a complex real-
world issue (implementing). The Revised Taxonomy thus allows for more
nuanced assessment of application skills.

4. Analysis vs. Analyze

Original (Analysis): This level focused on breaking down information into

parts to understand its structure, identifying relationships among the
elements.

Revised (Analyze): "Analyze" in the revised version encompasses

differentiating, organizing, and attributing. This process includes not
only breaking down material but also examining the relationships between
parts to understand overall structure or purpose.

Implications: The revised term "Analyze" reflects a more in-depth approach

to understanding the components of information. For example, learners may
organize ideas to see how they contribute to an argument or differentiate
important details from less critical ones. This change suggests that
analysis is not just about separation but also about understanding how
parts contribute to the whole, which can be useful for complex subjects
like literature or science.

5. Synthesis vs. Create

Original (Synthesis): This stage involved creating something new by

combining parts in a novel way. It focused on producing original work but
was limited to combining existing ideas rather than generating entirely
new concepts.

Revised (Create): In the Revised Taxonomy, "Synthesis" is replaced by

"Create" and shifted to the top of the hierarchy, suggesting it is the
most complex cognitive process. The subskills include generating,
planning, and producing, emphasizing innovation and originality.

Implications: This shift reflects a change in how we view creativity in

learning. "Create" is now seen as a higher-order skill that requires not
only the recombination of existing knowledge but the formulation of new
ideas, designs, and solutions. Moving it to the top highlights its
complexity and reinforces the idea that true mastery involves the ability
to innovate and bring something new to the table.

6. Evaluation vs. Evaluate

Original (Evaluation): The original taxonomy placed evaluation as the

highest order of thinking, where students judge the value of material
based on criteria and standards. It required critical thinking but was
often static in nature.

Revised (Evaluate): In the Revised Taxonomy, evaluation is rephrased to

"Evaluate" and positioned as the second-highest level, with subskills like
checking and critiquing. This level now involves applying criteria to
judge quality, relevance, or value and is more integrated with practical
application.

Implications: By moving "Evaluate" below "Create," the Revised Taxonomy

implies that evaluation, while complex, is often a precursor to creation.
For instance, students may evaluate different approaches or ideas before
51
 selecting the best one to create something new. It allows for an iterative
process, where evaluation leads to refinement and development.

STRUCTURAL AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE REVISED TAXONOMY

1. Dynamic Hierarchical Structure: Unlike the original hierarchy, where

each level strictly followed the previous, the Revised Taxonomy is more
fluid. Understanding and application are not always strictly sequential;
learners might need to apply knowledge to fully understand it, or analyze
it before they can evaluate it.

2. Inclusion of Verbs and Action-Oriented Language: The shift to more

dynamic verbs (e.g., "Remember" vs. "Knowledge") signals a move toward
active engagement. This change promotes a learning environment where
students are actively involved in retrieving, understanding, and applying
knowledge rather than passively memorizing information.

3. Broader Implications for Assessment and Instruction: The Revised

Taxonomy provides a detailed framework for assessment by offering clear
subcategories under each cognitive process. Teachers can create more
targeted assessments to measure specific cognitive skills (e.g.,
"exemplifying" versus "classifying" under "Understand") and design
instructional strategies that build these skills progressively.

4. Focus on Real-World Skills and Transferable Knowledge: By emphasizing

processes like analyzing, evaluating, and creating, the Revised Taxonomy
aligns well with 21st-century learning skills that are valued in the
workforce and in higher education. Skills like problem-solving, critical
thinking, and creativity are better supported by the revised framework.

The Revised Taxonomy offers a richer, more flexible framework that

encourages a more holistic and nuanced approach to teaching and learning.
It moves beyond simple recall to foster higher-order thinking skills
necessary for problem-solving, creativity, and real-world application.
This approach emphasizes that learning is not just about acquiring
information but about being able to use, adapt, and build upon it in
complex, meaningful ways.

Affective Domain (Krathwohl):

This domain encompasses attitudes, feelings, and values that learners are
expected to develop, including awareness, participation, and commitment to
values.
a. Receiving – willingness to be aware and pay attention to stimulus or
phenomenon
b. Responding – reaching to an event through participation
c. Valuing – evaluating beliefs in the form of acceptance, preference,
commitment
d. Organization – organizing the values in relation to each other
e. Characterization – acts in accordance with the accepted value and becomes
part of the personality

Psychomotor Domain (Simpson):

This domain relates to the development of physical skills and motor

abilities, from basic coordination to the creation of new movement patterns.
a. Perception – awareness of sensory stimulus
b. Set – relates cues / knows
c. Guided Response – performs as demonstrated
d. Mechanism – performs simple acts well
e. Complex Overt Response – skillful performance of complex acts
f. Adaption – modifies acts for special problems
g. Origination – creates new movement patterns / shows creativity

52
TEACHING APPROACHES/METHODS/STRATEGIES

Teacher-Centered Approaches

1. Direct Instruction:
o Characteristics: The teacher is the primary authority, delivering
content through lectures or demonstrations.
o Applications: Effective for introducing new concepts, especially
in subjects requiring foundational knowledge (e.g., mathematics).
2. Deductive Method:
o Process: Starts with a general principle or rule, then applies it
to specific instances.
o Example: In mathematics, a teacher might explain the Pythagorean
theorem before applying it to solve problems.
3. Demonstration:
o Learning Style: Students learn by watching the teacher perform
tasks or experiments.
o Example: Science classes often use demonstrations to show
chemical reactions or physical principles.
4. Lecture Method:
o Structure: Teachers present information in a structured format,
often using slides or visual aids.
o Pros and Cons: While efficient for covering content, it may limit
student engagement unless interactive elements are included.

Learner-Centered Approaches

1. Concept Development:
o Focus: Encourages students to explore and understand abstract
ideas through examples and discussions.
o Example: In history, students might analyze various events to
develop a concept of "revolution."
2. Discovery Method:
o Engagement: Students work collaboratively to discover principles
through guided inquiry.
o Example: In a biology class, students might observe plant growth
under different conditions and draw conclusions.
3. Inductive Method:
o Learning Process: Students examine specific examples and identify
underlying rules or patterns.
o Example: In language learning, students may encounter sentences
to infer grammar rules.
4. Laboratory Method:
o Application: Hands-on experiments allow students to test
hypotheses and see real-world applications of concepts.
o Example: Chemistry labs where students conduct experiments to
understand reactions and properties.
5. Problem-Solving Method:
o Critical Thinking: Students are presented with real-life problems
and encouraged to find solutions, promoting critical thinking.
o Example: Engineering challenges that require students to design a
bridge within certain constraints.
6. Project Method:
o Learning by Doing: Students engage in long-term projects that
integrate multiple subjects and real-world scenarios.
o Example: A community service project that involves research,
planning, and execution.

Other Teaching Strategies

1. Brainstorming:
o Collaborative Idea Generation: Encourages open discussion to
generate diverse ideas without immediate criticism.
o Application: Useful at the start of a unit to assess prior
knowledge and interest.
2. Constructivist Teaching:
o Philosophy: Learning is an active, contextualized process where
students construct knowledge through experiences.
o Implementation: Teachers create rich learning environments that
promote exploration and inquiry.
3. Cooperative Learning:
o Group Dynamics: Students work in heterogeneous groups to complete
tasks, enhancing social and academic skills.

53
 o Example: Jigsaw activities where each student becomes an "expert"
on one part of a topic and teaches it to their peers.
4. Distance Learning:
o Accessibility: Provides flexible learning opportunities for
students unable to attend traditional classes.
o Tools: Utilizes online platforms, video conferencing, and digital
resources.
5. Dale’s Cone of Experience:
o Visual Model: Ranks different types of experiences from concrete
to abstract, emphasizing the effectiveness of active learning.
o Usage: Helps educators choose appropriate methods to enhance
retention and understanding.

Dale's Cone of Experience illustrates how different methods of learning

impact retention. The hierarchy ranges from abstract experiences (like
reading) to more concrete, hands-on activities (like performing or
simulating).
Key Points:
Retention Rates: The cone suggests that we remember:
10% of what we read
20% of what we hear
30% of what we see
50% of what we see and hear
70% of what we say and write
90% of what we do
Learning Outcomes: The cone emphasizes that active participation enhances
learning. The more involved learners are, the better they grasp and retain
information.

Application: It’s useful for designing educational programs. For instance,

incorporating hands-on workshops and demonstrations can significantly improve
learner engagement and retention.

Variety of Methods: By combining various experiences—like watching videos,

attending exhibits, or participating in discussions—you can cater to
different learning styles and enhance overall understanding.

6. Field Trips:
o Experiential Learning: Students gain firsthand experience and can
connect classroom knowledge to the real world.
o Example: Visiting a museum or historical site relevant to the
curriculum.
7. Metacognitive Teaching:
o Self-Regulation: Encourages students to think about their own
thinking processes, enhancing self-awareness and strategy use.
o Example: Teaching students to reflect on their problem-solving
methods after completing a task.
8. Multiple Intelligences:
o Diverse Learning Styles: Acknowledges that students learn in
various ways, suggesting tailored teaching approaches.
o Application: Activities that cater to different intelligences,
like music, movement, or logical reasoning.
9. Panel Discussions:
o Interactive Dialogue: Experts or peers discuss a topic, allowing
audience participation and questioning.
o Implementation: Engaging students in academic discourse enhances
critical thinking.
10. Peer Tutoring:
o Mutual Learning: Students teach and learn from each other,
reinforcing their understanding.
o Example: Advanced students tutoring peers in challenging
subjects.
11. Problem-Based Learning (PBL):
o Real-World Relevance: Students engage with complex, real-world
problems, developing critical thinking and collaboration skills.
o Implementation: Projects that require research, teamwork, and
practical application.
12. Reflective Teaching:
o Continuous Improvement: Teachers analyze their own practices and
experiences to enhance their teaching effectiveness.
o Example: Keeping a reflective journal to document classroom
experiences and outcomes.

54
 13. Role Playing:
o Active Engagement: Students act out scenarios to explore
different perspectives and practice skills.
o Example: Simulating a historical event to deepen understanding of
its impact.
14. Simulation:
o Realistic Practice: Creates immersive experiences that mimic
real-life situations.
o Example: Flight simulators in pilot training programs.
15. Small-Group Instruction:
o Personalized Attention: Facilitates more tailored teaching and
allows students to learn at their own pace.
o Example: Rotating stations where groups tackle different
activities.
16. Socratic Method:
o Questioning Technique: Uses probing questions to stimulate
critical thinking and illuminate ideas.
o Example: Engaging students in a dialogue about ethical dilemmas.
17. Symposium:
o Formal Discussion: Experts present on a topic, fostering in-depth
discussion and audience engagement.
o Example: Academic events where researchers share findings.

DETERMINING LEARNING ACTIVITIES

• Purpose: Activities should align with learning goals, offering students

meaningful experiences.
• Principles:
o Benefit: Students should gain knowledge and skills from the
experience.
o Relevance: Activities should reflect real-world applications and
contexts.
o Inquiry: Challenge students to ask questions and explore.
o Depth: Encourage mastery through thorough investigation.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

• Definition: Resources that aid in delivering lessons and enhancing

understanding.
• Types:
o Concrete Objects: Physical items like plants or models.
o Representations: Visual aids such as diagrams, maps, and videos.
o Descriptions: Textual resources like textbooks and manuals.
• Principles:
o Engagement: Materials should captivate student interest.
o Diversity: Cater to various learning styles and preferences.
o Clarity: Align with specific learning outcomes and objectives.

EVALUATION INSTRUMENTS

• Purpose: Tools used to assess both student learning and the

effectiveness of teaching methods.
• Types: Tests, quizzes, projects, self-assessments, and observational
assessments.

LESSON PLAN

• Components:
o Objectives: Clear learning goals for the lesson.
o Activities: Detailed steps for instruction, including group work,
discussions, and assessments.
o Materials: List of resources needed for the lesson.
o Assessment: How understanding will be measured (quizzes,
projects, etc.).

A well-structured lesson plan serves as a roadmap, guiding both teacher and

students through the learning process while allowing flexibility to adapt as
needed.

55
FACILITATING
LEARNING FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING

"Teaching is not just about delivering content; it’s

about creating an environment where
learners can actively engage,
explore, and take ownership of their education."

56
 Overview
Facilitating learner-centered teaching is an educational approach that
prioritizes the needs, interests, and experiences of students in the learning
process. Instead of a traditional model where the teacher is the main
authority and source of knowledge, learner-centered teaching shifts the focus
to students, encouraging them to take an active role in their education.

Facilitating learner-centered teaching is crucial for several reasons:

1. Engagement: It fosters active participation, keeping learners motivated

and invested in their education.
2. Individualization: This approach caters to diverse learning styles and
paces, ensuring that each learner's needs are met.
3. Critical Thinking: Encouraging learners to explore and question
concepts promotes deeper understanding and analytical skills.
4. Ownership: It empowers students to take responsibility for their
learning, enhancing self-directedness and confidence.
5. Collaboration: Learner-centered environments promote teamwork,
preparing students for real-world interactions and problem-solving.
6. Adaptability: Facilitators can adjust strategies based on real-time
feedback, ensuring effective learning experiences.

Ultimately, learner-centered teaching prepares students for lifelong learning

and adaptability in a rapidly changing world.

Facilitating learner-centered teaching involves creating an educational

environment that prioritizes the needs, interests, and experiences of
students. Here’s an overview of its key components:

Core Principles

Student Agency: Empowering learners to take control of their education by

making choices about what and how they learn.

Active Participation: Engaging students through discussions, hands-on

activities, and collaborative projects to foster deeper understanding.

Creating a Supportive Environment

Safe Space: Establishing a classroom culture where students feel comfortable

expressing themselves and taking risks.

Respect and Inclusivity: Valuing diverse perspectives and backgrounds to

create a sense of belonging.

Role of the Facilitator

Guide, Not Sage: Shifting from a traditional authoritative role to that of a

facilitator who supports and guides learners.

Responsive Teaching: Adapting instruction based on student feedback,

interests, and learning progress.

Strategies for Implementation

Collaborative Learning: Using group work and peer teaching to enhance

understanding through shared experiences.

Inquiry-Based Learning: Encouraging learners to ask questions, conduct

research, and explore topics that interest them.

Outcomes of Learner-Centered Teaching

Critical Thinking: Developing higher-order thinking skills as students

analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information.

Lifelong Learning: Fostering a love for learning that extends beyond the
classroom, preparing students for future challenges.

Facilitating learner-centered teaching transforms the educational experience,

making it more relevant, engaging, and effective. By prioritizing student
needs and promoting active involvement, educators can create a dynamic
learning environment that prepares students for success in their academic and
personal lives.

57
METACOGNITION

Metacognition, or "thinking about thinking," involves two main components:

metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation. It allows learners to
understand their learning processes and adjust strategies accordingly.

FROM METACOGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT TO TEACHING STRATEGIES

To promote metacognition in learners, educators can implement various

teaching strategies, including:

Explicit Instruction: Teach Reflection Activities: Encourage

metacognitive strategies directly, students to reflect on their learning
such as self-monitoring and self- experiences regularly.
questioning. Goal Setting: Guide students in
Modeling: Demonstrate metacognitive setting specific, achievable learning
thinking through think-alouds. goals.
Feedback: Provide constructive
feedback that prompts self-evaluation.

FROM METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE VARIABLES

Metacognitive knowledge can be broken down into three categories:

Person Variables: Awareness of one’s Strategy Variables: Knowledge of

strengths, weaknesses, learning different strategies to approach
preferences, and effective strategies. learning and problem-solving.
Task Variables: Understanding the
nature of the task, including its
complexity and required strategies.

FROM APPLICATION OF METACOGNITION TO EXPERT LEARNERS

Applying metacognitive strategies helps learners develop into expert learners

characterized by:

Self-Regulation: Control over their Reflective Practice: Consistent

learning process through planning, reflection on learning experiences and
monitoring, and evaluating. adjustments to strategies.
Strategic Thinking: Flexibility in Persistence: Resilience in overcoming
employing various strategies based on challenges.
the context. Transferability: Ability to apply
knowledge and skills across different
contexts.

FROM APPLICATION OF METACOGNITION TO NOVICE LEARNERS

In contrast, novice learners often display the following characteristics:

Limited Self-Awareness: Lack of Easily Discouraged: Tend to give up

insight into their own learning when faced with difficulties.
processes. Struggle with Transfer: Difficulty
Rigid Thinking: Difficulty adapting applying learned skills to new
strategies when facing new challenges. situations.
Minimal Reflection: Rarely evaluate
their learning or the effectiveness of
their approaches.

Developing metacognitive skills is essential for transforming novice learners

into expert learners. By employing effective teaching strategies, educators
can enhance students' awareness of their learning processes, fostering
independence and success in their academic journeys.

58
Metacognition, often summarized as "thinking about thinking," encompasses the
awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes. It allows
individuals to regulate their learning through self-reflection and
evaluation.

John Flavell’s Definition: Flavell defines metacognition as knowledge

concerning one's cognitive processes, including understanding how information
can be learned and remembered effectively.

COMPONENTS OF METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE

1. Person Variables:
o Self-Awareness: Understanding personal learning styles,
strengths, and weaknesses.
o Cognitive Awareness: Recognizing how you learn best and
identifying the most effective strategies for yourself.
o Emotional Awareness: Being aware of how emotions impact your
learning process.
2. Task Variables:
o Nature of the Task: Understanding the specific demands of a task,
such as complexity and the skills required.
o Processing Requirements: Knowing how much cognitive effort is
needed and what strategies may be effective for different types
of tasks.
3. Strategy Variables:
o Application of Strategies: Familiarity with various strategies to
enhance learning and problem-solving.
o Flexibility: Adapting strategies to fit different contexts, such
as summarizing, questioning, or using mnemonic devices.
o Examples: Techniques like activating prior knowledge before
studying, using a glossary for unfamiliar terms, or revisiting
material for better comprehension.

Types of Metacognitive Awareness

• Meta-Attention: Awareness of what captures your attention and how

distractions can affect your learning. This includes recognizing when
you're not paying attention and developing strategies to refocus.
• Meta-Memory: Understanding which memory techniques work best for you,
such as visualization, repetition, or association. This awareness helps
in choosing effective study methods.

Teaching Strategies to Foster Metacognition

1. Self-Monitoring:
o Encourage students to keep track of their progress and reflect on
their learning. This can be through journals, checklists, or
self-assessment quizzes.
2. Teaching Study Strategies:
o TQLR: A strategy for younger learners that includes:
▪ Tune In: Getting mentally prepared to learn.
▪ Question: Formulating questions about the material.
▪ Listen: Actively engaging during the learning process.
▪ Remember: Using strategies to retain information.
o PQ4R: For older students, this strategy includes:
▪ Preview: Scanning the material first.
▪ Question: Generating questions about the content.
▪ Read: Engaging deeply with the text.
▪ Recite: Verbalizing or summarizing what was learned.
▪ Review: Going back over key points.
▪ Reflect: Considering how new knowledge fits with existing
knowledge.
3. Predictive Thinking:
o Have students make predictions about upcoming content based on
their existing knowledge. This primes their thinking and engages
them actively in learning.
4. Relating Ideas:
o Encourage students to connect new information to what they
already know, facilitating deeper understanding and retention.
5. Question Development:
o Teach students to formulate their own questions, promoting
curiosity and engagement with the material.
59
 6. Seeking Help:
o Guide students on when and how to ask for help, reinforcing that
seeking assistance is a part of the learning process.
7. Knowledge Transfer:
o Show students how to apply skills learned in one context to
different tasks or subjects, enhancing their versatility as
learners.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NOVICE AND EXPERT LEARNERS

Understanding the distinctions between novice and expert learners can inform
teaching practices:

Aspect Novice Learners Expert Learners

Limited, often
Knowledge Deep, interconnected understanding
fragmented knowledge

Surface-level
Problem Thorough exploration, creating mental
engagement, quick to
Solving models of problems
provide answers

Learning Use rigid, often Adapt and design new strategies for
Strategies unsuitable methods tasks

Selectively focus on important

Processing Attempt to process
information, breaking it down into
Information everything
manageable parts

Output Rarely evaluates or Continuously checks and revises for

Quality revises work quality

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES (LCP)

14 Learner-Centered Principles

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factor (6 Principles)

Motivational and Affective Factors (3 Principles)
Developmental and Social Factors (2 Principles)
Individual Differences (3 Principles)

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

The COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS emphasize the complexities of the

learning process, focusing on how learners construct knowledge and employ
strategic thinking.

1. Nature of Learning Process

Learning is most effective when it involves actively constructing meaning
from both information and experiences.

2. Goals of the Learning Process

Successful learners create meaningful and coherent representations of
knowledge over time, aided by support and instructional guidance.

3. Construction of Knowledge
Learners effectively link new information to their existing knowledge,
broadening and deepening their understanding through continuous connections.

4. Strategic Thinking
Effective learners utilize a range of thinking and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning objectives, employing problem-solving and conceptual
learning.

5. Thinking about Thinking

Successful learners reflect on their thought processes, set achievable goals,
select appropriate learning strategies, and monitor their progress.

60
6. Context of Learning
Learning is shaped by environmental factors such as culture, technology, and
instructional practices, influencing the overall learning experience.

Motivational and Affective Factors

The MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS highlight how internal and emotional
elements impact learning.

1. Motivational and Emotional Influences on Learning

The learner's internal beliefs, goals, and expectations can significantly
enhance or hinder their thinking and information processing.
2. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn
Intrinsic motivation arises from engaging tasks that are appropriately
challenging and relevant to personal interests, allowing for choice and
control.
3. Effects of Motivation on Effort
Motivation is closely linked to the effort expended in learning, as complex
knowledge acquisition requires significant energy, strategic effort, and
persistence.

Developmental and Social Factors

The DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS emphasize the importance of

developmental readiness and social interaction in learning.

1. Developmental Influences on Learning

Effective learning considers the developmental stages across physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social domains, with material presented in
engaging ways suitable for learners' levels.
2. Social Influences on Learning
Learning experiences are enhanced through interaction and collaboration,
providing opportunities for learners to work together on instructional tasks.

Individual Differences Factor

The INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTOR focuses on the unique attributes and needs
of learners, emphasizing the importance of recognizing and accommodating
these differences.

1. Individual Differences in Learning

Learners have distinct capabilities and talents. Educators should assist
students in exploring their learning preferences and, when necessary, help
them adapt or expand these preferences to enhance their learning experience.
2. Learning and Diversity
Fundamental principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction
apply universally, regardless of individual differences among learners.
3. Standards and Assessment
Assessment is vital for providing insights to both learners and educators
throughout the learning process, helping to inform instruction and learning
strategies.

Overall, these factors collectively underscore the multifaceted nature of

learning, incorporating cognitive strategies, motivational dynamics,
developmental appropriateness, and social interactions to foster effective
educational experiences.

Alexander and Murphy’s Distilled Principles

1. The Knowledge Base

A solid knowledge foundation is essential for all future learning, as
it influences the ability to acquire new information.
2. Strategic Processing and Control
Learners can enhance their effectiveness by developing skills to
reflect on and regulate their thoughts and behaviors.
3. Motivation and Affect
Intrinsic motivation, personal goals, and enjoyment of learning
significantly impact the learning process.
4. Development and Individual Differences
Each learner's journey is unique, shaped by a combination of genetic
and environmental factors that influence their learning experiences.
61
 5. Situation or Context
Learning occurs within a broader societal context and is influenced by
individual circumstances and environments.

“These principles highlight the necessity of tailoring educational approaches

to accommodate individual differences, ensuring that all learners can thrive
in diverse learning environments.”

THEORIES RELATED TO LEARNER DEVELOPMENT

Sigmund Freud

Components of Personality

1. Id: Primitive instincts and drives.

2. Ego: Rational mediator between id and reality.
3. Superego: Moral conscience.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

1. Oral Stage (0-1 year): Focus on oral gratification; trust vs.

dependency.
2. Anal Stage (1-3 years): Toilet training; control vs. messiness.
3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Gender exploration; Oedipus and Electra
complexes.
4. Latency Stage (6-puberty): Skill development; sexual urges suppressed.
5. Genital Stage (puberty onward): Maturation of sexual interests.

Erik Erikson

Psychosocial Stages of Development

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-18 months): Foundation of trust.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (18 months-3 years): Developing self-control.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years): Balancing initiative and guilt.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years): Competence vs. feelings of
inferiority.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years): Establishing identity.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-24 years): Forming deep relationships.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (24-54 years): Contributing to society.
8. Integrity vs. Despair (54-death): Reflecting on life with fulfillment.

Jean Piaget

Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Learning through sensory experiences

and actions.
2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Language and symbolic thinking;
egocentrism.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Logical thinking about
concrete events.
4. Formal Operational Stage (12 years and up): Abstract and hypothetical
thinking.

Lawrence Kohlberg

Levels and Stages of Moral Development

1. Pre-conventional Level: Self-interest and obedience.

2. Conventional Level: Upholding laws and social rules.
3. Post-conventional Level: Recognizing universal ethical principles.

Lev Vygotsky

Key Concepts

• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The gap between what a learner can
do independently and what they can achieve with guidance.

62
Urie Bronfenbrenner

Bio-Ecological Systems Theory

1. Microsystem: Immediate environments (family, school).

2. Mesosystem: Interactions between microsystems.
3. Exosystem: External environments influencing development.
4. Macrosystem: Cultural and societal influences.
5. Chronosystem: The dimension of time affecting development.

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT BASED ON PIAGET’S THEORY

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)

• Learning Basis: Sense perception; the child is unaware of their

environment.
• Key Events:
o Primary Circular Reactions: Repeated actions centered on the
infant’s body (e.g., thumb sucking).
o Intentional Behavior: Repeating actions to prolong pleasant
experiences (e.g., crying for attention).
o Object Permanence: Understanding that objects exist
independently, leading to searching for missing toys.
o Representation: Using internal symbols to solve problems (e.g.,
manipulating toys through trial and error).

2. Pre-Operational Stage (2 to 7 Years)

• Learning Basis: Emergence of language; egocentric thinking.

• Key Characteristics:
o Egocentrism: Focused on oneself (e.g., telling tall tales for
attention).
o Irreversibility: Inability to reverse thought processes (e.g.,
preferring coins to a larger bill).
o Symbolic Function: Ability to represent objects/events.
o Centration: Focusing on one aspect of an object/event (e.g., only
one feature of a situation).
o Animism: Attributing human-like traits to inanimate objects.
o Transductive Reasoning: Misunderstanding cause and effect.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years)

• Learning Basis: Logical and systematic thinking begins.

• Key Events:
o Conservation: Understanding that quantity remains the same
despite transformations (e.g., recognizing that 4 x 50-cent coins
equal 2 pesos).
o Reversibility: Understanding operations can be reversed (e.g.,
recognizing different states of water).
o Decentering: Ability to see multiple aspects of situations.
o Seriation: Ability to arrange objects in order based on a single
dimension (e.g., size or weight).

4. Formal Operational Stage (11 to 16 Years)

• Learning Basis: Development of abstract and hypothetical reasoning.

• Key Events:
o Hypothetical Reasoning: Generating multiple hypotheses and
weighing data.
o Analogical Reasoning: Applying relationships from one situation
to another.
o Deductive Reasoning: Logical application of general rules to
specific instances.

63
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Level I: Pre-Conventional

• Stage 1: Punishment/Obedience (Fear of punishment).

• Stage 2: Mutual Benefit (Self-interest drives actions).

Level II: Conventional

• Stage 3: Social Approval (Behavior driven by others' expectations).

• Stage 4: Law and Order (Motivation to uphold laws and rules).

Level III: Post-Conventional

• Stage 5: Social Contract (Understanding justice and the common good).

• Stage 6: Universal Principles (Adherence to human rights and
conscience).

BRONFENBRENNER’S BIO-ECOLOGICAL THEORY

• Concept: Child development is influenced by various environmental

systems.

Layers

• Microsystem: Immediate relationships (family, school).

• Mesosystem: Connections between microsystems (e.g., family and school).
• Exosystem: External systems affecting the child indirectly (e.g.,
parent's workplace).
• Macrosystem: Cultural values, customs, and laws.
• Chronosystem: The dimension of time and its impact on development.

STUDENT DIVERSITY

Factors Contributing to Diversity

• Socio-economic status.
• Learning styles (visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic).
• Exceptionalities (special needs).

Benefits of Diversity

• Enhances self-awareness.
• Contributes to cognitive development through varied perspectives.
• Prepares students for social responsibilities.
• Promotes harmony and understanding.

Strategies for Addressing Student Diversity

1. Encourage sharing of personal histories.

2. Integrate multicultural learning experiences.
3. Identify patterns of unity among diverse groups.
4. Communicate high expectations for all students.
5. Use varied instructional methods.
6. Provide multiple relevant examples.
7. Allow personal choice in learning approaches.

LEARNING/THINKING STYLES AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Learning Styles

• Visual Learners: Prefer seeing information.

64
 • Auditory Learners: Learn through listening and discussion.
• Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners: Learn best through hands-on experiences.

Global vs. Analytic Thinkers

• Analytic Thinkers: Prefer step-by-step processes.

• Global Thinkers: See the big picture rather than details.

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT BASED ON PIAGET’S THEORY

Jean Piaget's theory emphasizes the progressive nature of cognitive

development in children. He identified four distinct stages that reflect how
children think and understand the world at different ages.

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)

• Learning Basis: Knowledge is gained through sensory experiences and

physical interactions with the environment. Infants are largely unaware
of their surroundings.
• Key Events:
o Primary Circular Reactions: Simple repetitive actions centered on
the infant’s own body (e.g., thumb sucking) that foster motor
development.
o Intentional Behavior: The infant begins to engage in behaviors
deliberately to elicit responses (e.g., crying to attract
attention).
o Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to
exist even when they cannot be seen. This realization leads
infants to search for hidden objects, demonstrating cognitive
growth.
o Representation: The ability to mentally represent objects and
events, allowing for problem-solving through internal symbols
(e.g., using a block to represent a car).

2. Pre-Operational Stage (2 to 7 Years)

• Learning Basis: This stage marks the emergence of language and symbolic
thinking, yet children’s reasoning is still intuitive and egocentric.
• Key Characteristics:
o Egocentrism: Children view the world primarily from their own
perspective, making it difficult to understand others' viewpoints
(e.g., a child may think everyone sees what they see).
o Irreversibility: Difficulty in understanding that actions can be
reversed, leading to confusion in concepts such as conservation
(e.g., believing a flattened ball of clay is less than the
original).
o Symbolic Function: The ability to use symbols, such as words or
images, to represent objects and events, which facilitates
imaginative play.
o Centration: The tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation
while ignoring others (e.g., focusing only on the height of
liquid in a glass and not its width).
o Animism: The attribution of human-like qualities to inanimate
objects (e.g., believing that toys can feel sad).
o Transductive Reasoning: A flawed type of reasoning where children
assume that if two events occur together, one causes the other
(e.g., believing that the sun goes down because it is bedtime).

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years)

• Learning Basis: Logical reasoning develops, allowing children to think

systematically about concrete objects and events.
• Key Events:
o Conservation: Understanding that quantity remains unchanged
despite changes in shape or arrangement (e.g., realizing that two
different shaped containers can hold the same amount of liquid).
o Reversibility: The ability to recognize that actions can be
reversed (e.g., understanding that melting ice can become water).

65
 o Decentering: The ability to consider multiple aspects of a
situation, leading to a more balanced understanding (e.g.,
recognizing different dimensions in problem-solving).
o Seriation: The ability to arrange objects in a logical order
(e.g., organizing sticks by length).

4. Formal Operational Stage (11 to 16 Years)

• Learning Basis: The capacity for abstract thought and hypothetical

reasoning emerges, allowing for advanced problem-solving skills.
• Key Events:
o Hypothetical Reasoning: The ability to think about possibilities
and hypothetical situations (e.g., formulating potential outcomes
of an experiment).
o Analogical Reasoning: Understanding relationships in one context
and applying them to another (e.g., recognizing similarities
between two different scientific concepts).
o Deductive Reasoning: Applying general principles to specific
cases (e.g., using a mathematical formula to solve a specific
problem).

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on Piaget's work, proposing a theory of moral

development that illustrates how individuals understand morality at different
stages of life.

THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Level I: Pre-Conventional

• Focus: Moral reasoning is based on external consequences and personal

benefits.
• Stage 1: Punishment/Obedience: Actions are judged based on the fear of
punishment (e.g., a child refrains from stealing because they fear
being scolded).
• Stage 2: Mutual Benefit: Actions are motivated by personal gain and
reciprocity (e.g., helping others in hopes of receiving help in
return).

Level II: Conventional

• Focus: Moral reasoning is based on social rules and the expectations of

others.
• Stage 3: Social Approval: Behavior is motivated by the desire for
approval from others (e.g., a teenager behaves well to gain friends).
• Stage 4: Law and Order: Emphasis is placed on following laws and
maintaining social order (e.g., believing that laws must be obeyed for
societal functioning).

Level III: Post-Conventional

• Focus: Morality is based on abstract principles and values that

transcend specific laws.
• Stage 5: Social Contract: Recognizing that laws are social contracts
that should be changed if they do not promote general welfare (e.g.,
advocating for social justice).
• Stage 6: Universal Principles: Adherence to universal ethical
principles, emphasizing human rights and personal conscience (e.g.,
standing up for moral beliefs despite legal repercussions).

VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

Lev Vygotsky emphasized the fundamental role of social interactions and

cultural context in cognitive development. He argued that learning is
inherently a social process.

66
Key Concepts

• More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): Refers to someone who has a better

understanding or higher ability than the learner, such as a teacher or
peer.
• Scaffolding: Support given to learners that is gradually removed as
they become more competent.

MKO Scaffolding Process

1. I do, you watch: The teacher demonstrates a task.

2. I do, you help: The teacher performs the task with assistance from the
learner.
3. You do, I watch: The learner attempts the task independently while the
teacher observes.
4. You do, I help: The learner completes the task with minimal support
from the teacher.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

• Definition: The difference between what a learner can do independently

and what they can achieve with guidance.

1. Independent Tasks: Tasks that the learner can perform without help.
2. Assisted Tasks: Tasks that fall within the learner's ZPD and require
support from an MKO.
3. Beyond Reach: Tasks that are too advanced for the learner, even with
assistance.

BRONFENBRENNER’S BIO-ECOLOGICAL THEORY

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s theory emphasizes that human development is influenced

by the different types of environmental systems in which an individual is
embedded.

Layers of Environment

1. Microsystem

• Definition: The immediate environment that a child directly interacts

with (e.g., family, school, peers).
• Influences: Bi-directional influences occur, meaning that the child
affects their environment and vice versa.

2. Mesosystem

• Definition: The interconnections between different microsystems (e.g.,

how family dynamics influence school performance).
• Influences: The quality of relationships across microsystems can affect
the child’s development.

3. Exosystem

• Definition: External environmental settings that do not directly

involve the child but still impact them (e.g., parental workplace,
community resources).
• Influences: Changes in the exosystem can indirectly affect the child’s
experiences.

4. Macrosystem

• Definition: The overarching cultural values, customs, and laws that

shape the environment.
• Influences: Macrosystem influences can dictate the norms and practices
within a society, impacting individual development.

5. Chronosystem

67
 • Definition: The dimension of time as it relates to a child’s
environments, including life transitions and historical events.
• Influences: Changes over time, such as moving to a new city or changes
in societal values, can significantly impact development.

STUDENT DIVERSITY

Diversity in the classroom enriches the educational experience and enhances

learning for all students.

Factors Contributing to Diversity

• Socio-economic Status: Varies widely among students, affecting access

to resources and educational opportunities.
• Learning Styles: Different preferences for absorbing and processing
information (visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic).
• Exceptionalities: Varying abilities and needs among students (e.g.,
learning disabilities, giftedness).

Benefits of Diversity

1. Enhanced Self-Awareness: Exposure to diverse perspectives helps

students reflect on their own identities.
2. Cognitive Development: Interaction with diverse peers fosters critical
thinking and problem-solving skills.
3. Preparation for Society: Learning in a diverse environment equips
students for real-world interactions and responsibilities.
4. Promotion of Harmony: Understanding and appreciating differences can
lead to better relationships and reduced conflict.

Strategies for Addressing Student Diversity

1. Encourage Sharing: Promote personal histories and experiences to build

understanding among students.
2. Integrate Multicultural Learning: Include diverse perspectives and
content in the curriculum.
3. Identify Unity Patterns: Emphasize commonalities that transcend
differences.
4. Set High Expectations: Communicate that all students can achieve
success.
5. **Use Varied Instructional

LEARNING/THINKING STYLES AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Learning Styles

• Visual Learners: Prefer seeing information.

• Auditory Learners: Learn through listening and discussion.
• Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners: Learn best through hands-on experiences.

GLOBAL VS. ANALYTIC THINKERS

• Analytic Thinkers: Prefer step-by-step processes.

• Global Thinkers: See the big picture rather than details.

HOWARD GARDNER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Gardner's theory suggests that intelligence is not a single entity, but a

combination of multiple types of intelligences, each person possessing
varying degrees of each type. Here are the nine intelligences:

1. Naturalistic Intelligence
Strength in understanding nature, nurturing plants/animals, and noticing
environmental changes.
Careers: Ecology, agriculture, wildlife management.

2. Musical Intelligence

68
Sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, and tone; skilled in musical performance or
composition.
Careers: Music therapy, teaching, performance.

3. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
Excellent reasoning, problem-solving, and recognizing patterns.
Careers: Engineering, computer science, finance.

4. Existential Intelligence
Deep thinking about life’s big questions and exploring philosophical ideas.
Careers: Philosophy, theology, psychology.

5. Interpersonal Intelligence
Ability to understand and connect with others; skilled in empathy and social
interactions.
Careers: Teaching, counseling, leadership roles.

6. Linguistic Intelligence
Talent for words, writing, reading, and speaking effectively.
Careers: Writing, journalism, public speaking.

7. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Strong physical coordination and expression through movement.
Careers: Sports, dance, performing arts.

8. Intrapersonal Intelligence
Deep self-awareness and understanding of personal emotions and motivations.
Careers: Psychology, coaching, writing.

9. Spatial Intelligence
Ability to visualize and manipulate objects in space; often linked to
creativity.
Careers: Architecture, design, navigation.

UNDERSTANDING LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES

Disabilities vs. Handicaps

• Disability: A condition affecting the body or mind that makes it harder

to perform certain activities.
• Handicap: The disadvantage experienced in fulfilling normal life roles
due to a disability.

LEGISLATION

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) ensures that students
with disabilities receive a Free Appropriate Public Education tailored to
their needs.

Types of Learning Disabilities

1. Dyscalculia: Difficulty understanding numbers and mathematical

concepts.
2. Dysgraphia: Impaired handwriting and fine motor skills.
3. Dyslexia: Challenges with reading and language processing.
4. Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities: Difficulty interpreting nonverbal
cues and poor coordination.
5. Oral/Written Language Disorder: Issues with understanding and
expressing language.
6. ADHD: Challenges with focus, attention, and impulse control.

Social and Behavioral Difficulties

• Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): A developmental disability affecting

social communication and behavior.
• Mental Retardation: Characterized by sub-average intelligence and
limitations in adaptive functioning.
• Conduct Disorder: Behavioral problems marked by a disregard for others.

Physical Disabilities and Sensory Impairments

69
 • Physical Disabilities: Conditions impairing physical functioning, such
as orthopedic or neuro-motor issues.
• Health Impairments: Chronic conditions like asthma or epilepsy
affecting learning.
• Sensory Impairments: Visual and hearing impairments that affect
educational performance.

Giftedness

Gifted children possess above-average abilities, while talented children have

developed their abilities to a high level in specific areas.

FOCUS ON LEARNING: BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVES

Behaviorism Overview

Behaviorism emphasizes observable behaviors and the ways they're learned

through interactions with the environment. Key concepts include:

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

• Conditioned Response: Learning through association, where a neutral

stimulus becomes associated with a positive stimulus (e.g., Pavlov’s
dogs salivating at the sound of a bell).
• Stages:
o Before Conditioning: No learned behavior; a neutral stimulus is
presented.
o During Conditioning: The neutral stimulus is paired with an
unconditioned stimulus.
o After Conditioning: The neutral stimulus triggers a conditioned
response.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

• Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior repeating

(positive or negative).
• Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior repeating.
• Schedules of Reinforcement: Various patterns for delivering rewards
that affect learning rates.

Purposive Behaviorism (Tolman)

Key Concepts

• Goal-Directed Learning: Learning is purposeful, with individuals acting

based on beliefs and goals.
• Cognitive Maps: Mental representations of environments based on
experience.
• Latent Learning: Learning that occurs without reinforcement but can be
demonstrated later.
• Intervening Variables: Internal factors (like expectations) that
influence learning.

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Key Components

• Observational Learning: Learning through watching others and modeling

behavior.
• Necessary Conditions:
o Attention: Observers must focus on the model.
o Retention: Observers need to remember the behavior.
o Motor Reproduction: Observers must be capable of replicating the
behavior.
o Motivation: The desire to perform the observed behavior.

70
Cognitive Perspective

1. Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt psychology is a foundational theory in understanding human

perception, emphasizing that our experiences are perceived as holistic
entities. This approach suggests that the properties of structures are
different when perceived as a whole compared to their individual parts.

Key Figures

• Max Wertheimer (1880–1943)

• Kurt Koffka (1886–1941)
• Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967)

Gestalt Principles

These principles explain how we naturally seek patterns in our environment:

• Law of Proximity: Objects that are close together are perceived as a

single group.

2. Information Processing Theory (IPT)

IPT offers a framework for understanding cognitive development, focusing on

how information is processed through various stages—encoding, storage, and
retrieval.

Key Concepts

• Encoding: The initial stage where information is sensed and perceived.

• Storage: Retaining information in short-term or long-term memory.
• Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed.

Types of Knowledge

• General vs. Specific: Broadly applicable knowledge versus task-specific

knowledge.
• Declarative Knowledge: Facts (e.g., "The capital of France is Paris").
• Procedural Knowledge: Knowledge on how to perform tasks (e.g., baking a
cake).
• Episodic Knowledge: Personal memories (e.g., graduation day).
• Conditional Knowledge: Understanding when and why to apply certain
strategies.

Stages of Memory

1. Sensory Register: Holds sensory information for 1-3 seconds.

2. Short-Term Memory (STM): Retains 5-9 chunks of information for about 18
seconds.
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Unlimited capacity and indefinite duration.

Forgetting Mechanisms

• Decay: Information fades when not attended to.

• Interference: New or old information obstructs retrieval.

Methods to Enhance Retrieval

• Rehearsal: Repeating information to retain it.

• Meaningful Learning: Connecting new information to existing knowledge.
• Organization: Structuring information logically for better recall.
• Elaboration: Adding details to enhance understanding.
• Visual Imagery: Creating mental images to aid memory.
• Contextual Cues: Using situational reminders to facilitate recall.

71
3. Gagne’s Conditions of Learning

Robert Gagne’s framework identifies essential conditions that promote

effective learning, emphasizing that learning is influenced by both the
environment and cognitive processes.

Nine Levels of Instruction

1. Gaining Attention: Capture learners' interest to start the learning

process.
2. Informing Learners of Objectives: Clarify what learners will achieve.
3. Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning: Connect new material to previous
knowledge.
4. Presenting Stimulus: Introduce new information using diverse media.
5. Providing Learning Guidance: Offer strategies for understanding.
6. Eliciting Performance: Assess learners' understanding through practice.
7. Providing Feedback: Offer constructive feedback to guide improvement.
8. Assessing Performance: Evaluate knowledge retention through tests or
assignments.
9. Enhancing Retention and Transfer: Facilitate the application of skills
in real-life contexts.

4. David Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning Theory

Ausubel emphasizes the significance of relating new information to existing

cognitive structures to foster meaningful learning.

Four Processes for Meaningful Learning

1. Derivative Subsumption: Adding new concepts to existing knowledge.

2. Correlative Subsumption: Integrating new details into established
concepts.
3. Superordinate Subsumption: Introducing broader concepts that encompass
existing knowledge.
4. Combinatorial Subsumption: Linking ideas between higher-level concepts.

Advance Organizers

• Expository Organizers: Provide overviews of new content.

• Narrative Organizers: Use storytelling to connect with prior knowledge.
• Graphic Organizers: Visual representations of information to enhance
understanding.

5. Jerome Bruner’s Constructivist Theory

Bruner advocates for a constructivist approach to education, where learners

actively engage in their own knowledge construction.

Three Modes of Representation

1. Enactive Representation: Knowledge stored through physical actions

(motor skills).
2. Iconic Representation: Knowledge represented as images (visual
learning).
3. Symbolic Representation: Knowledge stored as language or symbols
(abstract thinking).

SPIRAL CURRICULUM

Bruner’s concept suggests revisiting topics at increasing levels of

complexity, allowing students to build upon their knowledge gradually.

Discovery Learning

Bruner promotes an educational approach where students explore and organize

information themselves, fostering active engagement and critical thinking.

6. Cognitive Processes: Constructivism

72
Constructivism posits that individuals actively construct their own knowledge
based on experiences.

Two Views of Constructivism

• Individual Constructivism: Focuses on personal knowledge construction

through discovery.
• Social Constructivism: Emphasizes the social context of knowledge and
the role of collaborative learning.

Constructivism in Education

Principles of Constructivism

Constructivism is a learning theory that emphasizes how knowledge is actively

constructed by learners through their experiences. The core principles of
constructivism include:

1. Knowledge is Constructed:
o Learning builds on what students already know. Each learner
integrates new information with their previous knowledge, leading
to unique understandings. This principle underscores the
importance of personal experiences, insights, and beliefs in
shaping one’s knowledge.
2. Learning to Learn:
o As students engage in the learning process, they not only acquire
new knowledge but also develop metacognitive skills. For
instance, when studying historical events, students learn about
chronology and historical analysis simultaneously, enhancing
their overall understanding of different subjects.
3. Active Learning:
o Learning is an active, engaging process. Students must
participate through discussions, hands-on activities, and
problem-solving to construct meaning. Passive reception of
information does not lead to deep understanding.
4. Social Nature of Learning:
o Learning occurs within social contexts. Interactions with
teachers, peers, and the community significantly influence
knowledge construction. Collaborative learning environments
enhance understanding as students learn from each other.
5. Contextual Learning:
o Knowledge is not learned in isolation; it is connected to real-
world experiences and existing knowledge. Contextual relevance
helps students remember and apply what they learn.
6. Personal Knowledge:
o Each learner’s background shapes their understanding. Knowledge
becomes personal, and learners’ prior experiences and beliefs
inform their interpretations of new information.
7. Mental Engagement:
o Effective learning involves cognitive processes, not just
physical actions. Engaging the mind is essential for
comprehension and retention of knowledge.

TYPES OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

Different frameworks of constructivism help educators tailor their approaches

to fit diverse learning needs:

1. Cognitive Constructivism:
o Based on Jean Piaget’s theories, this approach focuses on the
individual learner’s cognitive development. It emphasizes the
importance of connecting new information to existing cognitive
structures, facilitating understanding and retention.
2. Social Constructivism:
o Developed by Lev Vygotsky, this type emphasizes the collaborative
nature of learning. Knowledge is constructed through social
interactions, cultural influences, and peer collaboration,
highlighting the importance of community in the learning process.
3. Radical Constructivism:
o Proposed by Ernst von Glasersfeld, this approach argues that
knowledge is not discovered but invented. Each individual’s

73
 understanding is shaped by their experiences, leading to
subjective interpretations rather than objective truths.

Constructivism in the Classroom

Implementing constructivist principles in the classroom transforms the

teaching and learning environment. Key strategies include:

• Collaborative Learning: Group activities and peer interactions promote

shared knowledge construction and enhance understanding.
• Understanding Learners' Backgrounds: Teachers should assess students’
prior knowledge and experiences to tailor instruction effectively.
• Facilitating Exploration: Encouraging inquiry, exploration, and self-
directed learning fosters a deeper engagement with the material.

Transfer of Learning

Transfer of learning refers to the application of knowledge or skills

acquired in one context to another context. There are three types:

1. Positive Transfer:
o Skills learned in one context facilitate learning in another. For
example, mastering multiplication can help in understanding
division.
2. Negative Transfer:
o Previous learning hinders the acquisition of new knowledge. For
instance, using familiar but incorrect methods in a new task can
create confusion.
3. Neutral Transfer:
o Learning in one context has no effect on another, meaning the
skills or knowledge do not aid or hinder new learning.

Modern Theories of Transfer:

• Theory of Identical Elements (E.L. Thorndike): Transfer is more likely

when the new and old situations share similar elements.
• Theory of Generalization of Experience (Charles Judd): Learning in one
context develops general principles that can apply across various
contexts.

Motivation in the Classroom

Motivation is a critical factor in learning, driving students to engage and

persist in their educational pursuits. Understanding different types of
motivation can help educators create more effective learning environments.

1. Intrinsic Motivation:
o Driven by personal interest and enjoyment in the task. Learners
engage in activities because they find them rewarding in
themselves.
2. Extrinsic Motivation:
o Influenced by external rewards or pressures, such as grades or
approval from others. While important, it is often less effective
than intrinsic motivation for long-term engagement.

Theories on Motivation

Several theories provide insight into how motivation can be fostered in

educational settings:

1. Attribution Theory:
o Explains how students attribute their successes or failures to
various factors (internal or external). Understanding these
attributions helps teachers guide students in developing a growth
mindset.
2. Self-Efficacy Theory:
o Emphasizes the belief in one’s capabilities to succeed. Higher
self-efficacy leads to greater motivation and persistence.
Educators can enhance self-efficacy by providing positive
feedback and opportunities for success.
3. Self-Determination Theory:
74
 o Focuses on the need for autonomy and self-regulation. When
students feel they have control over their learning, they are
more likely to be motivated and engaged.
4. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:
o Suggests that basic needs (physiological and safety) must be met
before higher-order needs (belonging, esteem) can be addressed.
Educators should be aware of these needs in their students.
5. Goal Theory:
o Differentiates between learning goals (mastery) and performance
goals (grades). Fostering mastery-focused goals encourages deeper
learning and intrinsic motivation.

Classroom Strategies to Enhance Motivation

To create a motivating learning environment, educators can:

• Create a Supportive Climate: Foster a welcoming atmosphere that

encourages participation and risk-taking.
• Build Strong Relationships: Establish trust and rapport with students
to enhance their engagement.
• Use Varied Assessments: Implement assessments that recognize effort and
improvement rather than solely performance.
• Encourage Community: Develop a sense of belonging and collaboration
among students.

HUMAN ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING MOTIVATION

Motivation in students is influenced by a range of environmental factors,

both human and non-human. Understanding these influences can help educators
foster a more effective learning environment. Key human factors include
teachers, classmates, and parents, each playing a vital role in shaping a
student’s educational experience.

1. Teacher’s Affective Traits

The emotional and social characteristics of teachers significantly impact

student motivation. Research shows that while instructional methods are
essential, the affective traits of teachers often hold greater sway over
students’ willingness to engage. Effective teachers typically exhibit the
following traits (Stronge, 2002):

• Caring: Teachers who show genuine concern for their students’ well-
being create a supportive atmosphere, making students feel valued and
understood.
• Fairness and Respect: When teachers treat all students equitably, it
fosters trust and a sense of safety in the classroom.
• Social Interaction: Building strong relationships through social
engagement helps students feel connected and more invested in their
learning.
• Enthusiasm for Learning: A teacher’s passion can be infectious,
inspiring students to develop their own enthusiasm for the subject
matter.
• Positive Attitude: A teacher’s belief in the importance of education
and their role enhances their effectiveness and motivates students.
• Positive Expectations: By believing in students’ potential, teachers
can encourage students to aspire to high standards.
• Reflective Practice: Effective teachers regularly assess their own
practices and adapt, showing a commitment to continuous improvement.

2. Classmates: Bullying and the Need to Belong

Classmates significantly influence a student's motivation and overall

experience in school. The need for belonging is a fundamental human
requirement; students who feel accepted by peers are more likely to engage
actively in the learning process. However, the prevalence of bullying can
severely disrupt this sense of community.

• Belongingness: Students who feel a sense of belonging are more inclined

to participate and take risks in their learning. This connection boosts
their confidence and engagement.

75
 • Impact of Bullying: Bullying creates a hostile environment, impeding
students’ ability to learn and thrive. It is crucial to implement
strategies that eliminate bullying to foster a safe and inclusive
classroom culture.

3. Parents as Part of the Learning Environment

Parents play a critical role in shaping their children’s educational

experiences. They often have more time with their children outside of school,
which gives them a unique opportunity to influence motivation.

• Supportive Actions: Engaged parents typically monitor academic

performance, help with homework, attend school meetings, and maintain
open communication with teachers. These actions reinforce the
importance of education.
• Fostering Friendships: By encouraging social interactions and
friendships, parents help create a supportive network that enhances
students’ sense of belonging and motivation.

4. Classroom Climate and Social-Emotional Learning (SEL)

The classroom climate is shaped by interactions between teachers and

students. A positive climate is essential for effective learning and is
significantly enhanced by social-emotional learning (SEL).

• Core SEL Competencies: According to the Collaborative for Social

Emotional Learning (CASEL), SEL encompasses five key competencies:
1. Self-awareness
2. Self-management
3. Responsible decision-making
4. Social awareness
5. Relationship skills

These competencies equip students to manage their emotions, build

relationships, and make responsible choices, which ultimately boosts
motivation.

5. Physical Learning Environment

A good classroom environment boosts motivation by:
• Allowing smooth interaction and movement.
• Being clean, organized, and safe.
• Having proper lighting and ventilation.
A well-designed space enhances focus and comfort.

6. Assessment Strategies to Increase Motivation

Motivational assessment practices include:

• Measuring personal progress, not comparing students.

• Encouraging self-assessment and goal-setting.
• Clearly defining learning objectives.
• Focusing on mastery over grades.
• Promoting a growth mindset and learning from mistakes.
• Providing constructive, confidence-building feedback.

These strategies inspire engagement and achievement.

By implementing these strategies, educators can create a more motivating and

supportive learning environment, ultimately enhancing student engagement and
achievement.

76
ASSESSMENT AND
EVALUATION OF
LEARNING PART 1
"The best assessment is one that helps
students learn, not just one that
measures what they have learned."

77
 Overview

Assessment of learning refers to the methods and processes used to evaluate

what students have learned, typically at the end of an instructional period.
This type of assessment aims to measure the extent to which students have
achieved specific learning objectives.

Assessment of Learning. A summative evaluation that occurs after a learning

activity, focusing on measuring student achievement against predetermined
standards or outcomes.

Purpose

Measure Learning Outcomes: To determine whether students have acquired the

knowledge and skills outlined in the curriculum.
Accountability: Provide data for stakeholders (teachers, administrators,
parents) to assess student performance and educational effectiveness.
Inform Future Instruction: Use results to refine and improve curriculum and
teaching strategies.

Types of Assessment of Learning

Standardized Tests: Administered and scored in a consistent manner, often

used for large-scale assessments.
Final Exams: Comprehensive tests at the end of a course that evaluate
cumulative knowledge.
Performance Tasks: Projects or assignments that require students to apply
their learning in practical contexts.
Portfolios: Collections of student work showcasing their progress and
achievements over time.

Characteristics

Summative Nature: Conducted after instruction to evaluate overall learning.

Focus on Outcomes: Aligns with specific learning objectives and standards.
Quantitative and Qualitative Data: Can include numerical scores as well as
qualitative assessments like rubrics.

Benefits

Clear Metrics: Provides measurable data to assess student performance.

Comparative Analysis: Allows for benchmarking against peers or national
standards.
Guides Resource Allocation: Helps schools identify areas needing additional
support or resources.

Challenges

Test Anxiety: High-stakes assessments can create stress and impact

performance.
Narrow Focus: May emphasize rote memorization over critical thinking and
creativity.
Equity Issues: Standardized assessments may not account for diverse learning
backgrounds.

Best Practices

Balanced Approach: Combine assessments of learning with formative assessments

to support ongoing development.
Clear Criteria: Use rubrics and clear guidelines to ensure transparency and
fairness.
Reflective Practices: Encourage students to reflect on their performance to
foster a growth mindset.

Assessment of learning plays a crucial role in evaluating educational

effectiveness and student achievement. By focusing on measurable outcomes, it
helps educators and stakeholders make informed decisions while also
identifying areas for improvement in teaching and learning processes.

78
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION OF LEARNING

Basic Concepts

1. Test
o An instrument designed to measure characteristics, qualities,
abilities, knowledge, or skills. Tests include various items
relevant to the area being assessed.
2. Measurement
o The process of quantifying how much an individual possesses a
particular trait, quality, or characteristic. This often involves
assigning numerical values to attributes.
3. Assessment
o A systematic process of gathering and organizing data—either
quantitative or qualitative—into an interpretable format.
Assessment provides the foundational information necessary for
evaluation and decision-making.
4. Evaluation
o The systematic interpretation, analysis, and appraisal of
organized data to assess its worth, guiding decisions about
students' educational progress and needs.

Types of Assessment

1. Traditional Assessment
o Primarily involves pen-and-paper tests that focus on objective
measures of knowledge and skills. Examples include multiple-
choice questions, true/false questions, and matching exercises.
2. Alternative Assessment
o Encompasses a range of methods beyond traditional tests. These
include:
▪ Performance Tests: Assessing actual skills through tasks
(e.g., presentations, demonstrations).
▪ Projects and Portfolios: Collecting student work over time
to showcase learning and development.
▪ Journals: Reflective writing that captures learning
experiences and insights.
3. Authentic Assessment
o Involves tasks that reflect real-life situations and challenges.
This type of assessment can include project-based learning or
assessments that require students to apply skills in practical
contexts.

Purposes of Classroom Assessment

1. Assessment FOR Learning

o This formative approach focuses on using assessment to inform
instruction and support student learning:
▪ Placement Assessment: Conducted before instruction to
understand student needs, guiding lesson planning.
▪ Formative Assessment: Ongoing checks during instruction to
monitor student progress and provide feedback.
▪ Diagnostic Assessment: Identifies specific learning
difficulties, informing targeted intervention strategies.
2. Assessment OF Learning
o Summative assessment conducted after instruction to evaluate
overall student achievement. This often results in grades or
scores that indicate students' proficiency levels and whether
instructional goals were met.
3. Assessment AS Learning
o Emphasizes the role of students in their own learning process.
Teachers must be trained to assess effectively, fostering a
culture of self-assessment and reflection among students.

Standards for Teacher Competence in Assessment

According to the American Federation of Teachers and other educational

bodies, teachers should demonstrate competence in the following areas:

1. Choosing Appropriate Assessment Methods:

o Selecting assessment strategies that align with instructional
goals.

79
 2. Developing Assessment Tools:
o Creating assessments that effectively measure student
understanding.
3. Administering and Scoring Assessments:
o Effectively implementing assessments and interpreting results to
inform instruction.
4. Using Assessment Results:
o Applying data from assessments to make informed decisions about
teaching practices and curriculum development.
5. Developing Grading Procedures:
o Creating valid and fair grading systems based on assessment
outcomes.
6. Communicating Results:
o Effectively conveying assessment findings to students, parents,
and other stakeholders.
7. Recognizing Ethical Assessment Practices:
o Understanding the importance of integrity in assessment and
avoiding biased or unethical practices.

PRINCIPLES OF HIGH-QUALITY CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

1. Clarity of Learning Targets

o Learning targets should be clearly defined, specific, and focused
on what is truly important for student learning. Clear objectives
guide both teaching and assessment.
2. Appropriateness of Methods
o Assessment methods should align with learning targets. Different
types of assessments (e.g., projects, tests) should be used to
measure diverse skills.
3. Balance
o A comprehensive assessment approach should evaluate multiple
domains of learning: cognitive (knowledge), affective
(attitudes), and psychomotor (skills). It should incorporate both
traditional and alternative assessment methods.
4. Validity
o The degree to which an assessment measures what it claims to
measure is critical. Valid assessments ensure that the results
are meaningful and relevant.
5. Reliability
o Reliability refers to the consistency of assessment results over
time. Reliable assessments produce stable and consistent outcomes
regardless of when or how often they are administered.
6. Fairness
o Assessments should provide all students with equitable
opportunities to demonstrate their knowledge and skills. This
includes clear communication of expectations and unbiased
assessment practices.
7. Practicality and Efficiency
o Assessments should be resource-effective, minimizing the time and
effort required while still yielding valuable data about student
learning.
8. Continuity
o Assessment should occur at all phases of instruction—before,
during, and after—to continuously monitor and support student
learning.
9. Authenticity
o Assessments should reflect real-world tasks and have clear
standards. Authentic assessments engage students in meaningful
learning experiences that extend beyond the classroom.
10. Communication
o Clear communication of assessment standards and results is
essential for fostering understanding and collaboration among
educators, students, and parents.
11. Positive Consequences
o Effective assessment should motivate students to learn and
support teachers in refining their instructional strategies.
12. Ethics
o Educators must adhere to ethical guidelines, ensuring that
assessments respect students' rights and confidentiality and
avoid harmful practices.

80
By adhering to these principles and understanding the various types and
purposes of assessment, educators can create a more effective and inclusive
learning environment that supports student achievement and growth.

PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT

Definition

Performance-Based Assessment is an evaluative process that focuses on

gathering evidence of student learning through real-world demonstrations of
skills. Unlike traditional assessments, it requires students to perform tasks
or create products that showcase their understanding and abilities in a
practical context. This approach embraces multiple possible answers and
utilizes clearly defined criteria for evaluation.

REASONS FOR USING PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT

1. Limitations of Traditional Tests: There is a growing dissatisfaction

with the narrow scope of selected-response tests, which often fail to
capture the full range of student learning.
2. Cognitive Psychology Insights: Modern educational theories emphasize
the importance of both declarative knowledge (what students know) and
procedural knowledge (how they apply that knowledge in practice).
3. Negative Impact of High-Stakes Testing: Conventional assessments can
lead to "teaching to the test," which undermines deeper learning and
critical thinking.
4. Compatibility with Innovative Learning Models: Performance-based
assessments are particularly well-suited for experiential, discovery-
based, integrated, and problem-based learning environments, encouraging
active engagement and critical thinking.

TYPES OF PERFORMANCE-BASED TASKS

1. Demonstration-Type Tasks:
o Description: Tasks that require no physical product, focusing
instead on the demonstration of a skill or process.
o Examples: Constructing a building, cooking demonstrations,
teamwork presentations, or guiding tourists.
2. Creation-Type Tasks:
o Description: Tasks that require the production of tangible
products, allowing students to apply their knowledge creatively.
o Examples: Project plans, research papers, or marketing flyers.

METHODS OF PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT

1. Written Open-Ended Assessments:

o Format: Essays and open-ended questions that allow for
expressive, in-depth responses.
2. Behavior-Based Assessments:
o Format: Direct observation of student behaviors in authentic or
simulated contexts, which can be structured (focused
observations) or unstructured (broad observations).
3. Interview-Based Assessments:
o Format: One-on-one interviews where students articulate their
understanding and demonstrate skills. These can be structured
(set questions) or unstructured (adaptable based on
conversation).
4. Product-Based Assessments:
o Format: Students create work samples or products, which can be
either restricted (same objectives for all students) or extended
(varied products for the same objectives).
5. Portfolio-Based Assessments:
o Description: Collections of student work that demonstrate growth
and achievement over time.

How to Assess Performance

1. Identify Competencies: Clearly define the skills or knowledge that

students are expected to demonstrate.
2. Describe the Task: Outline the specific task, including the necessary
resources, time constraints, and any additional requirements.
81
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT TASKS (BURKE, 1999)

1. Generalizability: The ability of the assessment task to predict student

performance on similar tasks in the future.
2. Authenticity: The task should mirror real-world scenarios students are
likely to encounter outside of school.
3. Multiple Foci: The assessment should measure a variety of instructional
outcomes, not just a single skill or knowledge area.
4. Teachability: The task should facilitate mastery of essential skills.
5. Feasibility: The assessment should be practical in terms of cost, time,
space, and resource availability.
6. Scorability: The task must be designed to allow for reliable and
accurate evaluation.
7. Fairness: The assessment should be equitable for all students,
regardless of background or social status.

PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT

Definition

Portfolio Assessment is a dynamic, ongoing process that gathers multiple

indicators of a learner’s growth and achievement. This method emphasizes
authenticity and reflection, making it a more holistic approach compared to
traditional testing.

Reasons for Using Portfolio Assessment

1. Reflects Classroom Reality: Provides a clearer picture of what students

are actually learning and achieving.
2. Multiple Indicators of Progress: Allows for various types of evidence
to demonstrate student development.
3. Student Responsibility: Encourages students to take ownership of their
learning through active participation in the assessment process.
4. Opportunity for Reflection: Students can document their learning
experiences and reflect on their growth.
5. Diverse Learning Styles: Portfolios enable students to express their
knowledge in ways that align with their personal learning styles and
intelligences.
6. Teacher Insights: Facilitates teacher reflection on instructional
effectiveness and provides a comprehensive view of student progress.

Principles Underlying Portfolio Assessment

1. Content Principle: Portfolios should reflect important subject matter

relevant to students’ learning objectives.
2. Learning Principle: Portfolios should engage students as active,
thoughtful learners who reflect on their work.
3. Equity Principle: Portfolios must allow all students to showcase their
unique learning styles and intelligences.

Types of Portfolios

1. Working Portfolio: A collection of a student's day-to-day work that

reflects their ongoing learning process.
2. Show Portfolio: A curated selection of a student's best work,
showcasing their highest achievements.
3. Documentary Portfolio: A blend of both working and show portfolios,
providing a comprehensive view of a student’s learning journey.

Steps in Portfolio Development

1. Set Goals: Define clear objectives for what the portfolio should
achieve.
2. Collect Evidence: Gather a variety of artifacts that demonstrate
learning.
3. Select Items: Choose the most representative work to include.
4. Organize: Arrange the selected items in a coherent manner.
5. Reflect: Encourage students to articulate their learning process and
insights.
6. Evaluate: Use rubrics to assess the collected work.

82
 7. Confer/Exhibit: Present the portfolio to peers or educators for
feedback.

DEVELOPING RUBRICS

Definition

A rubric is a structured assessment tool that provides criteria for

evaluating performance-based tasks. It outlines expectations and offers
detailed descriptions for various levels of performance, facilitating clear
and consistent grading.

Types of Rubrics
Type Description Advantages Disadvantages

Lacks detail; does not

Assesses overall Quick to use; offers a
Holistic highlight specific
quality with a single general overview of
Rubric strengths or
score. performance.
weaknesses.

Breaks down Provides detailed

Analytic performance into feedback; identifies More time-consuming to
Rubric specific criteria for specific areas for develop and use.
independent scoring. improvement.

Ana- Combines features of Flexible for assessing Can be complex and

Holistic both holistic and various tasks; detailed require more resources
Rubric analytic rubrics. yet concise. for scoring.

IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF A RUBRIC

1. Competency to be Tested: Clearly defines the skill or knowledge area

being assessed.
2. Performance Task: Must be relevant and aligned with learning
objectives.
3. Evaluative Criteria and Indicators: Observable traits that specify what
constitutes good performance.
4. Performance Levels: A range of levels that describe varying degrees of
proficiency.
5. Qualitative and Quantitative Descriptions: Specific, measurable
descriptions for each performance level.

GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING RUBRICS

1. Identify Key Features: Determine the essential traits of excellent

performance.
2. Clarify Each Trait: Ensure clear understanding of what each criterion
means and the expected performance levels.
3. Describe Quality Gradations: Outline the differences between levels of
quality.
4. Use Even Number of Levels: This helps avoid bias toward the middle
range of performance.
5. Keep Criteria Manageable: Limit the number of criteria to ensure focus
and clarity.
6. Organize Criteria Logically: Arrange criteria in a way that aligns with
the assessment process.
7. Determine Weighting: Assign points or weight to each criterion for
grading purposes.
8. Highlight Distinguishing Traits: Ensure that each performance level is
clearly defined.
9. Align with Assessment Objectives: Verify that the rubric accurately
reflects the intended learning outcomes.

83
ASSESSMENT AND
EVALUATION OF
LEARNING PART 2
"True understanding emerges
not just from answers, but from
the questions we dare to explore."

84
UNDERSTANDING TESTS

Test

A test is a systematic procedure or instrument designed to measure a sample

of behavior through a set of questions. It aims to assess an individual's
performance in relation to others or specific tasks, providing insights into
their abilities, knowledge, or skills.

Purposes of Tests

1. Instructional Uses

Tests serve various instructional purposes, including:

• Grouping Learners: Identifying different ability levels within a class

to tailor instruction effectively.
• Identifying Learners Needing Support: Highlighting students who require
corrective interventions or enrichment experiences.
• Measuring Class Progress: Assessing the progress of students over a
specified period to inform teaching practices.
• Assigning Grades: Providing a basis for evaluating student performance
and assigning grades.
• Guiding Learning Activities: Tailoring activities to accommodate
students' varying speeds (slow, average, fast learners).

2. Guidance Uses

Tests are valuable in educational and vocational guidance:

• Setting Goals: Assisting learners in establishing educational and

vocational aspirations.
• Understanding Student Issues: Enhancing the understanding of teachers,
counselors, and parents regarding students with difficulties.
• Preparing for Conferences: Collecting data to support discussions with
parents about their children's progress and needs.
• Exploring Career Interests: Helping students identify interests in
occupations they may not have considered.
• Predicting Success: Assessing the likelihood of success in future
educational or vocational endeavors.

3. Administrative Uses

Tests also have administrative functions, such as:

• Curriculum Emphasis: Determining the focus areas in the curriculum

based on assessment outcomes.
• Measuring School Progress: Evaluating overall school performance year
by year.
• Attaining Educational Goals: Assessing how well students achieve key
educational objectives.
• Curriculum Appropriateness: Evaluating whether the curriculum meets the
needs of students with different abilities.
• Promotion and Retention Decisions: Providing data to guide decisions on
whether students should advance or repeat a grade.

Classification of Tests

Based on Format

1. Standardized Tests

• Ability Tests: Measure general cognitive abilities (e.g., Otis-Lennon

Standardized Ability Test).
• Aptitude Tests: Assess potential in specific areas, predicting success
in fields like arts or sciences (e.g., Differential Aptitude Test).

85
2. Teacher-Made Tests

• Objective Type: Answers consist of single words or phrases.

o Limited Response: Students select answers from given options
(e.g., multiple-choice, true-false, matching).
o Free Response: Students generate answers (e.g., short answer,
completion).
• Essay Type: Allows for more elaborate responses.
o Restricted Essay: Limits content scope.
o Extended Essay: Offers freedom in content and organization.

Other Classifications

• Psychological Tests: Measure intangible aspects like intelligence and

attitudes.
• Educational Tests: Evaluate instructional effectiveness.
• Survey Tests: Assess general achievement across a broad range of
outcomes.
• Mastery Tests: Measure mastery of specific learning objectives.

ASSESSMENT OF NON-COGNITIVE OUTCOMES

Affective/Non-Cognitive Learning Outcomes

These include aspects such as:

• Social Attitudes: Concern for others, sensitivity to social issues.

• Scientific Attitudes: Traits like open-mindedness, risk-taking, and
curiosity.
• Academic Self-Concept: Self-perception as a learner in various
subjects.
• Interests and Appreciations: Preferences for activities and enjoyment
in various areas.
• Adjustment: Relationships with peers and emotional stability.

Affective Assessment Procedures

• Observational Techniques: Assessing behaviors in natural settings.

• Anecdotal Records: Factual descriptions of behaviors, focusing on
meaningful incidents.
• Peer Appraisal: Utilizing peer feedback to assess social skills and
behavior.
• Self-Report Techniques: Gathering information about attitudes and
feelings through scales (e.g., Likert, semantic differential).

DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS

Phase I: Planning Stage

1. Specify Objectives/Skills: Clearly define what the test aims to

measure.
2. Prepare Table of Specifications: Outline the content areas and skills
to be assessed.
3. Decide on Item Format: Choose between formats like multiple choice,
short answer, etc.

Phase II: Test Construction/Item Writing Stage

1. Write Test Items: Create questions based on the specifications.

2. Consult Experts: Get validation and feedback from subject matter
experts.

Phase III: Test Administration Stage

1. Trial Run: Administer the test to a small sample (50-100 students).

2. Scoring: Analyze responses.
3. Item Analysis: Evaluate item difficulty and discrimination.
4. Revision: Make necessary adjustments to the test items.

86
 5. Field Testing: Conduct a second round of testing for further
refinement.

Phase IV: Evaluation Stage

1. Final Administration: Conduct the final version of the test.

2. Validity and Reliability: Establish the test's validity (accuracy) and
reliability (consistency).

Testing is an integral part of the educational process, offering a structured

approach to measuring student learning, guiding instructional strategies, and
aiding administrative decisions. Through various types and methods of
assessment, educators can gather valuable data to enhance both teaching and
learning experiences.

GUIDELINES FOR WRITING ASSESSMENT TASKS AND TEST ITEMS

General Suggestions for Writing Assessment Tasks

1. Utilize Assessment Specifications:

o Reference specific assessment criteria and learning outcomes to
ensure tasks align with educational goals.
2. Create Extra Items:
o Develop more assessment items than necessary. This allows
flexibility in selection and ensures a robust evaluation.
3. Advance Preparation:
o Write and finalize assessment items well before the testing date
to allow for review and revision.
4. Appropriate Difficulty and Reading Level:
o Tailor items to match the expected reading levels and difficulty
appropriate for the student population.
5. Independence of Items:
o Ensure that the answer to one item does not give hints or
assistance in answering another item.
6. Clarity of Task Definition:
o Clearly outline the task for students to ensure it directly
reflects the intended learning outcomes.
7. Expert Consensus on Answers:
o Design items such that there is a general agreement among subject
matter experts on the correct answers.

SPECIFIC SUGGESTIONS FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF TESTS

A. Supply Type of Tests

1. Brevity and Specificity:

o Frame questions to elicit short, precise responses.
2. Avoid Direct Textbook Statements:
o Create original questions rather than copying from textbooks to
encourage critical thinking.
3. Direct Questioning:
o Favor direct questions over incomplete statements to clarify
expectations.
4. Indicate Expected Numerical Units:
o Clearly specify the required format for numerical answers (e.g.,
percentages, units).
5. Consistent Answer Blanks:
o Align answer blanks right and keep their lengths uniform to
enhance clarity.
6. Limit the Number of Blanks:
o Avoid overcrowding completion items with too many blanks to
prevent confusion.

B. Selective Type of Tests

1. Avoid Vague Statements:

o Steer clear of broad or ambiguous phrases and double negatives to
maintain clarity.
2. Use Concise Sentences:
o Write clear, straightforward sentences to facilitate
comprehension.
3. Single Idea Focus:
87
 o Limit each item to a single idea unless measuring cause-effect
relationships.
4. Attribute Opinions:
o If opinions are included, source them to help students identify
differing viewpoints.
5. Balanced True/False Statements:
o Ensure an equal number of true and false statements of similar
length to avoid bias.

C. Matching Type

1. Homogeneous Material:
o Use similar items within a single matching exercise to maintain
focus.
2. Equal Number of Responses and Premises:
o Maintain balance between the number of items and responses,
indicating whether responses can be reused.
3. Brief Lists:
o Keep lists concise, with shorter responses positioned on the
right for easier matching.
4. Logical Arrangement:
o Organize responses in a logical order to aid in comprehension.
5. Clear Matching Instructions:
o Provide explicit directions for how to match items correctly.

D. Multiple Choice

1. Meaningful Item Stem:

o Craft the stem to present a clear problem that stands alone
without additional context.
2. Relevance:
o Avoid irrelevant material in the stem that does not pertain to
the question.
3. Use of Negatives:
o Negatively stated stems should be used sparingly and highlighted
for emphasis when necessary.
4. Grammatical Consistency:
o Ensure that all answer choices are grammatically consistent with
the stem.
5. Single Correct Answer:
o Each item should have one unambiguous correct answer to avoid
confusion.
6. Plausible Distractors:
o Create plausible answer choices to challenge students and assess
their knowledge.
7. Random Order of Alternatives:
o Distribute correct answers randomly across options to avoid
predictability.
8. Logical Arrangement:
o Arrange options logically, such as in alphabetical order or by
increasing complexity.

E. Essay Type

1. Restrict Use:
o Limit essay questions to those outcomes that cannot be
effectively measured through objective items.
2. Clear Phrasing:
o Phrase questions so that tasks are clearly defined, directing
students on what is expected.
3. Avoid Optional Questions:
o Eliminate options in essay questions to maintain focus on the
required responses.
4. Time Limits and Point Allocation:
o Specify time limits and point values for each question to guide
students’ responses.
5. Prepare Scoring Rubric:
o Develop a clear rubric outlining expectations for responses and
grading criteria.

Desired Qualities in Assessment Instruments

88
 • Validity: Measures whether the test accurately assesses the intended
learning outcomes.
• Reliability: Consistency of results across different instances of the
same test.
• Administrability: Ease of administration, with clear instructions for
students.
• Scorability: Clarity in scoring guidelines to ensure consistent
evaluation.
• Interpretability: Ability to easily interpret test scores relative to
learning objectives.
• Economy: Efficient use of time and resources for administration and
scoring.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE VALIDITY OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS

1. Clear Directions: Ensure that directions are explicit and

understandable to minimize confusion.
2. Appropriate Language Level: Use vocabulary and sentence structures that
match students’ abilities to prevent misinterpretation.
3. Avoiding Ambiguity: Eliminate vague statements to prevent confusion,
particularly for high-achieving students.
4. Adequate Time: Allow sufficient time for thoughtful responses to assess
knowledge accurately.
5. Balanced Assessment of Constructs: Avoid overemphasis on easy-to-assess
content at the expense of more complex concepts.
6. Appropriateness of Test Items: Ensure that test items align with the
learning outcomes being measured.
7. Well-Constructed Items: Avoid items that unintentionally provide clues
to the answers.
8. Length of Test: Ensure the test is long enough to adequately sample the
content being assessed.
9. Item Arrangement: Arrange items thoughtfully to maintain student
engagement and focus.
10. Identifiable Patterns: Avoid placing correct answers in
identifiable patterns, which can lead to guessing.

Improving Test Reliability

1. Test Length: Longer tests generally yield more reliable results due to
better sampling of knowledge.
2. Diverse Abilities: A heterogeneous group can provide a wider range of
scores, enhancing reliability.
3. Moderate Difficulty: Use items of moderate difficulty to improve test
reliability.
4. Discriminating Items: Include items that effectively differentiate
between levels of understanding.
5. Appropriate Time Limits: Apply time limits judiciously to ensure they
enhance rather than hinder performance.

Levels or Scales of Measurement

1. Nominal: Simple categorization (e.g., jersey numbers).

2. Ordinal: Ranking order without equal intervals (e.g., class ranks).
3. Interval: Equal intervals without an absolute zero (e.g., temperature).
4. Ratio: Equal intervals with an absolute zero (e.g., height, weight).

Descriptive Statistics

1. Central Tendency: Measures like mean, median, and mode provide insight
into average performance.
2. Variability: Measures like range and standard deviation describe score
dispersion.
3. Relationship Measures: Correlation coefficients indicate relationships
between variables (e.g., academic performance and motivation).

Interpreting Test Scores

• Percentiles: Indicate the percentage of students scoring below a

certain score.
• Z-scores: Reflect how many standard deviations a score is from the
mean.

89
 • Stanines: Categorize scores into segments for easier interpretation.
• T-scores: Standardized scores for comparison across different tests.

Grading Practices

1. Absolute Standards Grading: Compare performance against defined

standards.
2. Relative Standards Grading: Compare students' performance with their
peers.

STUDENT PROGRESS REPORTING METHODS

• Letter Grades: Standard grading (A, B, C, etc.), including modifiers.

• Percentage Grades: Exact percentage scores for performance clarity.
• Two-Category Grades: Simple pass-fail or satisfactory-unsatisfactory
designations.
• Checklists and Rating Scales: Qualitative assessments of skills and
competencies.
• Narrative Reports: Detailed feedback that may not reference grades
directly.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE GRADING

1. Discuss Grading Procedures Early: Communicate grading criteria at the

start of instruction.
2. Focus on Achievement: Ensure grades reflect academic performance
primarily.
3. Explain Other Factors: Clarify how effort or behavior influences non-
academic assessments.
4. Align with Learning Outcomes: Relate grading to specific objectives.
5. Use Valid Evidence: Base grades on a variety of assessments and
projects.
6. Prevent Cheating: Implement strategies to minimize academic dishonesty.
7. Timely Feedback: Return assessments promptly to keep students informed.
8. Weight Assignments Appropriately: Assign different values to various
types of assessments.
9. Avoid Penalizing Non-Academic Behavior: Keep achievement grades
separate from behavioral issues.
10. Maintain Fairness and Objectivity: Review evidence before making
final grading decisions.

CONDUCTING PARENT-TEACHER CONFERENCES

1. Prepare in Advance: Set clear goals and objectives for the conference.
2. Start Positively: Begin with positive remarks about the student’s
strengths.
3. Highlight Strengths Before Areas for Improvement: Present strong
performance areas first to establish a positive tone.
4. Encourage Parental Participation: Invite parents to share their
insights and concerns.
5. Collaborate on Action Plans: Discuss specific strategies for addressing
challenges together.
6. Use Specific Examples: Provide concrete examples of student work and
behavior to illustrate points.
7. Keep Focused on the Student: Center the discussion on the student’s
growth and needs.
8. Document Key Points: Take notes on the discussion and agreed-upon
action steps for follow-up.
9. End on a Positive Note: Reaffirm positive attributes of the student and
express optimism about their growth.

90
 REFLECTION: THE TEACHING PROFESSION

The presentation provides information about “The Teaching Profession”, a

comprehensive look at various facets of teaching, focusing on the evolution,
expectations, and responsibilities of educators, particularly in the context
of the Philippines. It emphasizes global and "glocal" (global + local)
education, preparing teachers to address diverse cultural backgrounds while
meeting international standards. The presentation highlights 21st-century
educational goals, encouraging skills such as critical thinking, creativity,
collaboration, and effective communication.

“Teaching as a Vocation is a call.

Teaching as a Mission is a Task assigned.
Teaching is the NOBLEST PROFESSION”

The teaching profession is not a job but a calling, a mission and a form of
great service. Teaching is not easy as you think because it requires
dedication and most especially passion to teach. Being an educator is the
noblest job in the entire world, they mold someone to be the one of the
prominent engineers, doctors, teachers and so on. Teachers play a very big
role in a children's life aside from their families.

The core competencies expected of educators, such as planning, classroom

management, and a deep understanding of both local and global cultures. The
presentation also outlines essential professional attributes for teachers—
excellence, adaptability, cultural sensitivity, and integrity. Additionally,
it introduces the concept of lifelong learning, urging teachers to be
continuously evolving learners as well as facilitators of student growth.

The legal rights, benefits, and ethical obligations of teachers as outlined

in policies like the Magna Carta for Public School Teachers in the
Philippines. This includes salary scales, leave entitlements, and protections
against discrimination, underscoring the need for fair treatment and
professional development support.

The teaching profession is viewed not only as a career but as a vocation that
requires a high level of dedication, adaptability, and continuous self-
improvement. The presentation portrays teachers as central to societal
progress, emphasizing their role in fostering inclusive, equitable, and
quality education for all.

Education nowadays has a many transitions and you need to be updated for you
to teach effectively and it is called 21st-century learning. In this era,
learning is not memorization or recitation but critical thinking, creativity,
and collaboration. It is about preparing students for the real world, not
just for a test. It is becoming increasingly clear that 21st-century learning
is essential for students to be successful in an ever-changing global
economy. Students need to be actively engaged in their learning and have
opportunities to apply what they are learning to real-world situations.
Students must be ready to take risk in life because they are well-trained at
school and teachers has a great impact to this.

Having all this, I have learned that teaching is not just simply a walk in
the park. Every day could be different, daily challenges that needs to be
address, situations maybe different. Teaching is also a relationship that you
need to build between your students, to understand them individually.
Teaching is also about planning your next move. From planning your lesson to
planning on how you deliver to activities that students do engage. Teaching
needs to evaluate; evaluating the progress of you own students. Teaching is
also about collaboration with your fellow teachers, to staffs, to parents and
the most important your students.

In addition, I have learned also that Teaching is an opportunity. Opportunity

to learn new things. Things like approaches that would be more effective, new
methods and techniques. An opportunity to widen your knowledge about certain
things that you might lack. Developing your skills to maintain a positive and
productive learning environment. Teaching is also;

A pride.

A satisfying moment when you see your students achieve. A satisfying and
joyful emotional reward for oneself.

91
 REFLECTION: THE TEACHER AND THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

The presentation “The Teacher and The Curriculum Development”, explores a

wide lesson about the role of a teacher. It gives an outlook of what
Teachers do in curriculum design and implementation process, examining both
traditional and contemporary views on curriculum. It begins with the
definition and historical evolution of curriculum, emphasizing its Latin
roots and conceptual framing as a structured "course of study."

The presentation distinguishes perspectives, with traditionalists viewing

curriculum as a structured set of subjects, while progressivists like John
Dewey argue for a student-centered approach that emphasizes experiential
learning and democratic values in educational design.

Curriculum development is a collaborative process that involves educators,

administrators, and stakeholders in creating a structured educational
framework. Central to this process is the teacher, whose role is vital in
bridging theory and practice.

The presentation also categorizes various types of curriculums, including

official, recommended, taught, learned, supported, written, and hidden
curriculum. Each type highlights the different layers of educational delivery
and how these impact learning outcomes. Teachers are identified as
"Curricularists" who not only teach but also serve as planners, writers, and
evaluators of curriculum. This characterization acknowledges the flexibility
and adaptability teachers bring to the curriculum, which helps meet students'
needs within different contexts and learning environments.

I have learned that Teachers are not only implementers of the curriculum but
also active participants in its development. They bring insights from their
classroom experiences, helping to shape content that meets the diverse needs
of students. Teachers must also understand the students’ needs. Teachers must
provide valuable feedback on student interests, learning styles, and areas of
difficulty, ensuring that the curriculum is relevant and engaging. Teachers
should be familiar with key principles of curriculum design, including
alignment with educational standards, flexibility to accommodate different
learning paces, and integration of interdisciplinary approaches.

Teachers play a critical role in evaluating the effectiveness of the

curriculum. Their observations and assessments help inform necessary
adjustments, ensuring the curriculum remains dynamic and responsive.
In addition, Teachers can serve as advocates for curricular changes that
better serve their students, taking on leadership roles within their schools
to drive meaningful improvements.

The interplay between teachers and curriculum development is essential for

creating effective, responsive educational experiences. Empowering teachers
to take an active role ensures that the curriculum not only meets academic
standards but also fosters a love of learning.

Overall, the presentation highlights the importance of a holistic and

flexible approach to curriculum design, which includes engaging various
stakeholders—such as teachers, students, parents, and community members—in
the development and continuous improvement of educational content to create
an adaptable and meaningful learning experience.

92
 REFLECTION: CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

The file “Child and Adolescent Development” provides an in-depth overview of

child and adolescent development, emphasizing the interplay of biological,
cognitive, and socio-emotional factors across different life stages. The
content starts with the foundational principles of development, highlighting
maturation, environmental influence, and the bi-directional interaction
between growth and learning.

Each developmental stage, from prenatal to adolescence, is detailed, covering

key aspects like physical growth, motor skills, and cognitive advancements.
For example, infancy focuses on reflex development and sensory-motor
learning, while early childhood emphasizes gross and fine motor skills
alongside cognitive milestones.

As I consider the varying paces at which children develop, I understand the

importance of recognizing individual differences. Not all students develop in
the same way, and each child’s journey through these stages is unique. For
instance, while some adolescents may mature earlier and explore their
identities with confidence, others may take longer to navigate this phase.
This insight will help me avoid making assumptions and instead tailor my
approach to the diverse developmental needs of my students.

The emotional challenges faced during adolescence, such as identity

exploration and the pressure to conform, are also vital considerations. As a
teacher, creating a safe, supportive space where students feel free to
express themselves is key. Incorporating social-emotional learning (SEL) into
my lessons will help students build the emotional regulation and resilience
needed to navigate this stage.

Hence, I have learned that Teachers identifies typical and individual

development trajectories, understanding growth patterns. Offers an insight to
tailor teaching strategies to developmental stages for effective learning,
enhancing educational practices. Promoting healthy relationships and
emotional intelligence, supporting social and emotional development.

In addition, the cultural competence understanding of how culture influences

development, with a goal to...

“Building Stronger Communities Supporting initiatives that benefit families

and young people”.

In essence, understanding child and adolescent learning principles empowers

teachers to create a more effective, supportive, and adaptable learning
environment where students can thrive academically, socially, and
emotionally.

93
 REFLECTION: PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING

The presentation “Principles and Strategies of Teaching” provides a valuable

lesson in applying teaching principles is the importance of being flexible
and responsive to student needs, which fosters a more engaging and effective
learning environment.

I have learned also by encouraging a growth mindset and collaboration,

educators empower students to take ownership of their learning and develop
critical skills for the future.

The Principles and Strategies of Teaching are foundational to creating

effective learning environments. They guide educators in their instructional
practices and ensure that students receive a quality education.

Principles and strategies emphasize active learning, which keeps students

involved and motivated. Engaged students are more likely to participate,
retain information, and develop a love for learning.

A principle that Encourages Lifelong Learning. By instilling curiosity and a

passion for learning, effective teaching strategies help cultivate lifelong
learners. Students are more likely to pursue knowledge beyond the classroom
when they find their education relevant and engaging.

Principle that aligns with Educational Standards. Principles and strategies

provide a framework that aligns teaching practices with educational standards
and goals. This ensures that educators are meeting curriculum requirements
while also focusing on student outcomes.

The principles and strategies of teaching are crucial for fostering an

effective, inclusive, and engaging learning environment. By grounding their
practices in these foundational elements, educators can better support their
students’ academic and personal growth, preparing them for future success.

Because...

Flexibility fosters engagement and growth.

94
 REFLECTION: FACILITATING LEARNING

The presentation, "Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching," offers a

comprehensive exploration of learner-centered approaches that encourage
active participation and self-regulated learning.

This taught me that learner diversity and multiple intelligences are also
discussed, with guidance on how teachers can adapt methods to meet students'
unique needs and learning styles, enhancing inclusivity and promoting a
richer classroom environment. By fostering a learning environment that
considers these diverse theories and approaches, educators can help students
develop critical thinking skills, apply knowledge practically, and become
lifelong learners.

I have learned the difference between teaching style, strategy, method and
techniques. Practicesn that a teacher would relate. Guiding principles in the
appropriate arrangement or organization of selected information. How can we
know new information be made interesting to the eyes of the students.
Components in the instructional framework for learning strategies that
working together with the students on a skill or task.

To creating an engaging, inclusive, and effective learning environment the

presentation provides prioritizing student-centered learning, developing
metacognitive skills, utilize development, embrace diverse learning styles
and multiple intelligences, incorporate motivational theories, apply
behavioral and cognitive approaches wisely, encourage knowledge transfer,
implement structured learning frameworks like gagne’s nine levels

Ultimately, the lesson I have learned is that effective teaching is not just
about delivering content but about creating a supportive, responsive, and
adaptive learning environment. By understanding and meeting the diverse needs
of learners, you empower them to become active, motivated, and resilient
lifelong learners.

95
 REFLECTION: ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION OF LEARNING
Part 1 & 2

The material “Assessment and evaluation of learning”, provided a

comprehensive overview of assessment and evaluation in educational contexts,
emphasizing the critical role these processes play in fostering effective
learning environments.

In understanding Assessment and Evaluation, tests serve as instruments to

gauge specific knowledge or skills, while measurement quantifies the extent
of these traits. Assessment is a broader process that collects and organizes
data to inform educational decisions, and evaluation interprets this data to
judge educational worth and effectiveness.

The principles outlined for high-quality assessments—clarity,

appropriateness, balance, validity, reliability, fairness, practicality,
continuity, authenticity, communication, positive consequences, and ethics—
serve as guiding frameworks. The presentation emphasize that assessments must
be designed thoughtfully to ensure they are meaningful, equitable, and
beneficial for all students. These principles advocate for a balanced
approach that values diverse learning styles and promotes an inclusive
classroom environment.

I have learned that the content reflects a significant evolution in

educational assessment practices, advocating for methods that are holistic,
inclusive, and responsive to the diverse needs of learners. By embracing
performance-based assessments, portfolio assessments, and thoughtful rubric
design, educators can foster environments that encourage active learning and
meaningful engagement. These approaches not only prepare students for
academic success but also equip them with essential skills for lifelong
learning.

I have gained a deeper understanding of the crucial role assessments play in

shaping both teaching practices and student learning. The clear distinction
between formative and summative assessments, as well as the different types
of assessments—traditional, alternative, and performance-based—has helped me
realize the importance of using diverse methods to gauge student progress.

In particular, the concept of “Assessment FOR Learning” resonates with me.

The idea that assessments should not merely be used for assigning grades, but
also to guide and enhance the learning process, is something I aim to
incorporate into my future teaching practice. I now understand that formative
assessments, such as quizzes, class discussions, or observations, provide
valuable feedback that can be used to adjust instruction, ensuring that
students are continuously supported in their learning journey. This approach
helps create a more responsive and dynamic classroom environment.

As a future educator, I must ensure that students and parents understand how
their learning will be measured and how the results will be used to improve
teaching and learning. Open communication helps build trust and promotes a
positive learning environment.

96
 Generalization

This portfolio provides a thorough look at education, the role of teachers,

and curriculum development in the Philippines. It highlights how education
has grown over time, how teachers play a big role in shaping students, and
how a good curriculum makes learning effective. Discusses how teachers can
connect their work to both local and global needs while ensuring students
grow at every stage of life.

The History of Education in the Philippines

Education in the Philippines has changed a lot over the years. Before
colonization, informal learning focused on traditions and life skills.
Spanish colonizers introduced formal education centered on religion. When
Americans arrived, they set up public schools and started teaching in
English. After gaining independence, the country worked on making education
accessible and improving its quality. The K-12 curriculum, which adds two
extra years of study, is a recent reform aimed at preparing students for
global opportunities.

The Teaching Profession

Teaching is described as both a calling and a mission. Teachers shape the

minds and values of students, which in turn helps society grow. In the
Philippines, becoming a teacher requires a bachelor’s degree in education,
subject specialization, and passing the Licensure Examination for Teachers
(LET).

Teachers do much more than just teach lessons. They also guide students,
communicate with parents, and engage with the community. Despite low pay and
large workloads, many teachers stay committed to helping their students
succeed.

Teachers’ Responsibilities

Teachers plan and deliver lessons, assess student progress, and create a safe
space for learning. Beyond this, they participate in educational programs
that benefit the community. Teachers are also expected to follow a code of
ethics, showing integrity and respect in their work.

Continuous Growth for Teachers

The Department of Education (DepEd) encourages teachers to continue learning

through seminars, workshops, and advanced studies. These opportunities help
teachers improve their skills and stay updated with modern teaching
practices.

Curriculum Development

Curriculum development is a collaborative effort between educators, school

leaders, and communities. A curriculum is more than just a list of subjects—
it includes all the activities and learning experiences students go through
in school. Teachers play an important role in shaping, delivering, and
evaluating the curriculum to ensure it meets students’ needs.

What Makes a Good Curriculum?

A strong curriculum should be flexible and relevant. It should help students

learn not just facts but also skills like critical thinking and problem-
solving. A good curriculum balances global standards with local culture,
ensuring students are prepared for the future while staying connected to
their roots.

Education for a Global and Local World

In today’s interconnected world, teachers need to think globally while

teaching locally. This “glocal” approach means helping students develop
skills for a globalized world while respecting their local traditions.

21st-Century Skills

Modern education focuses on developing essential skills like critical

thinking, creativity, communication, and collaboration. Teachers must use
innovative methods, digital tools, and practical assessments to make learning
more engaging and effective.

97
Child and Adolescent Development

Understanding how children and teens grow is key to being a good teacher.
Different stages of development—such as infancy, early childhood, middle
childhood, and adolescence—come with unique physical, emotional, and
intellectual changes. Teachers who understand these stages can better support
their students.

Each developmental stage, from prenatal to adolescence, is detailed, covering

key aspects like physical growth, motor skills, and cognitive advancements.
For example, infancy focuses on reflex development and sensory-motor
learning, while early childhood emphasizes gross and fine motor skills
alongside cognitive milestones.

As I consider the varying paces at which children develop, I understand the

importance of recognizing individual differences. Not all students develop in
the same way, and each child’s journey through these stages is unique. For
instance, while some adolescents may mature earlier and explore their
identities with confidence, others may take longer to navigate this phase.
This insight will help me avoid making assumptions and instead tailor my
approach to the diverse developmental needs of my students.

Teachers must create a supportive learning environment for students at every

stage, helping them grow emotionally, socially, and academically.

Teaching Methods and Strategies

The portfolio highlights different teaching philosophies and strategies that

guide classroom practices. Some focus on discipline and habit formation,
while others emphasize creativity and student-centered learning. Modern
approaches, like project-based and inquiry-based learning, encourage students
to explore, solve problems, and think critically.

Challenges in Education

While the education system in the Philippines has made progress, it still
faces issues like overcrowded classrooms, lack of resources, and high teacher
workloads. These challenges require creative solutions, such as using
technology, strengthening teacher training, and involving communities in
education.

The Role of Teachers in Society

Teachers are described as the foundation of the education system. They

inspire students, instill values, and contribute to national development.
Their work goes beyond academics, influencing future generations and shaping
the country’s future. Despite difficulties, teachers in the Philippines
remain dedicated to their roles.

What was Learned

This portfolio shows that education is not just about teaching lessons—it is
about shaping lives and building a better society. The history of Philippine
education highlights how the system has adapted to meet the country’s needs.
The teaching profession shows the importance of dedication, ethics, and
continuous growth. Curriculum development proves that learning must be
relevant, engaging, and inclusive.

The document also stresses how understanding child and adolescent development
can improve teaching methods, ensuring every learner gets the support they
need. Modern education calls for preparing students for a fast-changing,
globalized world while valuing local culture and identity.

Finally, the challenges in education remind us of the resilience of teachers

and their power to inspire change. Education is a shared responsibility, and
through the efforts of teachers, communities, and policymakers, it can
continue to transform lives and shape the future.

“Teaching as a Vocation is a call.

Teaching as a Mission is a Task assigned.
Teaching is the NOBLEST PROFESSION”

98