Rs.

90

GUIDANCE IAS
More than a coaching...

Geography (Optional) 2021

PART: 2
GEOMORPHOLOGY
By Himanshu Sharma
 GUIDANCE IAS
More than a coaching...

GEOGRAPHY(OPTIONAL)

Geomorphology -1
CLASS NOTES
By: HIMANSHU SIR
 PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS
PAPER- I
GEOMORPHOLOGY
1. Discuss the views of W.M. Davis and Walther Penck on the cycle of erosion. (86/1/3/60)
2. Discuss the evolution and characteristics of the landforms of gradated regions. (87/1/5/60)
3. Write short note on Karst landf orms in about 200 words. (88/I/2d/20)
4. Critically analyse the concept of plate tectonics and bring out the evidences to support it. (88/1/5/60)
5. Write short note on rejuvenated landforms in about 200 words. (89/I/2a/20)
6. Write short note on Plate tectonics in about 200 words. (90/I/2a/20)
7. Analyse the differences in the models of slope evolution proposed by Davis and Penk. (90/1/3/60)
8. Write short note: Polycyclic landforms. (91/I/2(a)/20)
9. Analyse the sequential development of landforms in either Karst or Coastal region. (91/1/3/60)
10. Write short note : Classification of Earth Movements. (92/I/2(a)/20)
11. Explain the factors causing rejuvenation in landscape and describe the resultant landforms. (92/1/3/60)
12. Write short note: Treppen concept. (93/I/2(a)/20)
13. Discuss, with examples, the influence of vulcanism and diastrophism on the evolution of landscape. (93/1/
3/60)
14. Discuss the concept of cycle of erosion and bring out clearly the difference between the views of Davis and
Penck. (94/1/3/60)
15. Discuss the limitations of the theory of Continental Drift and show how the theory of Plate Tectonics is an
improvement over it(95/1/3/60)
16. Discuss the processes of mechanical and chemical weathering and show their relationship with soil formation.
(96/1/3/60)
17. Write short note : Weathering and soil formation (97/1/2(c)/20)
18. Discuss the concept of polycyclic landforms and present an analytical study of the polycyclic landforms of
a selected region.(97/1/3/60)
19. Write short note: Geomorphic processes (98/1/2(b)/20)
20. Discuss the concept of volcanicity and show how the theory of Plate Tectonics explains the mechanism of
volcanism and volcanic eruptions. (98/1/3/60)
21. Bring out the distinctions between the „continental drift‟ theory and the „plate tectonics‟ theory. (99/1/3/60)
22. With reference to the theory of Plate Tectonics, explain the origin and growth of the Young Fold Mountain
Systems of the world.(00/1/2/60)
23. Present a critical analysis of the theory of Isostasy. (01/1/2/60)
24. Provide a critique of the „geographical cycle‟ model, propounded by Davis. (02/1/2/60)
25. Write short note: Geosyncline (02/I/5(a)/20)
26. Explain the sequential development of landforms associated with the coastal (03/1/2/60)
27. Describe the landforms which are products of endogenetic forces. (04/1/2/60)
28. Write short note: Peneplain (04/I/5(a)/20)
29. “Structure is a dominant control factor in the evolution of landforms.” Discuss with suitable examples.
(05/1/2/60)
30. Write short note : Role of seismic waves in the study of earth‟s interior (05/1/5(a)/20)

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31. Critically evaluate the continental drift hypothesis of A. Wegener. (06/1/2/60)
32. Define the concept of isostasy and discuss the postulations of Airy and Pratt. (07/1/4/60)
33. Critically examine the concept of geomorphic cycle & discuss the views of W. M. Davis and W. Penck. (08/
1/2/60)
34. Write short note on Seafloor spreading (08/I/5c/20)
35. Highlight the geomorphic features essentially found in topographies under the Second Cycle of Erosion.
(09/I/la/20)
36. Give a brief account of the principal land biomes and their latitudinal distribution (09/I/1b/20)
37. Discuss views on slope development provided by L. C. King. (09/I/lc/20)
38. Write short note on Essential conditions for the development of Karst topography. (10/1/ la/15)
39. Bring out the relevance of seismic study in determining the structure of the interior of the earth. (10/I/2a/30)
40. “Weathering is a complex phenomenon involving a number of processes and is influenced by various
factors.” Elaborate. (10/I/2b/30)
41. Write short note on Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism. (ll/I/la/12)
42. Name the climatically controlled agents of erosion. Explain how they differ in terms of properties of matter.
Compare the landforms produced by each one of them. (11/I/2a/30)
43. Explain the concept of Isostasy as postulated by Airy and Pratt. (ll/I/2b/30)
44. Write short notes on Palaeozoic glacial evidence of Continental Drift. (150 words) (12/I/la/12)
45. Write short notes on : Systems approach to landform analysis. (150 words) (12/I/lb/12)
46. Write short notes on Major components of IGBP. (150 words) (12/I/ld/12)
47. Explain how Bosche and Haldenhang lead to the Theory of Slope Replacement. (400 words) (12/I/2a/30)
48. Answer the following : Characteristics of the standard epigene cycle of erosion. (250 words) (12/I/4a/20)
49. Differences between Normal cycle and Arid cycle of Davis. (150W;10M;2013)
50. Impact of Pleistocene Ice Age on the crust of the Earth. (150W;10M;2013)
51. What is „Base level‟? Explain the types of base level. (15M;2013)
52. State the concept of plate tectonics. How does it help in explaining the formation of the Himalayas and
Appalachian Mountains?(20M;2014)
53. State the concept of erosion surfaces and highlight the factors responsible for their development.(15M;2014)
54. Define the term „meander‟ and describe the basic characteristics of entrenched meander and ingrown
meander.(150W;10M;2014)·
55. Explain weathering and mass wasting, and describe their geomorphic significance.(20M;2014)·

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 Geomorphology Trend Analysis

Category Topics Questions

Origin and evolution of the
earth’s crust
Fundamentals of  Geomagnetism and paleomagnetism. (150W;12M;2011)
geomagnetism
Physical conditions of the  Bring out the relevance of seismic study in determining the structure of the interior of
earth’s interior the earth.(30M;2010)
First Geosynclines
Continental drift  Palaeozoic glacial evidence for Continental Drift.(150W;12M;2012)

Isostasy  Explain the concept of Isostasy as postulated by Airy and Pratt. (30M;2011)
Plate tectonics  State the concept of plate tectonics. How does it help in explaining the formation of
the Himalayas and Appalachian Mountains?(20M;2014)
Recent views on mountain
building
Vulcanicity
Earthquakes and Tsunamis
Denudation chronology
Channel morphology
Erosion surfaces  State the concept of erosion surfaces and highlight the factors responsible for their
development.(15M;2014)
  Define the term ‘meander’ and describe the basic characteristics of entrenched
meander and ingrown meander.(150W;10M;2014)
 Explain weathering and mass wasting, and describe their geomorphic
significance.(20M;2014)
 Factors controlling  Differences between Normal cycle and Arid cycle of Davis. (150W;10M;2013)
landform  Impact of Pleistocene Ice Age on the crust of the Earth. (150W;10M;2013)
Second development  What is ‘Base level’? Explain the types of base level. (15M;2013)
 Endogenetic and  Systems approach to landform analysis. (150W;12M;2012)
exogenetic forces  Characteristics of the standard epigene cycle of erosion. (250W;20M;2012)
 Concepts of  Name the climatically controlled agents of erosion. Explain how they differ in terms of
geomorphic cycles properties of matter. Compare the landforms produced by each one of them.
and Landscape (30M;2011)
development  Essential conditions for the development of karst topography. (200W;15M;2010)
 "Weathering is a complex phenomenon involving a number of processes and is
influenced by various factors." Elaborate.(30M;2010)
 Highlights the geomorphic features essentially found in topographies under the second
cycle of Erosion. (200W;20M;2009)

Slope development  Explain how Bosche and Haldenhang lead to the Theory of Slope Replacement.
(400W;30M;2012)
 Discuss views on slope development provided by L C King.(200W;20M;2009)
Applied Geomorphology :  Discuss how different types of mining lead to different types of environmental
Geohydrology, economic problems.(250W;20M;2012)
geology and environment
 1 THE DEVELOPMENT & TRENDS IN GEOMORPHOLOGY

DEFINITIONS
If we defined geomorphology in terms of the three Greek roots from which the word was derived, it
would mean a discourse on earth forms. Generally, it is thought of as “the science of land forms” and it will be
so used, although we shall extend it to include submarine forms. Although widespread use of the term geomor-
phology has come about within the past few decades, it appears that the term was used in its present sense by
Keith as long ago as 1894.

Designation of the study of land forms as geomorphology has come about as a result of dissatisfaction
with the term physiography, which was formerly applied to this subject. Physiography, particularly as used in
Europe, includes considerable climatology, meteorology, oceanography, and mathematical geography.

Geomorphology is primarily geology, despite the fact that some geomorphology is taught both in Europe
as a part of physical geography. In most geography courses landforms are treated rather incidentally as a part of
the discussion of the physical environment of man, but emphasis usually is placed upon man’s adjustments to
and uses of landforms rather than upon landforms per se.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN GEOMORPHIC IDEAS

During the many centuries which followed the decline of the Roman Empire there was little or no scien-
tific thinking in Europe. Such knowledge as survived was largely in monasteries, but it was not natural science.
Some survival of learning persisted in Arabia, and we find certain ideas expressed there that have a modern
flavor. Avicenna (lbnSina, 980-1037) held views upon the origin of mountains which divided them into two
classes, those produced by “ uplifting of the ground, such as takes place in earthquakes,” and those which result
“from the effects of running water and wind in hollowing out valleys in soft rocks.” Thus the concept of mountains
resulting from differential erosion was expressed. The idea of slow erosion over long periods of time was also
held by him.

Apparently paving the way for Avicenna was a work by a group of unknown Arabic scholars known as The
Discourses of the Brothers of Purity written sometime between the years 941 and 982 AD (said, 1950). In this
four volume work we find reference to what ,today we would call erosion and transportation by streams and
wind, weathering and even the germinal idea of peneplanation.

As Fenneman (1939) has stated, so little progress was made in Europe from the days of the first century
AD until the opening of the sixteenth century that little need be said about it. During the fifteenth, sixteenth ,
and seventeenth centuries landforms were explained largely in terms of the then prevailing philosophy of
catastrophism, according to which the features of the earth were either specially created or were the result of
violent cataclysms which produced sudden and marked changes in the surface of the earth. As long as the
earth’s age was measured in a few thousand years, there was not much chance for the importance of slow
geologic processes to be appreciated.

HUTTON AND PLAYFAIR

James Hutton (1726- 1797) was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, and was educated as a physician, but his inter-
ests were in science, especially chemistry and geology. He is most famous, perhaps, for the role he played as a
leader of a group known as the Platonists, which maintained that granite was of igneous origin in opposition to

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the Wemeriari school, known as the Neptunists, which contended that granite was a chemical precipitate. He
also recognized the evidence for metamorphism of rocks, but his greatest contribution came in expounding the
concept that “the present is the key to the past,” thus establishing the doctrine of uniformitarianism in opposition
to that of catastrophism. Hutton’s views were first presented in a paper, read by him before the Royal Society of
Edinburgh in 1785 under the title, “Theory of the Earth; or an Investigation of the Laws Observable in the Compo-
sition, Dissolution and Restoration of Land upon the Globe.” In 1795, his views appeared in an expanded form in
a two volume book entitled Theory of the Earth, with proofs and illustrations. This edition was limited in number
and was expensive. It is likely that Hutton’s ideas might have been lost or much delayed in acceptance had it not
been that his friend, John Playfair (1748- 1819), a professor of mathematics and philosophy at Edinburgh, after
the death of Hutton, published in 1802 his Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth, which elaborated
and expanded Hutton’s principles in a form of scientific prose which has rarely been equaled for clarity and beauty
of expression. This book was also smaller and cheaper than Hutton’s ideas and conclusions so clearly that their
impact was enormous, particularly upon Sir Charles Lyell, who was later to become the great exponent of unifor-
mitarianism.

DAVIS- “THE GREAT DEFINER AND ANALYST”

The impact on geomorphology of W.M. Davis (1850-1934) was greater than that of any other one man.
The Davisian school of geomorphology and the American School are practically synonymous terms. Davis was
basically a great definer, analyst, and systematizer. Before his time geomorphic description were largely in
impirical terms. Even more important than the many new concepts which he introduced was the fact that he
breathed new life into geomorphology through introduction of his genetic method of landform description. He
will probably be remembered longest for his concept of the geomorphic cycle, an idea perhaps vaguely glimpsed
by Desmarest, which in its simplest analysis is the idea that in the evolution of landscapes there is a systematic
sequence of land forms which makes possible the recognition of states of development, a sequence that he
designated as youth, maturity, and old age. His idea that differences in landforms are largely explainable in
terms of differences in geologic structure, geomorphic process, and stage of development was long firmly
rooted in the thinking of most students of land forms.

During the 1920’s and 1930’s, Walter Penck and his followers staged a minor revolt against some or Davis’s
ideas and found some adherents. Davis in much of his development of the idea of the geomorphic cycle as ef-
fected by running water assumed that relatively rapid initial uplift of the land might be followed by a period of still
stand which permitted a cycle to run its course, culminating in the reduction of the land to a nearly featureless
condition. Penck and others have maintained, that this is not the normal sequence but that more commonly rise
of the land at the beginning of a period of uplift is extremely slow and is followed by an accelerated rate of uplift
which would prevent the landscape from passing through stages of development that would terminate in a
region of low relief.

Fenneman (1939) briefly described the various stages through which geomorphic thinking has passed in
these worlds: ·

• The understanding of the work of rain and running water may be considered in three stages or in four
if we count the primitive conception of “everlasting hills” which even yet dominates the thinking of
many people. Three advances followed.

• There appeared first the mere universal fact of degradation as known to some men of the ancient
world and others down to the late eighteenth century. Then came the daring proposition that streams
make their own valleys. It sounds very simple, but it means that topography is, in the main, carved out
and not built up. Some Greeks; Romans, and Arabs saw this, and James Hutton, who died in 1797, saw
it clearly. His friend and interpreter, John Playfair, expressed it in language which has never been ex-
celled; but which was a little too sweeping for Lyell, or for us. Even in the geological world this principle
did not cease to be debated before the time of the civil War.

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• Then came the third stage, in which moving water does not act aimlessly, carving valleys at haphazard,
and leaving hills distributed fortuitously, but works to a pattern whose specifications are as distinctive
as the sutures of a nautilus or the venation of a leaf. This is the stage of modern physiography or
geomorphology.

From this sketch of the development of geomorphic ideas, two things stand out the first is what we may
call be time element. Many ideas failed of acceptance at the time of their proposal because they were “ahead
of their time”.

Secondly, we may note that, although we commonly attribute some new concept to one man, we find
that almost always the groundwork for it had been laid by others, who too often do not receive the credit that
they deserve. It may be, convenient to think of the development of geologic thinking in terms of a few great
men, but we should not lose sight of the fact that it has come about as the result of contributions from
innumerable individuals.

RECENT TRENDS IN GEOMORPHOLOGY

Some of the significant trends of the past few decades are:
1. A tendency for geomorphology, at least in America, to become more strictly geological than geographical
as a result of (a) an increasing application to geomorphic studies of other phases of geology, e.g.,
mineralogy in the study of weathering, stratigraphic methods in paleogeomorphology, and paleontologic
techniques in the study of glacial deposits, and (b) a decline of interest among geographers in physical
geography as they give increasing emphasis to human geography;
2. The development of regional geomorphology, which attempts to divide the continents into areas of similar
geomorphic features and history;
3. An increasing recognition of the practical applications of geomorphic principles to such fields as groundwa-
ter geology, soil science, and engineering geology; and
4. The dawn of the quantitative and experimental stage with attempts to apply the laws of hydrodynamics to
a better understanding of the geomorphic processes. Experimental laboratories have been set up US and
abroad at which attempts have been made to determine more accurately the application of hydraulic laws
to wave, current, and stream action. More of the work done at these laboratories has been carried on by
engineers than by geologists with the result that the impact of some of the work has not yet been fully
appreciated by geomorphologists.
Probably no one questions the need for more quantitative work in geomorphology. All science is becom-
ing more quantitative and it is inevitable, as well as desirable, that this trend extends to geomorphology. It
should be kept in mind, however, that the conclusions drawn for mathematical calculations arc no better than
the data and assumptions upon which they are based. Landform characteristics are influenced by many
processes and control factors, some of which are difficult to reduce to mathematical treatment. As Baulig
(1950) has stated, “the laws of geomorphology are complex, relative, and rarely susceptible to numerical
expression.” This is not to suggest that we should not attempt to make geomorphology quantitative, but it is to
be hoped that the increasing attention given to the mathematical approach does not detract from the roles
played by such factors as lithology, stratigraphy, structure, diastrophic history, and climatic variations in the
development of land forms.

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 The sun formed with in such a cloud of gas and dust, shrinking in on itself by gravitational compaction
until it began to undergo nuclear fusion and give off light and heat. Surrounding particles began to coalesce by
gravity into larger lumps, or planetesimals, which continued to aggregate into planets. “Left-over” material
formed asteroids and comets - like asteroid Ida, on the upper right.

Because collisions between large planetesimals release a lot of heat, the Earth and other planets would
have been molten at the beginning of their histories. Solidification of the molten material into rocks happened

as the Earth cooled. The oldest meteorites and lunar rocks are about 4.5 billion years old, but the oldest Earth
rocks currently known are 3 .8 billion years old. Sometime during the first 800 million or so years of its history,
the surface of the Earth changed from liquid to solid. Once solid rock formed on the Earth, its geological history
began. This most likely happened prior to 3.8 billion years, but hard evidence for this is lacking. Erosion and
plate tectonics has probably destroyed all of the solid rocks that were older than 3.8 billion years. The begin-
ning of the rock record that is currently present on the Earth is the inception of a time known as the Archaean.

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 ARCHAEAN
3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago
The atmosphere was very different from what we breathe today; at that time, it was likely a reducing
atmosphere of methane, ammonia, and other gases which would be toxic to most life on our planet today. Also
during this time, the Earth’s crust cooled enough that rocks and continental plates began to form. It was early
in the Archaean that life first appeared on Earth. Our oldest fossils date to roughly 3.5 billion years ago, and
consist of bacteria microfossils. In fact, all life during the more than one billion years of the Archaean was
bacterial.

PROTEROZOIC- ERA
2.5 billion to 543 million years ago
The period of Earth’s history that began 2.5 billion years ago and ended 543 million years ago is known as
the Proterozoic. Many of the most exciting events in the history of the Earth and of life occurred during the
Proterozoic - stable continents first appeared and began to accrete, a long process taking about a billion years.
Also coming from this time are the first abundant fossils of living organisms, mostly bacteria and archaeans, but
by about 1.8 billion years ago eukaryotic cells appear as fossils too. With the beginning of the Middle Protero-
zoic comes the first evidence of oxygen build-up in the atmosphere. This global catastrophe spelled doom for
many bacterial groups, but made possible the explosion of eukaryotic forms. These include multicellular algae,
and toward the end of the Proterozoic, the first animals.

When Charles Darwin wrote on the Origin of Species, he and most paleontologists believed that the oldest
animal fossils were the trilobites and brachiopods of the Cambrian Period, now known to be about 543 million
years old. Many paleontologists believed that simpler forms of life must have existed before this but that they
left no fossils. A few believed that the Cambrian fossils represented the moment of God’s creation of animals,
or the first deposits laid down by the biblical Flood. Darwin wrote, “the difficulty of assigning any good reason
for the absence of vast piles of strata rich in fossils beneath the Cambrian system is very great,” yet he
expressed hope that such fossils would be found, noting that “only a small portion of the world is known with
accuracy.

Since Darwin’s time, the fossil history of life on Earth has been pushed back to 3.5 billion years before the
present. Most of these fossils arc microscopic bacteria and algae. However, in the latest Proterozoic - a time
period now called the Vendian, or the Ediacaran, and lasting from (about 650 to 543 million years ago) macro-
scopic fossils of soft-bodied organisms can be found in a few localities around the world, confirming Darwin’s
expectations.

PALEOZOIC -ERA
543 to 248 Million Years Ago
The Paleozoic is bracketed by two of the most important events in the history of animal life. At its ‘beginning,
multicelled animals underwent a dramatic “explosion” in diversity, and almost all living animal phyla appeared
within a few millions of years. At the other end of the Paleozoic, the largest mass extinction in history wiped out
approximately 90% of all marine animal species. The causes of both these events arc still not fully understood
and subject of much research and controversy. Roughly halfway in between, animals, fungi, and plants alike
colonized the land, the insects took to the air, and the limestone shown in this picture was deposited near
Burlington, Missouri.

The Paleozoic took up over half of the Phanerozoic, approximately 300 million years. During the Paleozoic
there were six major continental land masses; each of these consisted of different parts of the modern
continents. For instance, at the beginning of the Paleozoic, today’s western coast of North America ran

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east-west along the equator, while Africa was at the South Pole. These Paleozoic continents experienced tre-
mendous mountain building a long their margins, and numerous incursions and retreats of shallow seas across
their interiors. Large limestone outcrops are evidence of these periodic incursions of continental seas.

Many Paleozoic rocks are economically important. For example, much of the limestone quarried for building
and industrial purposes, as well as the coal deposits of western Europe and the eastern United States, were
formed during the Paleozoic.

Carboniferous Period
Carboniferous Period, fifth division of the Palaeozoic Era of the geological timescale, spanning an time
interval of some 75 million years, from about 360 to 285 million years ago. lt was preceded by the Devonian
Period and succeeded by the Permian Period.

Major continents of the Carboniferous included Gondwana, Laurentia, Baltica, and Siberia. Gondwana
was the largest land mass, comprising what would later fragment to become modern South America, Africa,
India, Australia, New Zealand, and Antarctica. This massive continent lay entirely within the southern hemi-
sphere, covering a vast area including the South Pole. Laurentia was made up from North America Greenland,
and parts of Western Europe, and Baltica form the major part of northern Europe. Laurentia and Baltica straddled
the equator. Only Siberia lay entirely north of the tropics.

The Late Palaeozoic was a time of strong climate zonation, ranging from frigid glacial conditions in southern
Gondwana, to hot humid arid hot dry climates at low latitudes. Widespread glaciations has been recognized in
Gondwana, but the presence of carbonate reefs and bauxite deposits is consistent with tropical climates at low
latitudes. One of the most powerful and enduring images of the Carboniferous Period is the dense, dark, and
damp coal swamp forests. These were widespread during the Late Carboniferous on deltas at equatorial lati-
tudes bordering the incipient Tethys Sea. The vegetation of these forests gave rise to vast quantities of peat,
which through geological time was transformed into the economically important coal deposits of Europe and
North America.

The flora of the coal swamp forests was dominated by five major tree groups. Some of the largest trees
were lycopsids (clubmosses) and sphenopsids (horsetails), groups whose modem relatives are all herbaceous.
Tree ferns were an important part of the understorey by the Late Carboniferous. The other major tree groups
are related to gymnosperms (conifers and their relatives), and included the extinct seed ferns and cordaiteans.

MESOZOIC -ERA
248 to 65-Million Years Ago
The Mesozoic is divided into three time periods: the Triassic (245-208 Million Years Ago), the Jurassic
(208-146 Million Years Ago), and the Cretaceous(146-65 Million Years Ago).

Mesozoic means “middle animals”, and is the time during which the world fauna changed drastically from
that which had been seen in the Paleozoic. Dinosaurs, which are perhaps the most popular organisms of the
Mesozoic, evolved in the Triassic, but were not very diverse until the Jurassic. Except for birds, dinosaurs
became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous. Some of the last dinosaurs to have lived are found in the late
Cretaceous deposits of Montana in the United States.

The Mesozoic was also a time of great change in the terrestrial vegetation. The early Mesozoic was
dominated by ferns, cycads, ginkgophytes, bennettitaleans, and other unusual plants. Modern gymnosperms,
such as conifers, first appeared in their current recognizable forms in the early Triassic. By the middle of the
Cretaceous, the earliest angiosperms had appeared and began to diversify, largely taking over from the other
plant groups.

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 CENOZOIC -ERA
65 Million Years to the Present
The Cenozoic is the most recent of the three major subdivisions of animal history. The other two arc the
Paleozoic and Mesozoic. The Cenozoic spans only about 65 million years, from the end of the Cretaceous and
the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs to the present. The Cenozoic is sometimes called the Age of Mammals,
because the largest land animals have been mammals during that time. This is a misnomer for several reasons.
First, the history of mammals began long before the Cenozoic began. Second, the diversity of life during the
Cenozoic is far wider than mammals. The Cenozoic could have been called the “Age of Flowering Plants” or the
“Age of Insects” or the “Age of Fish” or the “Age of Birds” just as accurately.

The Cenozoic is divided into two main sub-divisions: the Tertiary and the Quaternary. Most of the
Cenozoic is the Tertiary, from 65 million years ago to 1.8 million years ago. The Quaternary includes only the
last 1.8 million years.

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 3 BASIC CONCEPTS IN GEOMORPHOLOGY

1. LANDFORM:
A landform is an individual topographic feature, of whatever size; thus the term could refer to something
as minor as a cliff or a sand dune, as well as to something as major as a peninsula or a mountain range.
The plural landforms is less restrictive and is generally considered synonymous with topography.

2. TOPOGRAPHY:
The surface features of the Earth’s surface, including the relief, the terrain, the vegetation, the soils
and all the features created in the landscape by human endeavour. It is not synonymous merely with relief.

3.UNIFORMITARIANISM:
Fundamental to understanding topographic development is familiarity with the doctrine called
uniformitarianism, which holds that ‘the present is the key to past’. This means that the processes that
formed the topography of the past are the same ones that have shaped contemporary topography; these
processes are still functioning in the same fashion and, barring unforeseen cataclysm, will be responsible
for the topography of the future. The processes involved are not temporary and, with only a few exception,
not abrupt. They are mostly permanent and slow acting. The development of landforms is a virtually
endless event, with the topography at any given time simply representing a temporary balance in a
continuum of change.

4. GEOMORPHIC PROCESS:
Process considers the actions that have combined to produce the landform. A variety of forces –
usually geologic, hydrologic, atmospheric and biotic – are always at work shaping the feature of the
lithospheric surface, and their interaction is critical to the formation of the features.

5. GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE:
Structure refers to the nature, arrangement, and orientation of the materials making up the
feature being studied. Structure is essentially the geologic underpinning of the landform. It is a dominant
control factor in the evolution of landforms. It is the overall relationship between rocks together with
their large scale arrangements and dispositions. Structure includes faults, folds, rock massiveness, rock
harness, constituent minerals, permeability or impermeability and the like. According to W.M.Davis
“Landforms are a function of structure, process and stage”.

6. RELIEF:
It is the character of the land surface of the earth. It comprises a wide variety of landforms, which can be
grouped into different types of terrain. (Terrain is the physical characteristics of the natural features of and
area, i.e. its landforms, vegetation and soils.)

10
 7. GEOMORPHIC STAGE:
a) A Davisian idea ,

b) The point to which a landform has evolved during a cycle of erosion ,

c) As a result of the different processes the landforms pass through different stages – a series of orderly
and sequential changes.

8. DRAINAGE:
Drainage refers to the movement of water (from rainfall and snowmelt) either over Earth’s surface
or down into the soil and bedrock. Although moving water is an outstanding force under the ‘process’
heading, the ramifications of slope wash, stream flow, stream patterns, and other aspects of drainage are
so significant that generally the topic or drainage is considered a basic element in landform analysis.

9. SLOPE:
An inclined surface, the gradient of which is determined by the amount of the inclination from the
horizontal, and the length of which is determined by the inclined distance between its crest and its foot. A
slope may be concave, straight or convex when seen in profile.

10. COMPLEXITY:
Usually, most of the topographic details have been produced during the current cycle of erosion,
but there may exist within an area remnants of features produced during prior cycles, and, although
there are many individual landforms which can be said to be the product of some single geomorphic
process. Horberg (1952) classified landforms into five major categories:

1. Simple - Simple landscapes are the product of a single dominant geomorphic process;
2. Compound - Compound landscapes are those in which two or more geomorphic processes have
played major roles in the development of the existing topography;
3. Monocyclic - Monocyclic landscapes have been produced during more than one cycle of erosion.
Monocyclic landscapes are less common than multicyclic and are in general restricted to such newly
created land surfaces as a recently uplifted portion of the ocean floor, the surface of a volcanic
cone, lava plain or plateau, or areas buried beneath a cover of Pleistocene glacial deposits.
4. Multicyclic Polyclimatic landscapes - It has become evident in recent years that many landscapes
have evolved under more than one set of climatic conditions with accompanying variation in the
dominant geomorphic processes. Many of these varying climatic conditions were associated
with the fluctuating climates of Pleistocene time, but are some areas certain aspects of the
topography reflect climatic conditions that existed during Tertiary times.
5. Exhumed or resurrected landscapes - Exhumed or resurrected landscapes are those which were
formed during some past period of geologic time, then buried beneath a cover of igneous or sedi-
mentary origin, then still later exposed through removal of the cover. Topographic features now
being exhumed may date back as far as the Precambrian or they may be as recent as the
Pleistocene.

11. APPRECIATION OF WORLD CLIMATES:

Climate variations may affect the operation of geomorphic processes either indirectly or directly.
The indirect influences are largely related to how climate affects the amount, kind, and distribution of

11
the vegetal cove. The direct controls are such obvious ones as the amount and kind of precipitation, its
intensity, the relation between precipitation and evaporation daily range of temperature, whether and how
frequently the temperature falls below freezing point, depth of frost penetration, and wind velocities and
directions.

12. PLEISTOCENE CLIMATE:

There is indisputable evidence that many regions that are today arid or semiarid had humid
climates during the glacial ages. Freshwater lakes existed in many areas which today have internal
drainage. We know also that many regions now temperate experienced during the glacial ages temperatures
such as are found now in the sub arctic portions of North America and Eurasia, where there exists
permanently frozen ground or what has come to be called permafrost conditions. World sea levels were
also affected. Withdrawal of large quantities of water from the oceans to form great ice sheets produced a
lowering of sea level of t least 300 feet and perhaps as much as 500 feet.

13. INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES:

The topography of Earth has infinite variety, apparently being much more diverse than on any
other known planet. This variety reflects the complexity of interaction between process and structure –
the multiplicity of shapes and forms that result as the geomorphic processes exert their inexorable effects.

These processes are relatively few in number but extremely varied in nature and operation. Basically
they are either internal or external. The internal processes operate from within Earth, energized by internal
heat that generates extremely strong forces that apparently operate outside of any surface or atmo-
spheric influences. These forces result in crustal movements of various kinds. In general, they are
constructive, uplifting, building forces that tend to increase the relief of the land surface.

14. HISTORICAL EXTENSION:

Geomorphology concerns itself primarily with the origins of the present landscape but in most
landscapes there are present forms that date back to previous geologic epochs or periods. A geomorphologist
is thus forced to adopt an historical approach if he is to – interpret properly the geomorphic history of a
region. Application of the principle of uniformitarianism makes this approach possible an historical approaches
if he is to interpret properly the geomorphic history of a region. Application of the principle of
uniformitarianism makes this approach possible, an historical approach if he is to interpret properly the
geomorphic history of a region. Application of the principle of uniformitarianism makes this approach possible.

15. PURSUIT OF PATTERN:

A prime goal of any geographic study is to detect patterns in the areal distribution of phenomena.
If features have a disordered and apparently haphazard distribution, it is more difficult to comprehend the
processes that formed them and the relationships that exist among them. If there is some perceptible pattern
to their distribution, it becomes simpler for us to understand both the reasons for the distribution pattern
and the interrelationships that pertain.

16. SCALE:
In any systematic study of geomorphic processes, two general, topics should be kept in mind-scale and
pattern. The question of scale is fundamental in geography. Regardless of the subject of geographic inquiry,
recognizable features and associations are likely to vary considerably depending on the scale of observa-
tion. This simply means that the aspects of the landscape one observes in a close up view are different from
those observed from a more distant view.

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At least five orders of relief can be recognized on the surface of lithosphere.
1. First-order relief represent the small-scale end of the spectrum, which means that the features
are the largest that can be recognized continental platform and ocean basins. Although the
shoreline at sea level appears as a conspicuous demarcation between land and water, it is
not the accepted boundary between platform and basins, each continent has a margin that is
submerged, called the continental shelf. At its outer edge, the slope pitches more steeply and abruptly
into the ocean basins.
2. Second-order relief consists of major mountain systems and other extensive surface formation
of sub continental extent(such as the Mississippi lowland or the Amazon basin) Second- order
relief features (like those of all other orders) may be found in ocean basins as well as on
continental platforms, most conspicuously in the form of the great undersea mountain ranges
usage referred to as ridges.
3. Third-order relief encompasses specific landform complexes of lesser extent and generally of smaller
size than those of the second order, with no precise separation between the two. Typical third-
order features include discrete mountain ranges, groups of hills, and large river valleys.
4. Fourth-order relief comprises the sculptural details of the third-order features, including such
individual landforms as a mountain, mesa, or hill.
5. Fifth-order relief consists of small individual features that may be part of the fourth-order
relief such as sandbar, cliff, or waterfall.

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 4 INTERIOR OF EARTH

INTRODUCTION
If you could slice any planet in half, the first thing you would notice is that it would be divided into distinct
layers. The heaviest materials (metals) would be at the bottom. Lighter solids (rocks) would be in the middle.
Liquids and gases would be at the top. Within Earth, we know these layers as the iron core, the rocky mantle
and crust, the liquid ocean, and the gaseous atmosphere. More than 95 percent of the variations in composi-
tion and temperature within Earth are due to layering. However, this is not the end of the story. If it were, Earth
would be a dead, lifeless cinder floating in space.

There are also small horizontal variations in composition and temperature at depth that indicate the
interior of our planet is very active. The rocks of the mantle and crust are in constant motion, not only moving
about through plate tectonics, but also continuously recycling between the surface and the deep interior. It is
also from Earth’s deep interior that the water and air of our oceans and atmosphere are replenished, allowing
life to exist at the surface. Thus, probing into earth’s interior becomes vital to understand the present processes
and landforms.

SOURCES FOR PROBING INTO EARTH’S INTERIOR

Discovering and identifying the patterns of Earth’s deep motions have not been easy. Light does not travel
through rock, so we must find other ways to “see” into our planet. The seismic waves associated with earth-
quakes are one means used to investigate Earth’s interior. Other techniques include mineral physics experi-
ments that can recreate the conditions of extreme temperature and pressure inside planets and gravity mea-
surements that show where there are internal variations in the distribution of mass. Examining Earth’s mag-
netic field gives clues to the patterns of flow of liquid iron in the core. Taken together, all these different fields
of study give us a picture of Earth as a churning, varied, complex planet that continues to change and evolve
over time.

Generally, the sources providing information on earth’s interior can be divided into following two types:

Direct Sources
1. Deep drilling- The best way to learn about Earth’s interior is to dig or drill a hole and examine it directly.
Unfortunately, this is only possible at shallow depths. Although oil companies have drilled as deep as 8
kilometers on land, they drill in the sedimentary basins. The igneous and metamorphic basement, which
averages 40 kilometers thick and makes up most of the continental crust, has rarely been sampled deeper
than 2 or 3 kilometers. Russia has drilled the world’s deepest hole on the Kola Peninsula near Murmansk
north of the Arctic Circle. The 12.3-kilometer-deep hole (which is about 1/500 of the way to Earth’s center)
took fifteen years to drill and penetrated ancient Precambrian basement rocks. The second deepest well
drilled is the KTB hole in southeastern Germany, which reached a depth of 10 kilometers and cost more
than a billion dollars. Deep drilling is as technically complex as space exploration. High pressures and 300°C
temperatures require special equipment and techniques. The Russians used a turbo-drill that rotated un-
der the pressure of circulating drilling mud. Unlike normal drilling operations, the lightweight aluminum
drill pipe does not turn. Because the Kola drilling operation resulted in a crooked hole, the Germans ad-
vanced deepdrilling technology by developing a system to keep the hole straight while being drilled.

14
2. VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS - The recurrent volcanic eruptions throwing out extremely hot, molten material
from the earth’s interior and the existence of hot springs, geysers etc. point to an interior which is very
hot. They serve as windows giving information about the outer 200 kms of the earth’s interior.
Indirect Sources
1. EVIDENCE FROM THE METEORITES - The meteorites are solid bodies freely traveling in space which acci-
dentally come under the sphere of influences of the earth’s gravity and as a result fall on earth (or
collide with it). Their outer layer is burnt during their fall due to extreme friction and the inner core is
exposed. Earth’s average density of 5.5 grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) is similar to the average den-
sity of meteorites, which supports the idea that planet Earth is itself composed of meteoritic material.
Furthermore, the heavy material composition of their cores confirms the similar composition of the
inner core of the earth, as both evolved from the same star system in the remote past.
2. STUDY OF SEISMIC WAVES – One way scientists learn about Earth’s interior is by looking at seismic waves.
Seismic waves travel outward in all directions from where the ground breaks at an earthquake. By studying
their path movement x-ray like pictures of the earth’s interior can be obtained.
3. HIGH PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS – Seismology alone cannot determine what
Earth is made of. Additional information must be obtained by some other means so that the seismic veloci-
ties can be interpreted in terms of rock type. This is done using mineral physics experiments performed in
laboratories. By squeezing and heating minerals and rocks, physical properties like stiffness, compressibil-
ity, and density (and therefore seismic velocities) can be directly measured. This means that the conditions
of the mantle and core can be simulated, and the results compared to seismic modeling. Most mineral
physics experiments are done using giant presses involving very hard carbonized steel. The highest pres-
sures, however, are obtained using diamond- anvil presses. These take advantage of two important charac-
teristics of diamonds— their hardness and transparency. The tips of two diamonds are cut off, and a small
sample of mineral or rock is placed in between. Pressures as great as those in the interior of Jupiter have
been obtained by squeezing the two diamonds together. High temperatures are achieved by firing a laser
beam through the diamond and into the mineral sample. Besides measuring seismic velocities at the con-
ditions of different depths within Earth, there are other important mineral physics experiments. One ex-
periment determines the temperature at which minerals will begin to melt under various pressures. An-
other experiment determines (at different temperatures) the pressures at which one mineral phase will
become unstable and convert into a new “high-pressure” phase. Yet another involves making these same
tests for slightly different mineral compositions. All of these experiments are needed because, as will be
discussed later, there are three-dimensional changes in composition and temperature within Earth.

ROLE OF SEISMIC WAVES IN EXPLORING THE EARTH’S INTERIOR

The are many different seismic waves, but all of basically of four types:

• Compressional or P (for primary)

• Transverse or S (for secondary)

• Love

• Rayleigh
The first two wave types, P and S , are called body waves because they travel or propagate through the
body of Earth. The latter two are called surface waves they the travel along Earth’s surface and their amplitude
decreases with depth into Earth. The body waves give us information about the earth’s interior.

15
 Compressional or P-Waves
P-waves are the first waves to arrive because they travel the fastest. They typically travel at speeds be-
tween ~1 and ~14 km/sec. The slower values corresponds to a P-wave traveling in water, the higher number
represents the P-wave speed near the base of Earth’s mantle. P-waves are similar to sound waves whose veloc-
ity depends on the elastic properties and density of a material.

S-Waves
Secondary , or S waves, travel slower than P waves and are also called “shear” waves because they don’t
change the volume of the material through which they propagate, they shear it. S-waves are transverse waves
because they vibrate the ground in a the direction “transverse”, or perpendicular, to the direction that the
wave is traveling.

The S-wave speed, call it b, depends on the shear modulus and the density. Typical S-wave propagation
speeds are on the order of 1 to 8 km/sec. The lower value corresponds to the wave speed in loose, unconsoli-
dated sediment, the higher value is near the base of Earth’s mantle. An important distinguishing characteristic
of an S-wave is its inability to propagate through a fluid or a gas because a fluids and gasses cannot transmit a
shear stress and S-waves are waves that shear the material.

Love Waves
Love waves are transverse waves that vibrate the ground in the horizontal direction perpendicular to the
direction that the waves are traveling. They are formed by the interaction of S waves with Earth’s surface and
shallow structure and are dispersive waves. The speed at which a dispersive wave travels depends on the
wave’s period. In general, earthquakes generate Love waves over a range of periods from 1000 to a fraction of
a second, and each period travels at a different velocity but the typical range of velocities is between 2 and 6
km/second.

Another important characteristic of Love waves is that the amplitude of ground vibration caused by a
Love wave decreases with depth - they’re surface waves. Like the velocity the rate of amplitude decrease with
depth also depends on the period.

Rayleigh Waves
Rayleigh waves are the slowest of all the seismic wave types and in some ways the most complicated. Like
Love waves they are dispersive so the particular speed at which they travel depends on the wave period and
the near-surface geologic structure, and they also decrease in amplitude with depth. Typical speeds for Rayleigh
waves are on the order of 1 to 5 km/s.

Seismic Wave Propagation

The fact that the waves travel at speeds which depend on the material properties (elastic moduli and
density) allows us to use seismic wave observations to investigate the interior structure of the planet. We can
look at the travel times, or the travel times and the amplitudes of waves to infer the existence of features within
the planet, and this is a active area of seismological research. To understand how we “see” into Earth using
vibrations, we must study how waves interact with the rocks that make up Earth. Several types of interaction
between waves and the subsurface geology (i.e. the rocks) are commonly observable on seismograms

• Refraction
• Reflection
As a wave travels through Earth, they are refracted. Refraction has an important affect on waves that
travel through Earth. In general, the seismic velocity in Earth increases with depth (there are some important
exceptions to this trend) and refraction of waves causes the path followed by body waves to curve upward.

16
 The second wave interaction with variations in rock type is reflection. A seismic reflection occurs when a
wave impinges on a change in rock type (which usually is accompanied by a change in seismic wave speed). Part
of the energy carried by the incident wave is transmitted through the material (that’s the refracted wave
described above) and part is reflected back into the medium that contained the incident wave.

The amplitude of the reflection depends strongly on the angle that the incidence wave makes with the
boundary and the contrast in material properties across the boundary. For some angles all the energy can be
returned into the medium containing the incident wave.

The actual interaction between a seismic wave and a contrast in rock properties is more complicated
because an incident P wave generates transmitted and reflected P- and S-waves and so five waves are involved.
Likewise, when an S-wave interacts with a boundary in rock properties, it too generates reflected and refracted
P- and S-waves.

Earth’s Layers
Combining the data obtained from seismological studies and mineral physics has given us a layer-by-layer
understanding of the composition of Earth. Seismic velocities, as a function of depth, are shown in Figure given
below.

17
 By examining the behavior of a variety of rocks at the pressures corresponding to these depths, geologists
have been able to figure out the compositions of Earth’s crust, mantle, and core.

Earth’s Crust
Earth’s crust is of two different types—continental crust and oceanic crust. Both share the word “crust,”
but the similarity ends there. Continental and oceanic crusts have very different compositions, histories, ages,
and styles of formation. In fact, the ocean crust is much more similar to rock of the mantle than to rock of the
continental crust.

Oceanic Crust Seismic imaging has shown that the ocean crust is usually about 7 kilometers (4.5 miles)
thick. All ocean crust forms at mid-ocean ridges, which separate two diverging tectonic plates. Ocean crust has
P wave velocities of about 5–7 km/s and a density of about 3.0 g/cm3, which agrees with experimental values
for the rocks basalt and gabbro.

Although most oceanic crust forms out of view, far

below sea level, geologists have been able to examine the
structure of the ocean floor firsthand. In such locations
as Newfoundland, Cyprus, Oman, and California, slivers
of oceanic crust have been thrust high above sea level.
From these exposures, researchers conclude that the
ocean crust consists of four distinct layers.

Layer 1: The upper layer is comprised of a sequence of

unconsolidated sediments. Sediments are very thin
near the axes of oceanic ridges, but may be several
kilometers thick next to continents.
Layer 2: Below the layer of sediments is a rock unit com-
posed mainly of basaltic lavas that contain abun-
dant pillow-like structures called pillow basalts.
Layer 3: The middle rocky layer is made up of numerous
interconnected dikes having a nearly vertical ori-
entation, called the sheeted dike complex. These
dikes are former pathways where magma rose to
feed lava flows on the ocean floor.

18
 Layer 4: The lower unit is made up mainly of gabbro, the coarse-grained equivalent of basalt, which crystal-
lized in a magma chamber below the ridge axis.
This sequence of rocks composing the oceanic crust is called an ophiolite complex.
Continental Crust While oceanic crust is fairly uniform throughout the oceans, no two continental regions
have the same structure or composition. Continental crust averages about 40 kilometers (25 miles) in thick-
ness, but can be more than 70 kilometers (45 miles) thick in certain mountainous regions like the Himalayas
and Andes. Seismic velocities within continents are quite variable, suggesting that the composition of conti-
nental crust must also vary greatly. In general, however, continents have a density of about 2.7 gm/cm3, which
is much lower than both oceanic crust and mantle rock. This lower density explains why continents are buoy-
ant—acting like giant rafts, floating atop tectonic plates, and why they cannot be subducted into the mantle.

However, based on a characteristic P-wave velocity profile, two to four layers are recognized within the
continental crust. According to the four-layer model of Rudnick and Fountain (1995), the first is a surface layer
with P-wave velocities of less than 5.7 km/s. It consists mostly of sedimentary and volcanic rocks of andesitic
composition. The second layer ranges in P-wave velocities from 5.7 to 6.4 km/s, and consists of granitic plutons
and low-grade metamorphic rocks. The third layer has P-wave velocities ranging from 6.4 to 7.1 km/s, and is
made of gabbroic cumulate with small amounts of metamorphic rocks of the granulite facies. P-wave velocities
of the fourth layer vary from 7.1 to 7.6 km/s. In most cases, this layer is either very thin or missing. Accordingly,
in the latter case, the third layer directly lies on the mantle. However, the second and third layers always are
present in continental crust. The boundary between these two layers commonly lies at a depth of 20–28 km
beneath the surface of shields, platforms, Mesozoic to Cenozoic orogenic belts and mature island arcs. Since
clastic sedimentary and metamorphic rocks are, on average, both granitic in composition, the first and second
layers together represent the granitic upper crust. The third layer represents the gabbroic lower crust. It ranges
in thickness from 9 to 21 km.

The Moho
The boundary between the crust and mantle, called the Moho, was one of the first features of
Earth’s interior discovered using seismic waves. Croatian seismologist Andrija Mohorovicic
discovered this boundary in 1909, which is named in his honor. At the base of the continents P
waves travel about 6 km/s but abruptly increase to 8 km/s at a slightly greater depth. Andrija
Mohorovicic cleverly used this large jump in seismic velocity to discover the Moho. He noticed
that there were two different sets of seismic waves that were recorded at seismographs located
within a few hundred kilometers of an earthquake. One set of waves moved across the ground at
about 6 km/s, and the other set of waves moved across the ground at about 8 km/s. From these
two waves, Mohorovicic correctly determined that the different waves were coming from two
different layers. When a shallow earthquake occurs, there is a direct wave that moves straight
through the crust and is recorded at nearby seismographs. Seismic waves will also follow a path
down through the crust and along the top of the mantle. These are called refracted waves
because they are bent, or refracted, as they enter the mantle. These refracted P waves will travel
across the ground at the speed of the waves in the mantle (8 km/s). At nearby distances the direct
wave arrives first. However, at greater distances the refracted wave is the first to arrive. The point
at which both waves arrive at the same time, called the crossover, can be used to determine the
depth of the Moho. Thus, using just these two waves and an array of seismographs, you can
determine the thickness of the crust for any location.
Earth’s Mantle
More than 82 percent of Earth’s volume is contained within the mantle, a nearly 2900-kilometer thick
shell extending from the base of the crust (Moho) to the liquid outer core. Because S waves readily travel
through the mantle, we know that it is a solid rocky layer composed of silicate minerals that are enriched in iron
and magnesium. However, despite its solid nature rock in the mantle is quite hot and capable of flow, albeit at
very slow velocities.

19
 The Upper Mantle The upper mantle extends from the Moho down to a depth of about 660 km. The
upper mantle can be divided into three different parts. The top layer of the upper mantle is part of the stiff
lithosphere, and beneath that is the weaker asthenosphere. The bottom part of the upper mantle is called the
transition zone. We have a good sense of what the upper mantle is made of because mantle rocks are brought
to the surface by several different geological processes. The seismic velocities we observe for the mantle are
consistent with a rock called peridotite. Mantle peridotite is an ultramafic rock mostly composed of the miner-
als olivine and pyroxene. It is richer in the metals magnesium and iron than the minerals found in either the
continental or oceanic crust.

Transition Zone From about 410 km to about 660 km in depth is the part of the upper mantle called the
transition zone. The top of the transition zone is identified by a sudden increase in density from about 3.5 to
3.7 g/cm3. Like the Moho, this boundary reflects seismic waves. Unlike the Moho, this boundary is not due to
a change in chemical composition but to a change in mineral phase. The chemical composition above and
below the 410-kilometer discontinuity is the same. However, the mineral olivine, which is stable in the upper
mantle, is no longer stable at the pressures in the transition zone and converts to denser phases. In the top half
of the transition zone olivine converts to a phase called b-spinel and in the bottom half b-spinel converts into a
true spinel structure called ringwoodite. The most unusual thing about the transition zone is that it is capable of
holding a great deal of water, up to 2 percent by weight. This is much more than for the peridotite of the upper
mantle, which can only hold about 0.1 percent of its weight as water. Because the transition zone is 10 percent
of the volume of Earth, it could potentially hold up to five times the volume of Earth’s oceans. Water cycles
slowly through the planet, brought down into the mantle with subducting oceanic lithosphere and carried
upward by rising plumes of mantle rock. How much water is actually contained within the transition zone is not
known.

Massive Ocean discovered in Mantle

A reservoir of water three times the volume of all the oceans has been discovered deep
beneath the Earth’s surface. The finding could help explain where Earth’s seas came from.
The water is hidden inside a blue rock called ringwoodite that lies 700 kilometres under-
ground in the mantle, the layer of hot rock between Earth’s surface and its core. The huge
size of the reservoir throws new light on the origin of Earth’s water. Some geologists think
water arrived in comets as they struck the planet, but the new discovery supports an alter-
native idea that the oceans gradually oozed out of the interior of the early Earth. “It’s good
evidence the Earth’s water came from within,” says Steven Jacobsen of Northwestern
University in Evanston, Illinois. The hidden water could also act as a buffer for the oceans on
the surface, explaining why they have stayed the same size for millions of years.

The Lower Mantle From 660 kilometers deep to the top of the core, at a depth of 2891 kilometers, is the
lower mantle. Beneath the 660-kilometer discontinuity, both olivine and pyroxene take the form of the min-
eral perovskite (Fe, Mg) SiO3. The lower mantle is by far the largest layer of Earth, occupying 56 percent of the
volume of the planet. This means that perovskite is the single most abundant material within Earth.

The D” Layer In the bottom few hundred kilometers of the mantle, just above the core, is a highly variable
and unusual layer called the D” layer (pronounced “dee double prime”). This is a boundary layer between the
rocky mantle and the liquid iron outer core. The D” layer is a lot like the lithosphere, which is the boundary
layer between the mantle and the ocean/atmosphere layer. Both the lithosphere and D” layer have large varia-
tions in composition and temperature. The difference in lithospheric temperature between hot mid-ocean
ridges and cold abyssal seafloor is more than 1000°C. The horizontal changes in temperature within the D”
layer are similar.
Schematic of the variable and unusual layer at the base of the mantle. Like the lithosphere at the top of the
mantle, the layer contains large horizontal variations in both temperature and composition. Many scientists be-
lieve that is the graveyard of some subducted ocean lithosphere and the birthplace of some mantle plumes.

20
 The composition of the lithosphere varies greatly, with either continental or ocean crust embedded in it.
There also seem to be large slabs of differing rock types embedded within D”. The very base of D” the part of
the mantle directly in contact with the hot liquid iron core, is like Earth’s surface in that there are “upside-down
mountains” of rock that protrude into the core. Furthermore, in some regions of the core–mantle boundary,
the base of D” seems to be hot enough to be partially molten. This may be the cause of narrow zones at the
very base of the mantle where P-wave velocities decrease by 10 percent and S-wave velocities decrease by 30
percent.
Gutenberg Discontinuity
The Core–Mantle Boundary Evidence that Earth has a distinct central core was uncovered in 1906 by
a British geologist, Richard Dixon Oldham. (In 1914 Beno Gutenberg calculated the depth to the core
boundary as 2900 kilometers, a value that has stood the test of time.) Oldham observed that at
distances of more than about 100° from a large earthquake P and S waves were absent, or very weak.
In other words, the central core produced a “shadow zone” for seismic waves as shown in Figure. As
Oldham predicted, Earth’s core exhibits markedly different elastic properties from the mantle above,
which causes considerable refraction of P waves—similar to how light is refracted (bent) as it passes
from air to water. In addition, because the outer core is liquid iron, it blocks the transmission of S
waves (recall S waves do not travel through liquids).

Figure shows the locations of the P and S wave shadow zones and how parts of waves are
affected by the core. Whle there are still P and S waves that arrive in the shadow zone, they are
all very different than would be expected for a planet without a core

Earth’s Core
The Outer Core The boundary between the mantle and the outer core, called the core–mantle boundary,
is the most significant within Earth in terms of changes in material properties. P waves drop from 13.7 to 8.1
km/s at the core–mantle boundary, and S waves drop dramatically from 7.3 km/s to zero. Because S waves do
not pass through liquids, the lack of any S waves in the outer core means that it is liquid. The change in density,
from 5.6 to 9.9 g/cm3, is even larger than the rock–air difference observed at Earth’s surface. Based on our
knowledge of the composition of meteorites and the Sun, geologists expect Earth to contain a great deal of
iron. However, this iron is mostly missing from the crust and mantle. This fact, plus the great density of the core,
tells us that it is mostly made of iron and some nickel, which has a similar density as iron.

21
 The core is only about 1/6 of Earth’s volume, but because iron is so dense, the core accounts for 1/3 of
Earth’s mass, and iron is Earth’s most abundant element when measured by mass. The outer core is not pure
iron, however. Its density and seismic velocities suggest that the outer core contains about 15 percent of other,
lighter elements. These are likely to include sulfur, oxygen, silicon, and hydrogen. Based on mineral physics
experiments, this is not surprising. For instance, pure iron melts at a very high temperature, but an iron-sulfur
mixture melts at a much lower temperature. When Earth was forming and heating up, the iron that sank to
form the core melted more easily in the presence of the sulfur, pulling it down into the core as well.

The solid inner core is separated from the mantle by the liquid outer core, and moves independently.
Slight variations in the travel times of seismic waves through the core, measured over many decades, suggest
that the inner core actually rotates faster than the mantle. The reason for this is not yet understood.

The Inner Core At the center of the core is a solid sphere of iron with lesser amounts of nickel called the
inner core. In drawings like above Figure, the inner core looks much larger than it really is. The inner core is
actually very small, only 1/142 (less than one percent) of the volume of Earth. The inner core did not exist early
in Earth’s history, when the planet was hotter. However, as the planet cooled, iron began to crystallize at the
center to form the solid inner core. Even today, the inner core continues to grow in size as the planet cools. The
inner core does not contain the quantity of light elements found in the outer core. The inner core is separated
from the mantle by the liquid outer core, and is therefore free to move independently. Recent studies suggest
that the inner core is actually rotating faster than the crust and mantle, lapping them every few hundred years.
The inner core’s small size and great distance from the surface make it the most difficult region within Earth to
examine.

Lehman Discontinuity
The boundary between the solid inner core and liquid outer core was discovered in 1936 by Danish
seismologist Inge Lehman. She could not tell whether the inner core was actually solid or not, but
using basic trigonometry reasoned that some P waves were being strongly refracted by a sudden
increase in seismic velocities at the inner core–outer core boundary. This is the opposite situation
as what occurs to produce the P-wave shadow zone. When seismic velocities suddenly decrease,
such as at the mantle–outer core boundary, waves get bent so that there is a shadow zone where
no direct waves arrive. When seismic waves suddenly increase, as they do at the outer core–inner
core boundary, waves get bent so that several P waves can sometimes arrive at a single location. In
the case of the inner core, these waves can even be refracted enough to arrive within the P-wave
shadow zone. Both of these occurrences are proof of a distinct inner core.

EARTH’S TEMPERATURE PROFILE

The profile of Earth’s average temperature at each depth is called the geothermal gradient or geotherm.

Earth’s temperature increases from about 0°C at the surface to more than 5000°C at Earth’s center. Within
Earth’s crust, temperature increases rapidly—as great as 30°C per kilometer of depth. You can experience this
in deep mines. The deepest diamond mines in South Africa go to depths of more than 3 kilometers, where the
temperature is more than 50°C (120°F). The temperature doesn’t continue to increase at such a rapid rate,
however, or the whole planet would be molten below a depth of 100 kilometers. At the base of the lithosphere,
about 100 kilometers down, the temperature is roughly 1400°C. However, you would need to go to almost the
bottom of the mantle before the temperature doubled to 2800°C. For most of the mantle, the temperature
increases very slowly—about 0.3°C per kilometer. However, the D” layer acts as a thermal boundary layer, and
the temperature there increases by more than 1000°C from the top to the bottom. Finally, temperatures
increase only gradually across the outer and inner cores.

Determining temperatures inside Earth is difficult, and there are large uncertainties. In fact, the tempera-
ture at Earth’s center may be as high as 8000°C. You may be wondering how geoscientists measure Earth’s deep
temperatures. The best way is to use mineral physics experiments that measure the temperatures and pres-

22
sures at which materials change. For example,
the basis for the geotherm for the upper mantle
(shown in Figure 12.16A) comes from experi-
ments that establish the temperatures at which
the mineral olivine makes the phase changes
that cause the 410- and 660-kilometer
discontinuities. Similar experiments are used to
determine the temperature at which liquid and
solid iron would coexist at the boundary be-
tween the inner and outer core.

Both the geotherm and melting point

curves generally increase gradually with depth.
This is a result of the continual increase in pres-
sure. Squeezing a material raises its tempera-
ture by causing the atoms to collide with each
other more often, so the geotherm increases.
This is the reason for the gradual increase in
temperature seen across the middle of the
mantle and across the core. However, squeez-
ing a material also makes it harder to melt be-
cause liquids usually take up more volume than
solids. Higher pressures result in less room for
rock to expand into, so materials under pres-
Earth’s temperature profile withdepth, or geotherm.Note that Earth’s
sure tend towards being solid. This causes the temperature increases gradually in most places. Within Earth’stwo
melting point curve to also increase with depth. major thermal boundary layers, the lithosphere and the D” layer at
Generally the melting point curve increases the core-mantle boundary,the temperature increases rapidly over
more rapidly with depth than the geotherm. short distances. Also shown is the melting point curve for
However, in two layers, the uppermost thematerials (rock or metal) found at various depths. Where the
aesthenosphere and D” layer, Earth’s tempera- geotherm crosses above (to the right of)the melting point curve, as
ture is high enough that some rock begins to in the outer core, the material is molten.
melt.

We can now understand why different layers of Earth behave the way they do. The lithosphere is stiff
because its temperature is much colder than its melting temperature. The asthenosphere is weaker and softer
because it is very close to its melting temperature, and partial melting likely occurs in some places. The exist-
ence of the weak asthenosphere is critical to the existence of plate tectonics on Earth—it allows the stiff sheets
of lithosphere to slide across it. Without an asthenosphere, Earth’s mantle would still convect, but it would not
have tectonic plates. Most of the lower mantle is very stiff, and rock moves more sluggishly there. It is thought
that convective flow occurs several times slower in the lower mantle than in the upper mantle. However, at the
very base of the mantle, where Earth’s temperature again approaches the melting point of rock, the D” layer is
relatively weak, and rock there flows more easily. In the core, the temperature increases much more slowly
than does the pressure. From the core–mantle boundary to Earth’s center, the temperature may only increase
by about 40 percent, or from 4000° to 5500°C. However, over the same depth the pressure nearly triples, going
from 1.36 to 3.64 megabars. Even though iron in the outer core is cooler than iron in the inner core it is under
much less pressure and remains a liquid. Stated another way, iron in the inner core, although very hot, is under
such great pressure that the inner core is solid.

23
 5 GEOMAGNETISM

The Earth’s magnetic field is both expansive and complicated. It is generated by electric currents that are
deep within the Earth and high above the surface. All of these currents contribute to the total geomagnetic
field. In some ways, one can consider the Earth’s magnetic field, measured at a particular instance and at a
particular location, to be the superposition of symptoms of a myriad of physical processes occurring every-
where else in the world. The challenge is to untangle the rich information content of the magnetic field so that
we can better understand our planet and the surrounding space environment in which it resides.

MAGNETIC-FIELD
Perhaps the most familiar demonstration of the reality of the Earth’s magnetic field is the north-seeking
tendency of the compass needle, a property that has been exploited by navigators for centuries. At any point
on Earth’s surface, the direction that the magnetic field is pointing is measured with two angles, called declina-
tion and inclination. The declination measures the direction to the magnetic north pole with respect to the
direction to the geographic North Pole (Earth’s axis of rotation). The inclination measures the downward tilt of
the magnetic lines of force at any location. It is what your compass would read if you could tilt it on its side. At
the magnetic north pole the field points directly downward. At the magnetic north pole the field points directly
downward. At the equator it is horizontal.

The Spatial Form of the Geomagnetic Field

The magnetic field of the Earth is often times described as being approximately dipolar, with field lines
emanating from the south geomagnetic pole and converging at the north geomagnetic pole, as depicted in the
figure below. Although this description is useful for many purposes, it is not particularly accurate. The dipolar
part of the field is actually tilted by approximately 11° with respect to the rotational axis, and there are addi-
tional, non-dipolar ingredients in the geomagnetic field, all of which, when added together, are the total surficial
field in all of its complex detail. As a result of this complexity, not only does the direction of the compass needle
deviate from true north, but the amount of the deviation, the declination, varies as a function of geographic
location; see the map below. This fact has been an historical nuisance for navigators, and, not surprisingly, it
helped to motive some of the original global-scale surveys of the Earth’s magnetic field. Another simple mea-
sure of the field’s geometry is the position of the magnetic poles. The north geomagnetic pole is located in the
Canadian Arctic at about 82°N latitude and 248°E longitude. The south geomagnetic pole is located in the
Antarctic Ocean south of Australia at about 65°S latitude and 138°E longitude. It is important to note that the
geomagnetic poles are not antipodal, an asymmetry that is just another measure of the field’s geometric com-
plexity.

Dipole field.The axial-dipolar part of the Earth’s magnetic field, with field lines emanating from near the
south geographic pole and converging near the north geographic pole. Although the magnetic field at the
Earth’s surface is predominantly an axial dipole, the actual magnetic field is more complicated.

THE GEODYNAMO
The Earth is, of course, extremely complicated; it consists of many different interacting parts. But broadly
speaking the Earth below our feet is stratified in radius, being composed of a solid-iron inner core, a liquid-iron
outer core, and an electrically-insulating, rocky over-lying mantle.

24
 The main part of the Earth’s magnetic field is generated by electric currents sustained by a dynamo situ-
ated in the core, and the study of the form and long-term behavior of the geomagnetic field can be used to
discover how the geodynamo works. Paleomagnetic measurements of rocks indicate that the Earth has pos-
sessed a magnetic field for at least 3.5 billion years, and yet, without some sort of regenerative process to
offset the inevitable ohmic dissipation of electric currents, the geomagnetic field would vanish in about 15,000
years. Therefore, the dynamo in the core must be regenerative, and it is generally thought that this regenera-
tive process relies on the principles of magnetic induction.

Convection of liquid iron in the outer core is vigorous and gives rise to Earth’s magnetic field. Because
material in the outer core flows so easily, horizontal temperature variations there are very small—likely less
than 1°C. Such small temperature differences create indistinguishable differences in seismic velocities, so the
outer core appears uniform at each depth when viewed with seismic waves. However, the patterns of flow in
the outer core create variations in Earth’s magnetic field, and these can be observed at Earth’s surface.

Flow in the outer core is thought to occur for three main reasons:
1. As heat conducts out of the core into the sur-
rounding mantle, the outermost core fluid cools,
becomes denser, and sinks. This is a form of ther-
mally driven convection.
2. Crystallization of solid iron at the bottom of the
outer core, to form the inner core, releases fluid
that is depleted in iron and therefore relatively
buoyant. As this fluid rises up and away from the
inner core boundary it helps drives convection.
This is a form of chemically driven convection.
3. There may be radioactive isotopes like potassium-
40 within the core that could provide additional
heat to drive thermal convection. The relative
importance of these three mechanisms is still un-
certain.
As the core fluid rises, its path becomes twisted through
a phenomenon called the Coriolis effect, which is a result of
Earth’s rotation. The fluid ends up moving in spiraling columns
as shown in Figure below.

Illustration of the kind of convection patterns within

Earth’s liquid iron outer core that could give rise to the mag-
netic field we measure at the surface. It is thought that convection takes the form of cylindrical gyres of rotating
molten iron that are aligned in the direction of Earth’s axis of rotation.

25
 Because the fluid is electrically charged, it generates a magnetic field through a process called a geodynamo
that is similar to an electromagnet. If a wire is wrapped around an iron nail and an electric current passed
through it, the nail will generate a magnetic field that looks a lot like the field from a bar magnet. This is called
a dipolar field—a type of magnetic field that has two poles (a north and south magnetic pole). The magnetic
field that emanates from Earth’s outer core has the same dipolar form.

In effect, the core is a naturally occurring electric generator, where convection kinetic energy, driven by
chemical differentiation and the heat of internal radioactivity, is converted into electrical-magnetic energy.
More specifically, electrically-conducting fluid flowing across magnetic-field lines induces an electric current,
and this generated current supports its own associated magnetic field. Depending on the geometrical relation-
ship between the fluid flow and the magnetic field, the generated magnetic field can reinforce the pre-existing
magentic field, in which case the dynamo is said to be ‘self-sustaining’.

The details of exactly how the dynamo works are not entirely resolved. Hence, the theory is the subject of
on-going research.

FIELD VARIATION OVER HISTORICAL TIMESCALES

Although the magnetic field is sustained by the dynamo within the Earth’s core, part of the field threads
its way through the mantle and up to the surface, where it has influence on compasses and where it can be
measured by magnetometers. The same convective motion that drives the geodynamo also causes the field,
measured at the surface, to be time-dependent over historical timescales, a phenomenon known as ‘secular
variation’. The convection in the outer core is not quite so simple. More than 90% of Earth’s magnetic field
takes the form of a dipolar field, but the remainder of the field is the result of other more complicated patterns
of convection in the core. In addition, some of the features of Earth’s magnetic field change over time. In fact,
magnetic models and charts must be periodically updated to accommodate the continual secular variation of
the field. Secular variation can also be clearly seen in long-timescale, magnetic records collected at ground-
based observatories. In fact, the currents in the core of the Earth that create its magnetic field started up at
least 3,450 million years ago.

MAGNETIC FIELD REVERSALS

Based upon the study of lava flows of basalt throughout the world, it has been proposed that the Earth’s
magnetic field reverses at intervals, ranging from tens of thousands to many millions of years, with an average
interval of approximately 300,000 years. However, the last such event, called the Brunhes–Matuyama reversal,
is observed to have occurred some 780,000 years ago.

There is no clear theory as to how the geomagnetic reversals might have occurred . Some scientists have
produced models for the core of the Earth wherein the magnetic field is only quasi-stable and the poles can
spontaneously migrate from one orientation to the other over the course of a few hundred to a few thousand
years. Other scientists propose that the geodynamo first turns itself off, either spontaneously or through some
external action like a comet impact, and then restarts itself with the magnetic “North” pole pointing either
North or South. External events are not likely to be routine causes of magnetic field reversals due to the lack of
a correlation between the age of impact craters and the timing of reversals. Regardless of the cause, when the
magnetic pole flips from one hemisphere to the other this is known as a reversal, whereas temporary dipole tilt
variations that take the dipole axis across the equator and then back to the original polarity are known as
excursions.

Studies of lava flows on Steens Mountain, Oregon, indicate that the magnetic field could have shifted at a
rate of up to 6 degrees per day at some time in Earth’s history, which significantly challenges the popular
understanding of how the Earth’s magnetic field works.

Paleomagnetic studies such as these typically consist of measurements of the remnant magnetization of
igneous rock from volcanic events. Sediments laid on the ocean floor orient themselves with the local magnetic

26
field, a signal that can be recorded as they solidify. Although deposits of igneous rock are mostly paramagnetic,
they do contain traces of ferri- and antiferromagnetic materials in the form of ferrous oxides, thus giving them
the ability to possess remnant magnetization. In fact, this characteristic is quite common in numerous other
types of rocks and sediments found throughout the world. One of the most common of these oxides found in
natural rock deposits is magnetite.

As an example of how this property of igneous rocks allows us to determine that the Earth’s field has
reversed in the past, consider measurements of magnetism across ocean ridges. Before magma exits the mantle
through a fissure, it is at an extremely high temperature, above the Curie temperature of any ferrous oxide that
it may contain. The lava begins to cool and solidify once it enters the ocean, allowing these ferrous oxides to
eventually regain their magnetic properties, specifically, the ability to hold a remnant magnetization. Assuming
that the only magnetic field present at these locations is that associated with the Earth itself, this solidified rock
becomes magnetized in the direction of the geomagnetic field. Although the strength of the field is rather weak
and the iron content of typical rock samples is small, the relatively small remnant magnetization of the samples
is well within the resolution of modern magnetometers. The age and magnetization of solidified lava samples
can then be measured to determine the orientation of the geomagnetic field during ancient eras.

THE EARTH’S IONOSPHERE AND DIURNAL-FIELD VARIATION

The magnetic field, generated in the core and measured at the surface, continues upward through the
ionosphere, the electrically-conducting, ionized layer of the Earth’s upper atmosphere. The ionosphere ex-
tends in height from about 90 km to about 600 km, and it is electrically conducting because ultraviolet radia-
tion from the Sun is absorbed by the electrons of nitrogen and oxygen molecules in the atmosphere. This
absorption causes electrons to be dislodged from their molecular orbits, thereby producing free negative charges
(electrons) and free positive charges (ions). As the Earth rotates underneath the Sun, periodic differential heat-
ing of the atmosphere causes it to expand on the day-side and contract on the night-side. Superimposed upon
this variation is an atmospheric tide, similar to the oceanic tide and driven most substantially by the rotation of
the Earth under the gravitational field of the Moon. The combination of these periodic forces drive winds in the
ionosphere, and with the resulting fluid motion across magnetic-field lines, electric currents are induced. These
currents support their own magnetic fields, and thus a diurnal perturbation in the magnetic field is generated.
The diurnal-field variation can be measured at the Earth’s surface, and with an array of magnetometers it is
possible to map the electric currents in the ionosphere. What remains a matter of current research, however,
is a dynamically-consistent mapping of the fluid motion sustaining these electric currents in the ionosphere.

Ionospheric Electric Currents. Schematic dia-

gram of the electric-current pattern in the iono-
sphere driven by diurnal heating from the Sun. Note
that the current is concentrated on the day side,
consisting of two oppositely oriented circuits.

THE EARTH’S MAGNETOSPHERE

The magnetosphere is the outer part of the
Earth’s magnetic field, a region in the near-Earth
space environment where the shape and behavior
of the geomagnetic field is governed by the Sun. Of
course, the Sun is a highly dynamic presence within
the solar system. It has its own dynamo, generating
a somewhat tangled magnetic field that extends out
into interplanetary space. The Sun also emits a wind
of electrically-charged particles, a plasma that flows
outwards into space and which carries with it the
heliomagnetic field. Because of the pressure exerted

27
by the solar wind on the geomagnetic field, the magnetosphere is compressed on the day side and elongated
on the night side of the Earth, such as depicted in the schematic figure below. In dimension along the equatorial
plane, the day-side magnetosphere, the boundary of which is called the ‘magnetopause’, is about 10 Earth radii
from the surface of the Earth, while the length of the ‘magnetotail’ varies greatly, being very approximately 100
Earth radii in length. Since the solar wind is supersonic, having a velocity relative to the Earth that is faster than
the speed of sound within the plasma, there is a shockwave that precedes the Earth in its passage through the
solar wind.

The Magnetosphere. A schematic diagram depicting the magnetosphere in the near-Earth space environ-
ment. Note the southward orientation of the interplanetary magnetic field, and the reconnective process with
the geomagnetic field that follows as the solar wind carries the interplanetary field past the Earth.

MAGNETIC STORMS
Most of the time the dynamical situation in the magnetosphere is quasi-stationary, with little effect on
(say) ground-based magnetometer measurements. Occasionally, however, the magnetosphere is extremely
time-dependent, having an inductive enhancement of magnetospheric electric currents and their associated
magnetic fields. This is manifest in ground-based magnetometer measurements as rapid, erratic variation. In
analogy with atmospheric meteorology, such periods of magnetic activity are known as ‘magnetic storms’, and
they are triggered by the interplanetary conditions established by the Sun. The pressure balance between the
solar wind and the geomagnetic field is delicate, and perturbations in solar-wind velocity can cause the mag-
netosphere to oscillate. Even more dramatically, occasionally the Sun emits a sudden gust of solar wind, a so-
called ‘coronal mass ejection’. If this impacts upon the magnetosphere then a magnetic storm can follow. Alter-
natively, magnetic storms can also be caused by a process called ‘magnetic reconnection’. This is important in
two places, in the magnetopause and in the magnetotail, and it is illustrated in the figure above. Let’s first
consider the reconnective process at the magnetopause. In the complicated flow of the solar wind, the inter-
planetary magnetic field can take on virtually any orientation, but sometimes it assumes a southward orienta-
tion. In this orientation the interplanetary field has the opposite orientation of the Earth’s magnetic field at the
magnetopause. This juxtaposition of oppositely-oriented field lines is an unstable situation, one which math-
ematically is identical to a shear-flow instability in fluid mechanics. With a little bit of diffusion, brought about
by electrical resistance, the interplanetary magnetic field can connect onto the Earth’s field. Then, particles

28
from the Sun, which would otherwise be deflected by the Earth’s field, can stream along these continuously-
connected field lines and enter into the magnetospheric cavity. Further advection of the interplanetary field
lines by the solar wind peels back the geomagnetic field, and the tail of the magnetosphere is further stretched
as well. In the equatorial plane of the magnetotail, and with this stretching of the field lines, we have a second
place where neighboring field lines have opposite orientation, see, once again, the figure above. As before,
with a little diffusion we obtain reconnection, causing part of the magnetic field, and the plasma in which it is
embedded, to break off from the rest of the geomagnetic field and float down the tail. It is rather like the
boudinage familiar from extensional geological formations! Simultaneously, the inner field lines recoil and
accelerate the plasma particles within the magnetosphere, giving rise to an enhancement of electric currents.
All of this, of course, describes a highly dynamic process, which causes the magnetic field measured at the
Earth’s surface to become extremely active.

29
 6 THE DEVELOPMENT & TRENDS IN GOMORPHOLOGY

CONTINENTAL DRIFT: AN IDEA BEFORE ITS TIME

Introduction
The idea that continents, particularly South America and Africa, fit together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle
originated with the development of reasonably accurate world maps. It was first proposed by American geolo-
gist Frank Bursley Taylor in a lecture in 1908. However, little significance was given this notion until 1912, when
Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist and geophysicist, published The Origin of Continents and Oceans. In
his book, which was published in several editions, Wegener set forth the basic outline of his radical hypothesis
of continental drift.

Theory
Wegener believed that during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras, about 275 to 175 million years
ago, all the continents were united into a vast supercontinent, which he called Pangaea (pan = all, gaea = Earth).
It was surrounded by a huge ocean which he named ‘Panthalsa’.

30
 Later, Pangaea broke into two supercontinental masses—Laurasia to the north, and Gondwanaland to the
south. The present continents began to split apart in the latter Mesozoic era about 100 million years ago. By the
end of the Cretaceous period, the continents were separated into land masses that look like our modern-day
continents and over the time drifted to occupy their present positions.

Present reconstruction of the breakup of Pangaea

EVIDENCES
Wegener and others who advocated the continental drift hypothesis collected substantial evidence to
support their point of view. Let us examine this evidence.

1. Fit of the Continents: Like a few others before him, Wegener first suspected that the continents might
once have been joined when he noticed the remarkable similarity between the coastlines on opposite sides of
the Atlantic Ocean. However, Wegener’s use of present-day shorelines to make a fit of the continents was
challenged immediately by other Earth scientists. These opponents correctly argued that shorelines are con-

31
tinually modified by erosional and depositional processes. Even if continental displacement had taken place,
such a fit today would be unlikely. Wegener was apparently aware of this fact since his original jigsaw fit of the
continents was only very crude.

Scientists have determined that a much better approximation of the true outer boundary of a continent is
the seaward edge of its continental shelf, which lies submerged a few hundred meters below sea level. In the
early 1960s, Sir Edward Bullard and two associates produced a map that attempted to fit the edges of the
continental shelves of South America and Africa at depths of 900 meters. The remarkable fit that was obtained
is shown in Figure below.

This shows the best fit of South America and Africa along the continental slope at a depth of 500 fathoms
(about 900 meters).

Although the continents overlap in a few places, these are regions where streams have deposited large quanti-
ties of sediment, thus enlarging the continental shelves. The overall fit was even better than these researchers
suspected it would be.

2. Fossil Evidence: Wegener learned that identical fossil organisms were known from rocks in both South
America and Africa. Through a review of the literature, Wegener learned that most paleontologists were in
agreement that some type of land connection was needed to explain the existence of identical fossils of Meso-
zoic life forms on widely separated landmasses.

32
 Mesosaurus To add credibility to his argument for the existence of a supercontinent, Wegener cited
documented cases of several fossil organisms that were found on different landmasses despite the unlikely
possibility that their living forms could have crossed the vast ocean presently separating these continents. The
classic example is Mesosaurus, an aquatic fish-catching reptile whose fossil remains are found only in black
shales of Permian age (about 260 million years ago) in eastern South America and southern Africa. If Mesosaurus
had been able to make the long journey across the vast South Atlantic Ocean, its remains should be more
widely distributed. As this is not the case, Wegener argued that South America and Africa must have been
joined during that period of Earth history.

Glossopteris Wegener also cited the distribution of the fossil fern Glossopteris as evidence for the
existence of Pangaea. This plant, identified by its large seeds that were not easily distributed, was known to be
widely dispersed among Africa, Australia, India, and South America during the late Paleozoic era. Later, fossil
remains of Glossopteris were discovered in Antarctica as well. Wegener also learned that these seed ferns and
associated flora grew only in a subpolar climate.Therefore, he concluded that when these landmasses were
joined, they were located much closer to the South Pole.

Present-day Organisms In a later edition of his book, Wegener also cited the distribution of present-day
organisms as evidence to support the drifting of continents. For example, modern organisms with similar an-
cestries clearly had to evolve in isolation during the last few tens of millions of years. Most obvious of these are
the Australian marsupials (such as kangaroos), which have a direct fossil link to the marsupial opossums found
in the Americas. After the breakup of Pangaea, the Australian marsupials followed a different evolutionary path
than related life forms in the Americas.

3. Geological Evidences Wegener found evidence of 2.2-billion-year-old igneous rocks in Brazil that closely
resembled similarly aged rocks in Africa. Similar evidence exists in the form of mountain belts that terminate at
one coastline, only to reappear on landmasses across the ocean. For instance, the mountain belt that includes
the Appalachians trends northeastward through the eastern United States and disappears off the coast of
Newfoundland. Mountains of comparable age and structure are found in Greenland, the British Isles, and
Scandinavia. When these landmasses are reassembled the mountain chains form a nearly continuous belt.

33
 Wegener must have been convinced that the similarities in rock structure on both sides of the Atlantic
linked these landmasses when he said, “It is just as if we were to refit the torn pieces of a newspaper by
matching their edges and then check whether the lines of print run smoothly across. If they do, there is nothing
left but to conclude that the pieces were in fact joined in this way.”

4. Paleoclimatic Evidence Because Alfred Wegener was a meteorologist by profession, he was keenly
interested in obtaining paleoclimatic data to support continental drift. His efforts were rewarded when he
found evidence for apparently dramatic global climatic changes during the geologic past. In particular, he learned
of ancient glacial deposits that indicated that near the end of the Paleozoic era (about 300 million years ago),
ice sheets covered extensive areas of the Southern Hemisphere and India. Layers of glacially transported sedi-
ments of the same age were found in southern Africa and South America, as well as in India and Australia. Much
of the land area containing evidence of this late Paleozoic glaciations presently lies within 30 degrees of the
equator in subtropical or tropical climates.

Could Earth have gone through a period of sufficient cooling to have generated extensive ice sheets in
areas that are presently tropical? Wegener rejected this explanation because during the late Paleozoic, large
tropical swamps existed in the Northern Hemisphere. These swamps, with their lush vegetation, eventually
became the major coal fields of the eastern United States, Europe, and Siberia. Fossils from these coal fields
indicate that the tree ferns that produced the coal deposits had large fronds, which are indicative of tropical
settings. Furthermore, unlike trees in colder climates, these trees lacked growth rings, a characteristic of
tropical plants that grow in regions having minimal fluctuations in temperature.
Wegener suggested that a more plausible explanation for the late Paleozoic glaciation was provided by
the supercontinent of Pangaea. In this configuration the southern continents are joined together and located
near the South Pole. This would account for the conditions necessary to generate extensive expanses of glacial
ice over much of the Southern Hemisphere. At the same time, this geography would place today’s northern
landmasses nearer the equator and account for their vast coal deposits. Wegener was so convinced that his
explanation was correct that he wrote, “This evidence is so compelling that by comparison all other criteria
must take a back seat.”
REJECTION OF THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT HYPOTHESIS
One of the main objections to Wegener’s hypothesis appears to have stemmed from his inability to
identify a mechanism that was capable of moving the continents across the globe.

Wegener suggested two possible mechanisms for continental drift. One of these was the gravitational
force that the Moon and Sun exert on Earth to produce the tides. Wegener argued that tidal forces would

34
chiefly affect Earth’s outermost layer, which would slide as detached continental fragments over the interior.
However, the prominent physicist Harold Jeffreys correctly countered that tidal forces of the magnitude needed
to displace the continents would bring Earth’s rotation to a halt in a matter of a few years.

Wegener also incorrectly suggested that the larger and sturdier continents broke through the oceanic
crust, much like ice breakers cut through ice. However, no evidence existed to suggest that the ocean floor was
weak enough to permit passage of the continents without the continents being appreciably deformed in the
process.

By 1929 strong opposition to Wegener’s ideas was pouring in from all areas of the scientific community.
Despite these affronts, Wegener wrote the fourth edition of his book, maintaining his basic hypothesis and
adding supporting evidence.

Although many of Wegener’s contemporaries opposed his views, even to the point of open ridicule, some
considered his ideas plausible. Among the most notable of this latter group were the eminent South African
geologist Alexander du Toit and the well-known Scottish geologist Arthur Holmes. In 1937 du Toit published Our
Wandering Continents, in which he eliminated some of Wegener’s weaker arguments and added a wealth of
new evidence in support of this revolutionary idea. In 1928 Arthur Holmes proposed the first plausible driving
mechanism for continental drift. In Holmes’s book Physical Geology, he elaborated on this idea by suggesting
that convection currents operating within the mantle were responsible for propelling the continents across the
globe.

35
 7 POST DRIFT STUDIES

BATHYMETRY TECHNIQUES
History
With developments over the last 50 years, techniques for mapping bathymetry have changed to take
advantage of acoustic and visual technology, as well as the improved processing rate of computers. However,
no matter the technologic advancements, understanding of fluvial and glacial landforms is useful to create
accurate bathymetric mapping (Hartnett).

Before 1960, depths were recorded with a weighted depth string according to a grid, that was often
established only when the lake was frozen. With the development of aerial photography and sonar technology,
bathymetry mapping of larger lakes could be done without the “defined grid” or weighted depth string.
Instead, the bathymetry could be based on transect data from a depth sounder mapped on the aerial
photographs. However, both techniques demonstrated a lack of precision, as early maps could have error rang-
ing from 2 meters to 30 meters, depending on the area and depth of the lake. These early efforts relied
significantly on map-based measurement skills and interpretation.

Since 1990, the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) have
dramatically improved the accuracy and precision of the bathymetry mapping techniques. The incorporation of
computer processors/data loggers have further increased the rate with which data can be collected, thus
providing greater detail to contour mapping. With GIS/GPS, surveying has become more free-form, as depths
are associated with XYZ coordinates that can be mapped without additional information.

POPULAR SURVEYING TECHNOLOGY

1. Satellite Imagery/Aerial Photography
Acquiring an image over a vast area, a great deal of information can be delineated from a satellite or aerial
image in a short amount of time. Thus, satellite imagery and aerial photography are important tools when
trying to classify the habitats of shallow waters. Additional data may be analyzed from the use of multispectral
imaging (using multiple wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum, i.e. infrared, visible light, etc).

However, satellite imagery and aerial photography are best used in conjunction with other bathymetry
techniques to create a complete bathymetric mapping. Typically, satellite and aerial images are of low-resolution,
and cannot be used by themselves to determine bathymetry. Furthermore, environmental conditions, such as
cloud cover, haze, waves, and water turbidity, can reduce the quality of the images.

2. Acoustic Bathymetry Survey

Acoustic Bathymetry Survey uses sonar (sound navigation and ranging) systems to collect depth informa-
tion, using simple physics. Basically, a transducer emits a sound wave directly to the water’s floor, and records
the time for the sound wave to be reflected back after it strikes the bottom. Because sound travels at approxi-
mately 1500 m/s in water, calculating the depth is direct. Over the last 50 years, acoustic technology has been
used as the primary tool to amp underwater surface channels, lakes, and oceans. The advantage depth sounders
is that they are commonly available at a relatively low cost. Acoustics can adapted to scan beneath the water
bottom’s surface (sub-bottom profiling), scan across a seabed to identify bathymetric qualities, and combined

36
with others to provide higher resolutions.However, acoustic surveys are typically time-consuming, as they typi-
cally have a relatively narrow scope. Most acoustic surveys cover approximately 10% of the water depths in an
area, leaving many gaps. Multi-beam depth sounders, which scan wider area, are more costly and usually
require additional monitoring tools. Scanning across a seabed offers a relatively wide coverage area, but lacks
detail, and requires sampling to support findings.

3. Light and Imaging

Recently, developments in light and imaging technology have been made to help make more quantitative
assessments of bathymetry. In the past, cameras were utilized to get a qualitative measure of the conditions in
benthic habitats. These cameras could be handheld by divers, pulled behind boats and ships, or attached to a
remote operate vehicle (ROV). However, capturing a complete image of the benthic habitat by these methods
is often time-consuming, as cameras have a limited spatial coverage, defined by the lenses used. For this
reason, wider scanning techniques, such as acoustical surveys or satellite mapping, are employed first.

In contrast, Laser Line Scanning (LLS) is bridging the gap between side-scan sonar and still photography/
video, with a modest scope and high resolution, typically 0.1-1 cm. However, the technology is still new and in
the trial phase, and is not yet widely available.

All light and imaging techniques are dependent on the water clarity and focal distance. Thus, all light and
imaging techniques are susceptible to error with murky water.

PALEOMAGNETISM
Paleomagnetism is the study of the magnetic properties of rocks. Paleomagnetism aids in our under-
standing of plate tectonics, minerology, petrogenesis, geochronology, and the history of the Earth’s magnetic
(the “geomagnetic”) field.

Unlike the pull of gravity, we cannot feel Earth’s mag-

netic field, yet its presence is revealed because it deflects
a compass needle. In a similar manner, certain rocks con-
tain minerals that serve as “fossil compasses.” These iron-
rich minerals, such as magnetite, are abundant in lava
flows of basaltic composition. When heated above a tem-
perature known as the Curie point, these magnetic min-
erals lose their magnetism. However, when these iron-
rich grains cool below their Curie point (about 585°C for
magnetite), they gradually become magnetized in the di-
rection of the existing magnetic lines of force. Once the
minerals solidify, the magnetism they possess will usu-
ally remain “frozen” in this position. In this regard, they
behave much like a compass needle; they “point” toward
the position of the magnetic poles at the time of their
formation. Paleomagnetism can also be studied in some
water-born sedimentary rocks, as magnetically charged
detrital particles will tend to become aligned with the
geomagnetic field when settling in an aqueous environ-
ment. Then, if the rock is moved, the rock magnetism will retain its original alignment. Rocks that formed
thousands or millions of years ago and contain a “record” of the direction of the magnetic poles at the time of
their formation are said to possess fossil magnetism, or paleomagnetism.

Another important aspect of rock magnetism is that the magnetized minerals not only indicate the direction
to the poles (like a compass) but also provide a means of determining the latitude of their origin. To envision

37
how latitude can be established from paleomagnetism, imagine a compass needle mounted in a vertical plane
rather than horizontally, like an ordinary compass.

Earth’s magnetic field causes a dip needle (com-

pass oriented in a vertical plane) to align with the lines
of magnetic force. The dip angle decreases uniformly
from 90 degrees at the magnetic poles to 0 degrees at
the magnetic equator. Consequently, the distance to the
magnetic poles can be determined from the dip angle.

As shown in Figure above, when this modified com-

pass (dip needle) is situated over the north magnetic
pole, it aligns with the magnetic lines of force and points
straight down. However, as this dip needle is moved
closer to the equator, the angle of inclination is reduced
until the needle becomes horizontal at the equator.
Thus, from the dip needle’s angle of inclination, one can
determine the latitude.

In a similar manner, the inclination of the paleo-

magnetism in rocks indicates the latitude of the rock at the time it became magnetized.

Figure above shows the relationship between the magnetic inclination determined for a rock sample and
the latitude where it formed. By knowing the latitude where a rock sample was magnetized, its distance to the
magnetic poles can also be determined. In summary, rock magnetism provides a record of the direction and
distance to the magnetic poles at the time a rock unit was magnetized.

Methods of Paleomagnetic Studies

Paleomagnetic studies generally sample the magnetic properties of rocks in one of two ways:
1. Take direct samples in the field by drilling rock cores. The spatial orientation of the core samples is
carefully measured while in the field. Samples can then be prepared in the lab and measured in
highly sensitive magnetometers. Measuring techniques can then determine both the direction and
intensity of the geomagnetic field at the position the rock was located at the time that it cooled.
2. Paleomagnetics can also be studied via remote sampling, typically using a magnetometer towed
behind a ship. When large zones of the Earth’s crust are uniformly magnetized, as is the case when
oceanic crust cools as it moves away from a spreading center, the crustal NRM can then create a
detectable anomaly in the geomagnetic field at the ocean surface. Ship-towed magnetometers can
then measure this crustal magnetic anomaly and determine the polarity of the geomagnetic field
at the time the crust cooled. This technique can also been used for interplanetary paleomagnetic
studies, such as those using magnetometers on satellites orbiting Mars.

Apparent Polar Wandering & Continental Drift

A study of rock magnetism conducted during the 1950s in Europe by S. K. Runcorn and his associates led
to an interesting discovery. The magnetic alignment in the iron-rich minerals in lava flows of different ages
indicated that many different peleomagnetic poles once existed. A plot of the apparent positions of the mag-
netic north pole with respect to Europe revealed that during the past 500 million years, the location of the pole
had gradually wandered from a location near Hawaii northward through eastern Siberia and finally to its present
location.

This was strong evidence that either the magnetic poles had migrated through time, an idea known as
polar wandering, or that the lava flows moved—in other words, Europe had drifted in relation to the poles.
Although the magnetic poles are known to move in an erratic path around the geographic poles, studies of

38
paleomagnetism from numerous locations show that the positions of the magnetic poles, averaged over thou-
sands of years, correspond closely to the positions of the geographic poles. Therefore, a more acceptable
explanation for the apparent polar wandering paths was provided by Wegener’s hypothesis. If the magnetic
poles remain stationary, their apparent movement is produced by continental drift. The latter idea was further
supported by comparing the latitude of Europe as determined from fossil magnetism with evidence obtained
from paleoclimatic studies. During the Pennsylvanian period (about 300 million years ago) coal-producing swamps
covered much of Europe. During this same time period, paleomagnetic evidence places Europe near the equa-
tor—a fact consistent with the tropical environment indicated by these coal deposits.

Further evidence for continental drift came a few years later when a polar-wandering path was
constructed for North America. It turned out that paths for North America and Europe had similar shapes but
were separated by about 30° of longitude. At the time these rocks crystallized, could there have been two
magnetic north poles that migrated parallel to each other? Investigators found no evidence to support this
possibility. The differences in these migration paths, however, can be reconciled if the two presently separated
continents are placed next to one another, as we now believe they were prior to opening of the Atlantic Ocean.
Notice in Figure b below that these apparent wandering paths nearly coincided during the period from about
400 to 160 million years ago. This is evidence that North America and Europe were joined during this time
period and moved relative to the poles as part of the same continent.

Simplified apparent polar-wandering paths as established from North American and Eurasian paleomagnetic
data. A. The more westerly path determined from North American data was caused by the westward
movement of North America by about 30 degrees from Eurasia. B. The positions of the wandering paths when
the landmasses are reassembled.

For researchers with knowledge of, and confidence in, the paleomagnetic data, this was strong evidence
that continental drift had occurred. However, the techniques used in extracting paleomagnetic data were rela-
tively new and not universally accepted. Furthermore, most geologists were unfamiliar and somewhat suspi-
cious of the results provided by studies using paleomagnetism. Despite these issues, paleomagnetic evidence
reinstated continental drift to a respectable subject of scientific inquiry. A new era had begun!

39
 SEAFLOOR-SPREADING HYPOTHESIS
Background
Following World War II, oceanographers equipped with new marine tools and ample funding from the
U.S. Office of Naval Research embarked on an unprecedented period of oceanographic exploration. Over the
next two decades a much better picture of large expanses of the seafloor slowly and painstakingly began to
emerge. From this work came the discovery of a global oceanic ridge system that winds through all of the
major oceans in a manner similar to the seams on a baseball. One of the segments of this interconnected
feature extends down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean and hence was named the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Also of
importance was the discovery of a central rift valley extending the length of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. This
structure is evidence that tensional forces are actively pulling the ocean crust apart at the ridge crest. In
addition, high heat flow and volcanism were found to characterize the oceanic ridge system.

In other parts of the ocean, new discoveries were also being made. Earthquake studies conducted in the
western Pacific demonstrated that tectonic activity was occuring at great depths beneath deep-ocean trenches.
Flat-topped seamounts, named guyots, were discovered hundreds of meters below sea level. These structures
were thought to be former volcanic islands whose tops had been eroded prior to subsiding below sea level. Of
equal importance was the fact that dredging of the seafloor did not bring up any oceanic crust that was older
than 180 million years. Further, sediment accumulations in the deep-ocean basins were found to be thin, not
the thousands of meters that were predicted.

Many of these discoveries were unexpected and difficult to fit into the existing model of Earth’s tectonic
processes. Recall that geologists thought cooling and contraction in Earth’s interior produced the compres-
sional forces that deformed the crust by folding and fracturing. Evidence from the Mid-Atlantic ridge demon-
strated that here, at least, the crust was actually being pulled apart. Furthermore, the thin sediment cover
blanketing the seafloor requires that the rate of sedimentation in the geologic past must have been much less
than the current rate, or that the ocean floor was indeed much younger than previously thought.

The Seafloor-Spreading Hypothesis

In the early 1960s, Harry Hess of Princeton University incorporated these newly discovered facts into a
hypothesis that was later named seafloor spreading. In Hess’s now classic paper, he proposed that oceanic
ridges are located above zones of convective up-
welling in the mantle. As rising material from the
mantle spreads laterally, seafloor is carried in a
conveyor-belt fashion away from the ridge crest.
Here, tensional forces fracture the crust and pro-
vide pathways for magma to intrude and gener-
ate new slivers of oceanic crust. Thus, as the sea-
floor moves away from the ridge crest, newly
formed crust replaces it. Hess further proposed
that the descending limb of a convection current
in the mantle occurs in the vicinity of deep-ocean
trenches. These, Hess suggested, are sites where
ocean crust is drawn back into Earth’s interior. As
a consequence, the older portions of the seafloor
are gradually consumed as they descend into the
mantle. As one researcher summarized, “No won-
der the ocean floor was young—it was constantly being renewed!”

One of Hess’s central ideas was that “convective flow in the mantle caused the Earth’s entire outer shell to
move.” Thus, unlike Wegener’s hypothesis that had continents plowing through the seafloor, Hess proposed

40
that the continents were carried passively by the horizontal part of the convective flow in the mantle.
Moreover, the youth of the seafloor and the thinness of sediments were accounted for in Hess’s proposal.
Despite its logical appeal, seafloor spreading remained a highly controversial topic for the next few years.

Hess presented his paper as an “essay in geopoetry,” which may have reflected the speculative nature of
this idea. Or, as others have suggested, he may have wanted to deflect criticism from those who were still
hostile to continental drift. In either case, his hypothesis provided specific testable ideas, which is one of the
hallmarks of good science.

With the seafloor-spreading hypothesis in place, Harry Hess had initiated another phase of this scientific
revolution. The conclusive evidence to support his ideas came a few years later from the work of a young
Cambridge University graduate student, Fred Vine, and his supervisor, D. H. Matthews. The significance of the
Vine-Matthews hypothesis was that it connected two ideas previously thought to be unrelated: Hess’s seaf-
loor-spreading hypothesis and the newly discovered geomagnetic reversals.

41
 8 PLATE TECTONICS: THE NEW PARADIGM

By 1968 the concepts of continental drift and seafloor spreading were united into a much more encom-
passing theory known as plate tectonics (tekton = to build). Plate tectonics can be defined as the composite of
a great variety of ideas that explain the observed motion of Earth’s outer shell through the mechanisms of
subduction and seafloor spreading, which, in turn, generate Earth’s major features, including continents,
mountains, and ocean basins. The implications of plate tectonics are so far-reaching that this theory has be-
come the basis for viewing most geologic processes.

EARTH’S MAJOR PLATES

According to the plate tectonics model, the uppermost mantle, along with the overlying crust, behave as
a strong, rigid layer, known as the lithosphere (lithos = stone, sphere = a ball), which is broken into pieces called
plates. Lithospheric plates are thinnest in the oceans where their thickness may vary from as little as a few
kilometers at the oceanic ridges to 100 kilometers in the deep-ocean basins. By contrast, continental lithos-
phere is generally about 100 kilometers thick but may be more than 250 kilometers thick below older portions
of landmasses. The lithosphere overlies a weaker region in the mantle known as the asthenosphere (asthenos

42
= weak, sphere = a ball). The temperature/ pressure regime in the upper asthenosphere is such that the rocks
there are very near their melting temperatures. This results in a very weak zone that permits the lithosphere to
be effectively detached from the layers below. Thus, the weak rock within the upper asthenosphere allows
Earth’s rigid outer shell to move.

The lithosphere is broken into numerous segments, called lithospheric or tectonic plates, that are in
motion with respect to one another and are continually changing in shape and size. As shown in Figure above,
seven major lithospheric plates are recognized. They are the North American, South American, Pacific, African,
Eurasian, Australian-Indian, and Antarctic plates. The largest is the Pacific plate, which encompasses a significant
portion of the Pacific Ocean basin. Notice that most of the large plates include an entire continent plus a large
area of ocean floor (for example, the South American plate). This is a major departure from Wegener’s continental
drift hypothesis, which proposed that the continents moved through the ocean floor, not with it. Note also that
none of the plates are defined entirely by the margins of a continent.

Intermediate-sized plates include the Caribbean, Nazca, Philippine, Arabian, Cocos, Scotia, and Juan de
Fuca plates. In addition, there are over a dozen smaller plates that have been identified.

One of the main tenets of the plate tectonic theory is that plates move as coherent units relative to all
other plates. Lithospheric plates move relative to each other at a very slow but continuous rate that averages
about 5 centimeters (2 inches) per year. This movement is ultimately driven by the unequal distribution of heat
within Earth. Hot material found deep in the mantle moves slowly upward and serves as one part of our planet’s
internal convection system. Concurrently, cooler, denser slabs of oceanic lithosphere descend into the mantle,
setting Earth’s rigid outer shell into motion. Ultimately, the titanic, grinding movements of Earth’s lithospheric
plates generate earthquakes, create volcanoes, and deform large masses of rock into mountains.

PLATE BOUNDARIES
Tectonic plates move as coherent units relative to all other plates. Although the interiors of plates may
experience some deformation, all major interactions among individual plates (and therefore most deformation)
occur along their boundaries. In fact, plate boundaries were first established by plotting the locations of earth-
quakes. Moreover, plates are bounded by three distinct types of boundaries, which are differentiated by the
type of movement they exhibit. These boundaries are briefly described here:

1. Divergent boundaries (constructive margins)—where two plates move apart, resulting in upwelling of
material from the mantle to create new seafloor.

2. Convergent boundaries (destructive margins)—where two plates move together, resulting in oceanic
lithosphere descending beneath an overriding plate, eventually to be reabsorbed into the mantle, or possibly
in the collision of two continental blocks to create a mountain system.

3. Transform fault boundaries (conservative margins)—where two plates grind past each other without
the production or destruction of lithosphere.

It is also important to note that plate boundaries are not fixed but move about. For example, the west-
ward drift of the South American plate is causing it to override the Nazca plate. As a result, the boundary that
separates these plates is gradually being displaced as well. Moreover, since the Antarctic plate is surrounded by
constructive margins and is growing larger, the divergent boundaries are migrating away from the continent of
Antarctica. New plate boundaries can be created in response to changes in the forces acting on these rigid
slabs. For example, a relatively new divergent boundary is located in the Red Sea. Less than 20 million years ago
the Arabian Penninsula began to rift away from Africa. At other locations, plates carrying continental crust are
presently moving toward one another. Eventually these continents may collide and be sutured together. In this
case, the boundary that once separated two plates disappears as the plates become one.

43
 CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
Although new lithosphere is constantly being produced at the oceanic ridges, our planet is not growing
larger—its total surface area remains constant. To balance the addition of newly created lithosphere, older,
denser portions of oceanic lithosphere descend into the mantle along convergent (con = together, vergere = to
move) boundaries. Because lithosphere is “destroyed” at convergent boundaries, they are also called destruc-
tive plate margins.

Convergent plate margins occur where two plates move toward each other and the leading edge of one is
bent downward, allowing it to slide beneath the other. The surface expression produced by the descending
plate is a deep-ocean trench. Trenches formed in this manner may be thousands of kilometers long, 8 to 12
kilometers deep, and between 50 and 100 kilometers wide. Convergent boundaries are also called subduction
zones, because they are sites where lithosphere is descending (being subducted) into the mantle. Subduction
occurs because the density of the descending tectonic plate is greater than the density of the underlying as-
thenosphere. In general, oceanic lithosphere is more dense than the asthenosphere whereas continental litho-
sphere is less dense and resists subduction. As a consequence, it is always oceanic lithosphere that is sub-
ducted.

Slabs of oceanic lithosphere descend into the mantle at angles that vary from a few degrees to nearly
vertical (90 degrees), but average about 45 degrees. The angle at which oceanic lithosphere descends depends
largely on its density. For example, when a spreading center is located near a subduction zone, the lithosphere
is young and, therefore, warm and buoyant. Hence, the angle of descent is small. This is the situation along
parts of the Peru–Chile trench. However, as oceanic lithosphere ages (gets farther from the spreading center),
it gradually cools, which causes it to increase in density. Once oceanic lithosphere is about 15 million years old,
it becomes more dense than the supporting asthenosphere and will sink when given the opportunity. In parts
of the western Pacific, some oceanic lithosphere is more than 180 million years old. Although all convergent
zones have the same basic characteristics, they are highly variable features. Each is controlled by the type of
crustal material involved and the tectonic setting. Convergent boundaries can form between two oceanic plates,
one oceanic and one continental plate, or two continental plates. All three situations are illustrated below –

OCEAN-OCEAN CONVERGENCE
Where two plates capped by sea floor converge, one plate subducts under the other (the Pacific plate
sliding under the western Aleutian Islands is an example). The subducting plate bends downward, forming the
outer wall of an oceanic trench, which usually forms a broad curve convex to the subducting plate.

Ocean-ocean convergence forms a trench, a volcanic island arc, and a Benioff zone of earthquakes

46
 As one plate subducts under another, a Benioff zone of shallow-, intermediate-, and deep-focus earth-
quakes is created within the upper portion of the down-going lithosphere. The pattern of quakes shows that
the angle of subduction changes with depth, usually becoming steeper. Some plates crumple or break into
segments as they descend.

As the descending plate reaches depths of at least 100 kilometers, magma is generated in the overlying
asthenosphere. The magma probably forms by partial melting of the asthenosphere, perhaps triggered by
dewatering of the downgoing oceanic crust as it is subducted. Differentiation and assimilation may also play an
important role in the generation of the magma, which is typically andesitic to basaltic in composition.

The magma works its way upward to erupt as an island arc, a curved line of volcanoes that form a string
of islands parallel to the oceanic trench. Beneath the volcanoes are large plutons in the thickened arc crust. The
distance between the island arc and the trench can vary, depending upon the angle of subduction of the plate
which determines where the subducting plate reaches the 100-kilometer depth and begins to melt. The angle
of subduction depends upon the density of the subducting plate which ultimately is determined by the age of
the plate. When a plate subducts far from a mid-oceanic ridge, the plate is older and denser and thus, subducts
at steeper angle. In this case the island arc will be located near the trench.

The inner wall of a trench (toward the arc) consists of an accretionary wedge (or subduction complex) of
thrustfaulted and folded marine sediment and pieces of oceanic crust. The sediment is “peeled” off the sub-
ducting plate by the overlying plate. New slices of sediment are continually added to the bottom of the accre-
tionary wedge, pushing it upward to form a ridge on the sea floor. A relatively undeformed forearc basin lies
between the accretionary wedge and the volcanic arc.

Trench positions change with time. As one plate subducts, the overlying plate may be moving toward it.
The motion of the leading edge of the overlying plate will force the trench to migrate horizontally over the
subducting plate. The Peru-Chile Trench is moving over the Nazca plate in this manner as South America moves
westward.

OCEAN-CONTINENT CONVERGENCE
When a plate capped by oceanic crust is subducted under the continental lithosphere, an accretionary
wedge and forearc basin form an active continental margin between the trench and the continent. A Benioff
zone of earthquakes dips under the edge of the continent, which is marked by andesitic volcanism and a young
mountain belt. Examples of this type of boundary are the subduction of the Nazca plate under western South
America and the Juan de Fuca plate under North America.

Ocean-continent convergence forms an active continental margin with a trench, a Benioff zone, a
magmatic arc, and a young mountain belt on the edge of the continent.

47
 The magma that is created by ocean-continent convergence forms a magmatic arc, a broad term used
both for island arcs at sea and for belts of igneous activity on the edges of continents. The surface expression of
a magmatic arc is either a line of andesitic islands (such as the Aleutian Islands) or a line of andesitic continental
volcanoes (such as the Cascade volcanoes of the Pacific Northwest). Beneath the volcanoes are large plutons in
thickened crust. We see these plutons as batholiths on land when they are exposed by deep erosion.

The hot magma rising from the subduction zone thickens the continental crust and makes it weaker and
more mobile than cold crust. Regional metamorphism takes place within this hot, mobile zone. Crustal thicken-
ing causes uplift, so a young mountain belt forms here as the thickened crust rises isostatically.

CONTINENT-CONTINENT CONVERGENCE
Two continents may approach each other and collide. They must be separated by an ocean floor that is
being subducted under one continent and that lacks a spreading axis to create new oceanic crust. The edge of
one continent will initially have a magmatic arc and all the other features of ocean-continent convergence.

As the sea floor is subducted, the ocean becomes narrower and narrower until the continents eventually
collide and destroy or close the ocean basin. Oceanic lithosphere is heavy and can sink into the mantle, but
continental lithosphere is less dense and cannot sink. One continent may slide a short distance under another,
but it will not go down a subduction zone. After collision, the heavy oceanic lithosphere breaks off the
continental lithosphere and continues to sink, leaving the continent behind.

The collision of two continents forms a young mountain belt in the interior of a new, larger continent.
The most famous example of continent -continent collision is the collision of India with Asia. (A) India is
moving toward Asia due to ocean-continent convergence. (B) India collides with Asia to form the Himalayas,
the highest mountain range on Earth.

The two continents are welded together along a dipping suture zone that marks the old site of subduction.
Thrust belts and subsiding basins occur on both sides of the original magmatic arc, which is now inactive. The
presence of the original arc thickens the crust in the region of impact. The crust is thickened further by the
shallow underthrusting of one continent beneath the other and by the stacking of thrust sheets in the two
thrust belts. The result is a mountain belt in the interior of a continent (a new, large continent formed by the
collision of the two, smaller continents). The entire region of impact is marked by a broad belt of shallow-focus
earthquakes along the numerous faults. A few deeper quakes may occur within the sinking oceanic lithosphere
beneath the mountain range. The Himalayas in central Asia are thought to have formed in this way, as India
collided with and underthrust Asia to produce exceptionally thick crust and high elevations.

48
 TRANSFORM FAULT BOUNDARIES
The third type of plate boundary is the transform (trans = across, forma = form) fault, where plates slide
horizontally past one another without the production or destruction of lithosphere (conservative plate
margins). The nature of transform faults was discovered in 1965 by J. Tuzo Wilson. He suggested that these
large faults connect the global active belts (convergent boundaries, divergent boundaries, and other transform
faults) into a continuous network that divides Earth’s outer shell into several rigid plates. Thus, Wilson became
the first to suggest that Earth was made of individual plates, while at the same time identifying the faults along
which relative motion between the plates is made possible.

Diagram illustrating a transform fault boundary offsetting segments of the Mid- Atlantic Ridge.

Most transform faults join two segments of an oceanic ridge. Here, they are part of prominent linear
breaks in the oceanic crust known as fracture zones, which include both the active transform faults as well as
their inactive extentions into the plate interior. These fracture zones are present approximately every 100
kilometers along the trend of a ridge axis. Active transform faults lie only between the two offset ridge
segments. Here seafloor produced at one ridge axis moves in the opposite direction as seafloor produced at an

49
opposing ridge segment. Thus, between the ridge segments these adjacent slabs of oceanic crust are grinding
past each other along the fault. Beyond the ridge crests are the inactive zones, where the fractures are
preserved as linear topographic scars. The trend of these fracture zones roughly parallels the direction of plate
motion at the time of their formation. In another role, transform faults provide the means by which the oceanic
crust created at ridge crests can be transported to a site of destruction: the deep-ocean trenches.

Although most transform faults are located within the ocean basins, a few cut through continental crust.
Two examples are the earthquake-prone San Andreas Fault of California and the Alpine Fault of New Zealand.

What Drives Plate Motions?

The plate tectonics theory describes plate motion and the role that this motion plays in generating and/or
modifying the major features of Earth’s crust. Therefore, acceptance of plate tectonics does not rely on knowing
exactly what drives plate motion. This is fortunate, because none of the models yet proposed can account for
all major facets of plate tectonics. Nevertheless, researchers generally agree on the following:
1. Convective flow in the rocky 2900-kilometer-thick mantle—in which warm, buoyant rock rises and
cooler, denser material sinks under its own weight—is the underlying driving force for plate movement.
2. Mantle convection and plate tectonics are part of the same system. Subducting oceanic plates
drive the cold downward-moving portion of convective flow while shallow upwelling of hot rock
along the oceanic ridge and buoyant mantle plumes are the upward-flowing arm of the convective
mechanism.
3. The slow movements of Earth’s plates and mantle are ultimately driven by the unequal distribution
of heat within Earth’s interior. Furthermore, this flow is the mechanism that transports heat away
from Earth’s core and up through the mantle.
What is not known with any high degree of certainty is the precise nature of this convective flow.

Illustration of some of the forces that act on tectonic plates.

There is general agreement that the subduction of cold, dense slabs of oceanic lithosphere is the main
driving force of plate motion. As these slabs sink into the asthenosphere, they “pull” the trailing plate along.
This phenomenon, called slab pull, occurs because old slabs of oceanic lithosphere are more dense than the
underlying asthenosphere and hence “sink like a rock.” Another important driving force is called ridge push.
This gravity-driven mechanism results from the elevated position of the oceanic ridge, which causes slabs of
lithosphere to “slide” down the flanks of the ridge. Ridge push appears to contribute far less to plate motions

50
than slab pull. The primary evidence for this comes from known spreading rates on ridge segments having
different elevations. For example, despite its greater average height above the seafloor, spreading rates along
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge are considerably less than spreading rates along the less steep East Pacific Rise. The fact
that fast-moving plates are being subducted along a large percentage of their margins also supports the idea
that slab pull has more significant impact than ridge push. Examples of fast-moving plates include the Pacific,
Nazca, and Cocos plates, all of which have spreading rates that exceed 10 centimeters per year.

Yet another driving force arises from the drag of a subducting slab on the adjacent mantle. The result is an
induced mantle circulation that pulls both the subducting and overriding plates toward the trench. Because this
mantle flow tends to “suck” in nearby plates (similar to pulling the plug on a bathtub), it is called slab suction.
Even if a subducting slab becomes detached from the overlying plate, its descent will continue to create flow in
the mantle and hence will continue to drive plate motion.

Any model of mantle-plate convection must be consistent with observed physical and chemical proper-
ties of the mantle. Based on physical evidence, it is clear that upwelling beneath oceanic ridges is shallow and
not related to deep convection in the lower mantle. In fact it is the horizontal movement of lithospheric plates
away from the ridge that causes mantle upwelling, not the other way around. In addition, any acceptable
model must explain compositional variations known to exist in the mantle. For example, both the basaltic lavas
that erupt along oceanic ridges and those that are generated by hot-spot volcanism, such as Hawaii, have
mantle sources. Yet ocean ridge basalts are fairly homogeneous in composition and depleted in certain trace
elements, while high concentrations of these same elements are associated with hot-spot eruptions. The
following three models have been suggested as possible mechanism of plate motion :

A. Layering at 660 Kilometers This model has two zones of convection—a thin convective layer in the
upper mantle (above 660 kilometers) and a thick one located below. This model successfully explains why
basaltic lavas that erupt along the oceanic ridges have a somewhat different composition than those that erupt
in Hawaii as a result of hot-spot activity. The midocean ridge basalts come from the upper convective layer,
which is well mixed, whereas the mantle plume that feeds the Hawaiian volcanoes taps a deeper, more primi-
tive magma source that resides in the lower convective layer.

Despite evidence that supports this model, data gathered from the study of earthquake waves has shown
that at least some subducting slabs of cold oceanic lithosphere penetrate the 660-kilometer boundary and
descend deep into the mantle. The subducting lithosphere should serve to mix the upper and lower layers. As
a result, the layered mantle structure proposed in this model would be destroyed.

51
 B. Whole-Mantle Convection Because of problems with the layered model, researchers began to favor
the whole-mantle convection model. In this model, slabs of dense, cold oceanic lithosphere sink into the lower
mantle, while hot, buoyant plumes originating near the mantle-core boundary transport heat toward the
surface.

However, recent work has shown that whole-mantle mixing would cause the entire mantle to completely
mix in a matter of a few hundred million years. This, in turn, would eliminate chemically distinct magma sources—
those that are observed in hot-spot volcanism and those associated with volcanic activity along oceanic ridges.
C. Deep-Layer Model Another hypothesis favors layering deep within the mantle. One deep-layer model
has been described as analogous to a lava lamp on a low setting. The lower one-third of the mantle is some-
what like the colored fluid in the bottom of a lava lamp. Like a lava lamp, heat from Earth’s interior causes the

lower layer to slowly swell and shrink in complex patterns without substantial mixing with the layer above. In
this model, small amounts of material from the lower layer form mantle plumes which generate hot-spot
volcanism at the surface. Thus, this model provides the two chemically distinct mantle sources, one in the
upper mantle and a deeper source near the core-mantle boundary.
Furthermore, the deep-layer model is compatible with evidence that shows lithospheric plates penetrat-
ing the 660-kilometer layer. Despite its plausibility, there is little evidence to suggest that a deep layer of this
nature exists, except for the very thin D” layer located just above the mantle-core boundary.
Although there is still much to be learned about the mechanisms that cause plate tectonics to operate,
some facts are clear. The unequal distribution of heat in Earth’s interior generates some type of thermal con-
vection that ultimately drives plate-mantle motion. The primary driving force for this flow is provided by dense,
sinking lithospheric plates that serve to transport cold material into the mantle. Moreover, mantle plumes that
are generated near the core-mantle boundary carry heat upward from the core into the mantle.

52
 9 EARTHQUAKES

WHAT IS AN EARTHQUAKE?
An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the rapid release of energy. Most often, earthquakes
are caused by slippage along a fault in Earth’s crust. The energy released radiates in all directions from its
source, called the focus or hypocenter, in the form of waves. These waves are analogous to those produced
when a stone is dropped into a calm pond. Just as the impact of the stone sets water waves in motion, an
earthquake generates seismic waves that radiate throughout Earth. Even though the energy dissipates rapidly
with increasing distance from the focus, sensitive instruments located around the world record the event.

More than 30,000 earthquakes that are strong enough to be felt occur worldwide annually. Fortunately, most
are minor tremors and do very little damage. Generally, only about 75 significant earthquakes take place each year,
and many of these occur in remote regions. However, occasionally a large earthquake occurs near a large population
center. Under these conditions, an earthquake is among the most destructive natural forces on Earth.

Causes of Earthquake
The tremendous energy released by atomic explosions or by volcanic eruptions can produce an earth-
quake, but these events are relatively weak and infrequent. What mechanism produces a destructive earth-
quake? Ample evidence exists that Earth is not a static planet. There are several vertical or horizontal
movements in the earth’s crust. These movements are usually associated with large fractures in Earth’s crust
called faults. Typically, earthquakes occur along preexisting faults that formed in the distant past along zones of
weakness in Earth’s crust. Some are very large and can generate major earthquakes. One example is the San
Andreas Fault, which is a transform fault boundary that separates two great sections of Earth’s lithosphere: the
North American plate and the Pacific plate.

Other faults are small and produce only minor and infrequent earthquakes. However, the vast majority of
faults are inactive and do not generate earthquakes at all. Nevertheless, even faults that have been inactive for
thousands of years can rupture again if the stresses acting on the region increase sufficiently.

Most of the motion along faults can be satisfactorily explained by the plate tectonics theory, which states
that large slabs of Earth’s lithosphere are in continual slow motion. These mobile plates interact with neighbor-
ing plates, straining and deforming the rocks at their margins. In fact, it is along faults associated with plate
boundaries that most earthquakes occur. Furthermore, earthquakes are repetitive: As soon as one is over, the
continuous motion of the plates adds strain to the rocks until they fail again.

The classic explanation of why earthquakes take place is called the elastic rebound theory. It involves the
sudden release of progressively stored strain in rocks, causing movement along a fault. Deep-seated internal
forces (tectonic forces) act on a mass of rock over many decades. Initially, the rock bends but does not break.
More and more energy is stored in the rock as the bending becomes more severe. Eventually, the energy stored
in the rock exceeds the breaking strength of the rock, and the rock breaks suddenly, causing an earthquake.
Two masses of rock move past one another along a fault. The movement may be vertical, horizontal, or both.
The strain on the rock is released; the energy is expended by moving the rock into new positions and by
creating seismic waves ultimately causing earthquakes.

The brittle behavior of breaking rock is characteristic only of rocks near Earth’s surface. Rocks at depth are
subject to increased temperature and pressure, which tend to reduce brittleness. Deep rocks behave as ductile
materials instead of breaking (brittle behavior); hence, there is a limit to the depth at which faults can occur.

53
 Most earthquakes are associated with movement on faults, but in some quakes, the connection with
faulting may be difficult to establish. For example, most earthquakes in the eastern United States are not asso-
ciated with surface displacement. Earthquakes also occur during explosive volcanic eruptions and as magma
forcibly fills underground magma chambers prior to many eruptions; these quakes may not be associated with
fault movement at all.

Another cause has been recently postulated for deep earthquakes (300 to 670 kilometers below the
surface), essentially all of which are found on cold, subducting plates sliding down into the mantle. Although
the down-going plates are colder than the surrounding rock, the high temperature and pressure at depth
suggest to some geologists that the rock in the plates should behave in a ductile way rather than breaking in the
brittle manner of near-surface rocks. The suggested cause of deep quakes is mineral transformations within the
down-going rock, as pressure collapses one mineral into a denser form. Lab experiments have shown bodies of
the new, denser minerals along fractures. Whether the process occurs on a large scale to produce large quakes
is unknown.

EARTHQUAKES AND PLATE TECTONICS

One of the great attractions of the concept of plate tectonics is its ability to explain the distribution of
earthquakes and the rock motion associated with them. Earthquakes occur commonly at the edges of plates
but only occasionally in the middle of a plate. The close correspondence between plate edges and earthquake
belts can be seen by comparing the map of earthquake distribution with the plate map in figures given below.

54
Each type of boundary has a characteristic pattern of earthquake distribution and rock motion.

Distribution of earthquakes at plate boundaries.

55
 Divergent Boundaries
At a divergent boundary, where plates move away from each other, earthquakes are shallow, restricted to
a narrow band, and much lower magnitude than those that occur at convergent or transform boundaries. A
divergent boundary on the sea floor is marked by the crest of the mid-oceanic ridge and the rift valley that is
often (but not always) found on the ridge crest. The earthquakes are located along the sides of the rift valley
and beneath its floor. The rock motion that is deduced from first-motion studies shows that the faults here are
normal faults, parallel to the rift valley. The ridge crest is under tension, which is tearing the sea floor apart,
creating the rift valley and causing the earthquakes.

A divergent boundary within a continent is usually also marked by a rift valley, shallow-focus quakes, and
normal faults. The African Rift Valleys in eastern Africa seem to be such a boundary. Tensional forces are tearing
eastern Africa slowly apart, creating the rift valleys, some of which contain lakes. Other areas where the conti-
nental crust is being pulled apart, such as the Basin and Range province in the western United States, are also
marked by normal faults and shallow earthquakes.

Transform Boundaries
Where two plates move past each other along a transform boundary, the earthquakes are shallow. First-
motion studies indicate strike-slip motion on faults parallel to the boundary. The earthquakes are aligned in a
narrow band along the transform fault. Although most transform faults occur on the ocean floor and offset
ridge segments, some are found in the continental crust. The San Andreas fault in California is the most famous
example of a right-lateral transform fault. The Alpine fault in New Zealand is another example of a right-lateral
transform fault.

Convergent Boundaries
Convergent boundaries are of two general types, one marked by the collision of two continents, the other
marked by subduction of the ocean floor under a continent or another piece of sea floor. Each type has a
characteristic pattern of earthquakes.

Collision boundaries are characterized b y

broad zones of shallow earthquakes on a comple x
system of faults. Some of the faults are parallel to
the dip of the suture zone that marks the line of
collision; some are not. One continent usual ly
overrides the other slightly (continents are n ot
dense enough to be subducted), creating thi ck
crust and a mountain range. The Himalayas re p-
resent such a boundary. The seismic zone is s o
broad and complex at such boundaries that other
criteria, such as detailed geologic maps, must be
used to identify the position of the suture zone at
the plate boundary.

During subduction, earthquakes occur fo r

several different reasons. As a dense oceanic plat e
bends to go down at a trench, it stretches slightly
at the top of the bend, and normal faults occur a s
the rocks are subjected to tension. This gives a
blockfaulted character to the outer (seaward) wa ll
of a trench. For some distance below the trench,
the subducting plate is in contact with the ov erly-
ing plate. First-motion studies of earthquakes a t

56
these shallow depths show that the quakes are caused by shallow-angle thrust-faulting. This is the motion
expected as one plate slides beneath another, a process commonly called underthrusting.

Intra-plate Earthquakes
A few quakes, such as those that occur in the center of plates, cannot easily be related to plate motion.
These intraplate earthquakes probably occurred along older faults that are no longer plate boundaries but
remain zones of crustal weakness. Some of the most destructive earthquakes in the United States, such as the
1811–1812 New Madrid, Missouri; 1886 Charleston, South Carolina; and 1755 Boston, Massachusetts, quakes,
occurred as intraplate earthquakes.

EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION AND SEISMIC RISK

People who live in earthquake-prone regions are plagued by unscientific predictions of impending earth-
quakes by popular writers and self-proclaimed prophets. Several techniques are being explored for scientifi-
cally forecasting a coming earthquake. One group of methods involves monitoring slight changes, or precur-
sors, that occur in rock next to a fault before the rock breaks and moves; these methods that assume large
amounts of strain are stored in rock before it breaks.

Just as a bent stick may crackle and pop before it breaks with a loud snap, a rock may give warning signals
that it is about to break. Before a large quake, small cracks may open within the rock, causing small tremors, or
microseisms, to increase. The properties of the rock next to the fault may be changed by the opening of such
cracks. Changes in the rock’s magnetism, electrical resistivity, or seismic velocity may give some warning of an
impending quake.

The opening of tiny cracks changes the rock’s porosity, so water levels in wells often rise or fall before
quakes. The cracks provide pathways for the release of radioactive radon gas from rocks (radon is a product of
radioactive decay of uranium and other elements). An increase in radon emission from wells may be a prelude
to an earthquake. The interval between eruptions of geysers may change before and after an earthquake,
probably due to porosity changes within the surrounding rock.

In some areas, the surface of Earth tilts and changes elevation slightly before an earthquake. Scientists
use highly sensitive instruments to measure this increasing strain in hopes of predicting quakes.

Chinese scientists claim successful, short-range predictions by watching animal behavior—horses

become skittish and snakes leave their holes shortly before a quake. U.S. scientists conducted a few pilot pro-
grams along these lines, but remain skeptical because it is difficult to correlate a specific animal behavior to an
impending earthquake. It is interesting that very few animals were killed by the Indian Ocean tsunami.
Apparently before the tsunami hit, elephants were seen running to higher ground, flamingos left low-lying
breeding areas, and dogs refused to go outdoors.

Japanese and Russian geologists were the first to predict earthquakes successfully, and Chinese geologists
have made some very accurate predictions. In 1975, a 7.3-magnitude earthquake near Haicheng in northeast-
ern China was predicted five hours before it happened. Alerted by a series of foreshocks, authorities evacuated
about a million people from their homes; many watched outdoor movies in the open town square. Half the
buildings in Haicheng were destroyed, along with many entire villages, but only a few hundred lives were lost.
In grim contrast, however, the Chinese program failed to predict the 1976 Tangshan earthquake (magnitude
7.6), which struck with no warning and killed an estimated 250,000 people.

Most of these methods were once considered very promising but have since proved to be of little real
help in predicting quakes. A typical quake predictor, such as tilt of the land surface, may precede one quake and
then be absent for the next ten quakes. In addition, each precursor can be caused by forces unrelated to earth-
quakes (land tilt is also caused by mountain building, magmatic intrusion, mass wasting, and wetting and drying
of the land).

57
 A fundamentally different method of determining the probability of an earthquake occurring relies on the
history of earthquakes along a fault and the amount of tectonic stress building in the rock. Geologists look at
the geologic record for evidence of past earthquakes using the techniques of paleoseismology. One technique
involves digging a trench across the fault zone to examine sedimentary layers that have been offset and
disrupted during past earthquakes. If the offset layers contain material such as volcanic ash, pollen, or organic
material such as tree roots that can give a numerical age, then the average length of time between earthquakes
(recurrence interval) can be determined. If the length of time since the last recorded earthquake far exceeds
the recurrence interval, the fault is given a high probability of generating an earthquake.

The recurrence interval and likelihood of future earthquakes are also determined by measuring the slip
rate along plate boundaries. Exciting new satellite-based techniques such as InSAR (interferometric synthetic
aperture radar), in addition to GPS, have allowed seismologists to measure the vertical and horizontal
movement along active faults and to determine how long it would take for sufficient stress to build up along
the plate boundary to generate rupturing and slip along a fault. For example, if the slip rate along the boundary
is determined to be 5 centimeters per year and the last earthquake resulted in 5 meters of slip, then you would
expect the next large earthquake to occur in 100 years. Just as a rubber band will break if stretched too far, rock
will also break or rupture if a critical level of stress is exceeded. In other cases, the accumulating stress is
released aseismically by so-called silent earthquakes where a fault slips very slowly or creeps to gradually re-
lieve the stress. Slip rates and recurrence intervals are used to determine the statistical probability of an earth-
quake occurring over a given amount of time.

Another more recent approach to minimize loss of life and reduce damage in a major earthquake is to
closely monitor the amount and location of strong shaking by using a dense network of broadband seismom-
eters that digitally relay information via satellites to a central location. At this location, maps showing where
the greatest amount of shaking occurred can be generated within minutes to guide emergency personnel to
the areas of most damage. Such a system has been developed in southern California, and there are plans for
integrating other regional seismic networks into an Advanced National Seismic System (ANSS) to monitor earth-
quakes throughout the United States if adequate funding can be obtained. A major goal of the ANSS program is
to locate strong-motion seismometers in buildings, bridges, canals, and pipelines to provide valuable informa-
tion on how a structure moves during an earthquake to help engineers build more earthquake-resistant struc-
tures. One key to reducing damage and loss of life is to create stronger structures that resist catastrophic
damage during a major earthquake.

A future goal of the program is to minimize risk by developing an early warning system. With a wide
enough distribution of real-time seismometers, it is technically possible for an urban area to get an early warn-
ing of an impending earthquake if the earthquake’s epicenter is far enough away from the city. For example, if
an earthquake occurred 100 kilometers from downtown Los Angeles and its waves are moving at 4 kilometers
per second, the system would have 25 seconds to process and analyze the data and broadcast it as an early
warning. Even seconds of warning could be enough to shut off main gas pipelines, shut down subway trains,
and give schoolchildren time to get under their desks. Japan has successfully used such a system for detecting
offshore earthquakes that will shut down the Bullet Train; it is also trying to pursue other ways to use the
system to give early warnings to save lives in a major earthquake.

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 10 TSUNAMIS

INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION

The term tsunami has been derived from Japanese word ‘tsu’ meaning harbour and ‘nami’ meaning wave.
According to Report of High Powered Committee on Disaster Management (2001) ofGovt. of India. “Tsunami is
an ocean wave produced by an event at the sea, like an earthquake, landslide or volcanic eruption” . Tsunami is
often referred to as tidal waves which is not true. The regular but periodic rise and fall of sea water due to
gravitational force of moon and sun is called a tide. Tides occur in most places around the globe two times a
day. Tsunami is not generated by tides but by lithospheric events like earthquakes, landslides and volcanoes.
However, tsunami, may be influenced by tide level at the time of its impact on the coast. A tsunami is not a
single wave but a series of waves generated by the geological changes near or below the ocean floor. These
waves may reach enormous size and have been known to travel across the oceans.

FORMATION OF TSUNAMIS
(i) Undersea earthquakes
Although tsunami may be caused by landslides, volcanic eruptions or even by the impact of a large meteorite
falling on the ocean, most destructive tsunamis are generated by massive undersea earthquakes, occurring at
depth less than 50 km with the epicentre or fault line near or on the ocean floor. A strong undersea earthquake
with magnitude greater than 7.5 on the Richter Scale tilts and deforms large areas of the sea floor ranging from
a few kilometres to 1000 kilometres and even more. As the sea floor is tilted or deformed by the tectonic
earthquake (earthquake associated with the earth’s crustal deformation), the sea water above is displaced
from its equilibrium position. Waves are formed as the displaced water attempts to regain its equilibrium
under the influence of gravity. It is this vertical movement of the entire water column that generates destructive
tsunami waves .

59
 The displacement of sea floor, and occurrence of an earthquake and formation of tsunamis can best be
explained on the basis of plate tectonics. When two converging lithospheric plates come closer together, heavier
plate is thrust under the lighter plate and displacement of the
crust takes place at the subduction zone. A fault is created and
an earthquake occurs, giving rise to tsunamis.
According to Law of Conservation of Energy, energy cannot
be created or destroyed but can be transferred from one form
to another. Thus the potential energy that results from pushing
water above the mean sea level is transferred to kinetic energy
that initiates the horizontal propagation of the tsunami waves.
It must be noted that a tsunami is usually not generated if
the sea floor movement is horizontal. Besides, not all undersea
earthquakes create tsunami, as it depends upon the nature and
degree of displacement of seawater column. It is only the
vertical displacement of the seawater due to abrupt, jerky
movements of fault blocks on seabed that gives birth to tsunamis. Once formed, the monstrous waves soon
begin their journey towards the nearest coastline, ringing the bells of doom .

(ii) Landslides
Tsunami waves are also generated by displacement of seawater resulting from landslides as well as rock
falls, icefalls etc. Construction work of an airport runway along the coast of Southern France in the 1980s
caused an underwater landslide. This triggered the destructive tsunami waves in the harbour of Thebes.
Underwater landslides may also occur when a strong earthquake shakes the sea floor, thus forming tsunamis.
These waves rapidly travel away from the source due to dissipation of energy, and create havoc in the nearby
coastlines.

(ii) Volcanic Eruptions

Whenever a violent volcanic eruption takes place under the sea, it causes sudden displacement of a large
volume of seawater and tsunami waves are formed. Similarly, when the roof of a volcano collapses that has a
large empty magma chamber owing to continuous flow of lava, a crater sometimes as large as one kilometre in
diameter is formed. As the seawater gushes into this crater, the water column of the sea is disturbed which
gives rise to tsunami waves.
One of the largest and the most destructive tsunami ever recorded was generated on August 26, 1883 after
the explosion and collapse of the volcano of Krakatoa in Indonesia. This explosion generated waves with a
towering height of about 40 m, that wrecked havoc on the coastal areas along the Sunda.
Strait in both the islands of Java and Sumatra killing more than 36,000 people. It is believed that the
destruction of the Minoan civilisation in Greece in 1490 B.C. was caused by tsunamis which were formed by the
explosion of the volcano of Santorin in the Aegean Sea.

(iv) Meteorites and Asteroids

There is a potential danger of tsunami being formed by the fall of meteorites and asteroids in the ocean.
Researchers in California have developed a computer simulation depicting the ocean impact of asteroid 1950
DA, a gigantic space rock that would be very close to the earth in 2880. Although the possibility of such an
impact is very remote, the computer model definitely gives the researcher an insight into the destructive power
of tsunami caused by near-Earth object. Some of the meteorites have been uncomfortably close to the earth
and could wreck havoc in different forms including tsunamis.

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 PROPAGATION OF THE TSUNAMIS
Tsunamis consist of a series of very long waves which travel outwards on the surface of the ocean in all
directions away from their place of origin. Their movement is just like ripples created by throwing a pebble into
a pond of water. In deep sea the tsunamis travel at very high speed (say 500-800 km per hour), almost as much
as the speed of a jet aircraft. Their wavelength is very long which often exceeds 500-700 km. However, the
amplitude of tsunamis in deep sea is very low and rarely exceeds 1 metre. Physically they propagate as long
waves with speed given by (Water depth gravitation acceleration).

Since the tsunamis have very long wavelength and very low amplitude, in deep ocean, they cannot be seen
or detected from the air. Therefore, passengers on boats cannot feel or see the tsunami waves as the killer
waves pass by underneath at high speeds. It may only appear as a gentle rise and fall of the sea. Thus tsunamis
are always deceptive and are able to conceal their killing capacity in the deep water of open area. For example,
the Great Sanriku tsunami, which struck Honshu in Japan on June 15,1896 was completely undetected by
fishermen as its deep water height was only about 40 cm. A monster in disguise, this tsunami transformed into
huge waves when it arrived on the shore and ravaged 275 km of coastline killing 28,000 people. So from the sky
tsunami waves cannot be distinguished from ordinary ocean waves. But beneath, a tremendous amount of
energy lurks. Since the rate at which the wave loses its energy is inversely related to its wavelength, tsunamis
not only propagate at high speeds, they can also travel great transoceanic distances with limited energy losses.
As the tsunamis leave the deep water of the open ocean and travel towards the shallow water, they are
transformed in two ways. Firstly their speed is reduced considerably and secondly they attain emormous height
often exceeding 10 metres and occasionally may reach 30 metres. shows the origin of tsunamis and their
propagation from deep water of open sea to the coast.
Since the speed of the tsunami is related to the water depth (see expression above), it diminishes in shallow
water. Frictional force of the sea, bed also plays its part in reducing the speed of the tsunami. Thus the initial
speed of 500-700 km per hour is reduced to 50-60 km per hour near the coast. When the tsunami finally
reaches the shore it may appear as a series of breaking waves. The successive waves stack up onto each other
forming a pile of waves due to which the tsunami waves get compressed near the coast. Consequently, the
wavelength of the tsunami waves is shortened and the wave energy is directed upwards. This makes the wave
grow in height. Since the total energy of the waves remains constant (Law of Conservation of Energy), the
height of these waves increases dangerously. This is also known as ‘shoaling’ effect because it transforms a
seemingly harmless wave that was almost imperceptible in deep water into an incredibly dangerous wall of
water on the shore. So if the amplitude of the ‘tsunami’ wave have been just one metre or even less in the deep
water, it grows into a mammoth 30-35 m wave when it sweeps over the shore (fig. 33.4). That is why tsunami
waves smash into the shore with devastating impact of a water bomb.
The maximum height reached by a tsunami on the shore is called the run up. This is the vertical distance
between the mean sea level surface and the maximum height reached by the tsunami waves on the shore.
Generally the tsunami run-up over a metre is considered dangerous. After run up, a part of tsunami energy is
dissipated back to open ocean. This generates particular type of waves called ‘edge waves’ that travel back-
and-forth parallel to the shore. Sometimes tsunami causes the water to recede, exposing the ocean floor..

61
 Tsunamis undergo a lot of refraction on reaching the shore. Refraction of tsunamis depends upon water
depth and configuration of the sea floor near the shore. The process of refraction converges a part of energy of
the tsunami waves to particular areas on the shore. So on reaching the shore, the presence of coral reefs
(fringing or barrier reefs), bays, slope of the beach and other undersea features may modify the tsunamis.

HISTORY OF TSUNAMIS
A brief study of the history of tsunamis reveals that they occur most frequently in the Pacific Ocean as the
coasts of this ocean are areas of moving plates and experience maximum number of undersea earthquakes and
volcanoes in the world. This however, does not mean that tsunamis are restricted to this ocean only. They can
occur in any ocean at any time, as is evident from the following chronology. It may be pointed out that the exact
chronological description of tsunamis is not possible due to lack of proper recording of tsunamis in different
parts of the world. It is believed that the earliest evidence of tsunami was obtained in 6100 B.C. (and even
before) from the Storegga Slides in the North Atlantic Ocean. However, more reliable records have been made
available since 1650 B.C. as is clear from.

TSUNAMIS AROUND THE WORLD

Although tsunamis can occur in any coastal area of the world, most tsunamis hit the Pacificcoast areas. This
is due to the fact that this region represents the collision and subduction zone of oceanic and continental
plates. The Pacific plate is the largest oceanic plate is the world and is surrounded by a number of continental
plates on its eastern and western coasts. These plates move a few centimetres per year. The heavier oceanic
plate is subducted below the lighter continental plate and part of the subducted plate melts. Melting also takes
place due to heat crated by pressure of rocks above. The molten rock magma rises to the surface and volcanic
eruption takes place. It has been estimated over 75 per cent of the world’s active and dormant volcanoes are
found along the Pacific coast as a result of which, it is called the ‘Ring of Fire’ or The Circum Pacific Seissmic
Belt”. The convergent and divergent plates along Pacific coast also cause most devastating earthquakes of the
world. About 80% of all recorded earthquakes occur around the edge of the Pacific Plate. The Ring of Fire
extends northward through Fiji, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, and Japan along the eastern coast of Russia.
It also covers the region east to the southern edge of Alaska as well as the western coast of Canada, the U.S.A.,
Mexico and South America.1 It is estimated that over 300 strong tsunami have been registered on the shores
and islands of the Pacific Ocean in the past 2,500 years as compared to only 30 in the Atlantic ocean. Deep
trenches along the eastern and western coasts of the Pacific Ocean are the main places of occurrence of powerful
earthquakes and hence tsunamis. Japan in worst affected by tsunamis and has often to bear the brunt of
catastrophic tsunamis. Following powerful earthquakes that originate beneath the deep trenches of western
Pacific, about 150 disastrous tsunami have afflicted the Japanese coasts since records of earthquakes first
began to be kept there.2 Some tsunamis occur in the Indian Ocean but it is a rare phenomenon in the Atlantic
Ocean. The frequency of tsunamis has increased considerable over the years. For example, on an average 52
tsunamis occur in one decade but decade of 1990 saw as many as 82 big and small tsunamis.

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 TSUNAMI OF JAPAN
A severe earthquake measuring 8.9 on the Richter Scale hit the north-eastern cost of Honshu, the largest
island of Japan, on March 11, 2011, near Sendai. The epicentre of the earthquake was 130 km offshore the city
of Sendai. This was the most powerful quake to hit Japan since it started keeping records 140 years ago. It is
supposed to be the seventh biggest earthquake in the world history. The shocks were felt at Beijing, about 2500
km away. Although the focus of this earthquake was at a depth of 26 km. within the earth’s crust, it sent
tsunami waves throughout Pacific Ocean. The main cause of the earthquake is supposed to be the movement
of the tectonic plates. Japan is sitting on the junction of four plates namely. (1) Eurasian Plate, (2) North American
Plate, (3) Pacific Plate, and (4) Philippine Plate . Japan accounts for about 20% of the words most powerful
earthquakes due to convergence of the tectonic plates and experiences about 1,000 tremors each year which
comes to an average of three tremors per day.
Tsunami waves are created whenever a strong earthquake measuring 8 on the Richter Scale causes vertical
displacement in the sea bed. This earthquake caused tsunami waves rising upto ten metres and wrecked havoc
in Japan. More than 14,700 people died and property worth billions of rupees was damaged.
PACIFIC COASTAL COUNTRIES AFFECTED
Tsunamis caused by a severe earthquake of 8.9 magnitude travelled throughout the length and breadth of
the Pacific Ocean which happens to be the largest ocean of the world. It reached Hawaii Islands, located in the
middle of the Pacific Ocean within 6 hours and went right upto Chile in South America after 21 hours . It
affected as many as 21 countries which include Russia, China, Taiwan, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Fiji,
Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Peru, Ecuador, Columbia, Panama, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras,
Guatemala, Mexico, U.S.A. and Canada. However, tsunami waves in most of these countries were not very
strong and did not cause much damage. For example, these waves were about 2 metre at the coast of Hawaii
Islands and Alaska, 30 cm at Philippines and a little over 10 cm at Indonesia.
In Japan, casualties are much less because Jhat country is much advanced with respect to disaster forecast
and disaster management. Had such a disaster hit a country like India, the casualties would have been two lakh
instead of 14,700 suffered by Japan.
NUCLEAR THREAT
The powerful tsunami of March 11, 2011 which wrecked have in Japan also led to nuclear explosion in the
nuclear power plant at Fukushima often referred to the Fukushima Dai-ichi (Dai-ichi simply means number

63
one). The nuclear leak posed a serious health hazard and Japan
had to declare a state of emergency at the concerned nuclear
power plant after its cooling system failed because of falling
level of water inside the reactors. About 2.1 lakh people had to
be evacuated from area lying within a radius of 20 km from
Fukushima. Nuclear plant at Fukushima is an ‘ageing power
plant’ which was commissioned on March 25, 1971 and is not
equipped to withstand a catastrophe of this magnitude. Efforts
were made toc avoid meltdown.
According to a statement made by the Japanese prime
minister, Mr. Naoto Kan regarding this tragedy. “The situation
created by the earthquake, tsunami and failure of nuclear plants
was grave and Japan was facing the most serious crisis in 65
years since World War II.” Japan’s nuclear safety agency said
there had been a rise in radiation at Onagawa facility due to
leakage from the Fukushima plant.
Experts fear that radiation clouds could be carried to as far
as west coast of North America across the vast pacific Ocean by
winds blowing from Japan to the North American continent.
Japan has to equip itself to face such type of incidents
in future also because Japan heavily depends on nuclear
energy for its power requirements. In Japan, 54 nuclear
power reactors in operation are spread over the country,
out of which 11 nuclear plants are located in quake and
tsunami affected regions. Nuclear power plants generate
about 30 per cent of the total electric power in that country.
Thus Japan is the third largest nuclear power user in
the world after France and the U.S.A. Japan is constrained
to build nuclear power plants in low lying areas near the
sea coast because these power stations use sea water to
cool steam inside the reactor. This brings us to the
conclusion that Japan has to develop new strategies to face
such an alarming situation in times to came.

TSUNAMIS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN

Although the number of tsunami hitting the Indian ocean is much less than the number of tsunamis hitting
the Pacific Ocean, yet this ocean is not free from the wrath of tsunamis and they keep on occurring in this ocean
occasionally. The earliest record of tsunamis in the Indian Ocean are traced back to 326 B.C. when Macedonian
fleet of Alexander the Great was destroyed by tsunami generated by earthquake in Indus delta/Kachchh. In the
last 200 years, at least seven tsunamis have been recorded in the Indian Ocean. Indonesia alone has seen more
than 50,000 deaths in more than 30 destructive tsunamis over the centuries—not including the recent tsunamis
of 26th December, 2004. In 1883 eruptions from the Krakatoa fueled tsunamis which killed 36,000 people in
Java and Sumatra islands of Indonesia. During the earthquake
in 1880 which had its epicentre near the centre of the Bay of Bengal, tsunamis were reported. During the
earthquakes of 1819 and 1845 near the Rann of Kachchh, there was rapid movement of water into the sea
Tsunamis 12 to 15 metres high were generated in the Persian Gulf by 1945 Mekran earthquake. The estimated
height of waves was about 2 metres at Mumbai. For details of tsunamis in the Indian Ocean)

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 TSUNAMIS OF 26TH DECEMBER 2004 IN THE INDIAN OCEAN
On 26th December 2004, the Indian Ocean was hit by tsunamis which is considered to be the most
catastrophic in the living memory of the inhabitants of the coastal areas of this ocean. It was caused by a severe
earthquake which measured 8.9 on the Richter
Scale. Seismologists at Northwestern University in Illinois later upgraded the earthquake to magnitude 9 3
on Richter Scale. This is perhaps the highest magnitude for any earthquake ever recorded anywhere in the
world. This earthquake had its epicentre off the coast of Sumatra (Indonesia) at 3.5° north latitude and 95° east
longitude. This place happens to be at the tri-junction of the Indian, Australian and Burmese (Myanmarese)
plates. The earthquake was triggered by the collision of the Indian plate with Burmese plate. It occurred at the
point where the Indian plate subducts below the Burmese plate due to the northward movement of the Indian
plate 33.9). Seismologists have noted a 15 metre slip in the vertical direction along the crack that is about 1000
km long extending upto Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the northern direction.

Damages by Tsunami
This tsunami had been the most damaging in the world history. It had wrecked havoc to as many as 11
countries of south and southeast Asia and East Africa extending from Indonesia to Somalia. Hence it is rightly
called the tragedy of international dimensions. Various types of damages done by the tsunami of 26th December
2004 are briefly described as under.
1. Death Toll
The tsunamis that hit the Indian Ocean on 26th Dec 2004 claimed over 15 lakh (2.5 lakh according to other
estimates) lives in different countries of Asia and Africa. The soaring waves killed people of at least 40 nationalities
including tourists from various countries of the world. Shows that Indonesia has been the worst sufferer with
death toll of over one lakh persons. Sri Lanka, India and Thailand also suffered heavy tolls. The other countries
which suffered loss of life include Myanmar, Bangladesh, Maldives and the distant African countries of Somalia,
Kenya, Seychelles and Tanzania.
Surprisingly Malaysia suffered only a fraction of destruction despite its being located so near to the epicentre
of the earthquake. This is because of the location of Sumatra which acted as buffer for Malaysia.
Besides over one million people were affected and several others were rendered homeless. In India, the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands were the closest to the epicentre of the earthquake and hence the origin of
tsunamis, and were the worst sufferers. Areas like Car Nicobar,Katchal, Nancowry, Campbell Bay, Champion
Island, Chowra and Teresa Island have been badly affected. In Car Nicobar, half of the total population of about
20 thousand was reportedly missing.

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 On the main land of India, the main attack of tsunamis was on the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh and Kerala and the union territory of Pondicherry. Of these three states, Tamil Nadu suffered the most.
The largest number of deaths was reported from Nagapattinam, Kanniyakumari, Cuddalore and Chennai districts.
Out of a total population of about 15 lakhs in Nagapattinam district about five thousand persons were killed, 2
lakh injured and 1.5 lakh were rendered homeless. As many as 80 villages were completely swept away by
waves. Fishing boats were wrested ashore to a distance of one kilometre with many landing on rail tracks near
Nagapattinam railway station. The story was almost the same in Kanniyakumari, Cuddalore and Chennai districts.
After Nagapattinam, Kanniyakumari district reported the heaviest,toll. Kanniyakumari itself looked like a ghost
town. The toll has been heightened because across the Tamil Nadu coast, villages of fishermen are situated
between the low tide and high tide areas. In the pilgrim town of Tiruchander, sea water entered inland as far as
2 km. Like Kanniyakumari, Cuddalore looked like a ghost city.
In Andhra Pradesh, all the nine districts on the coast were badly affected by tsunamis though four south
coastal districts were the worst affected. Most victims met their watery grave as they were taken unawared.
The fishing community which lived in makeshift houses near the head was totally washed away. A large number
of deaths had been reported from Krishna, Prakasam, Nellore, West Godawari and East Godawari districts.
In Kerala, the highest toll was reported from Kollam district followed by Alappuzha and Ernakulam districts.
In north Kerala, damage by waves was reported from Kozhikode and Kannur districts. Severe damage was
reported from Karaikal in Pondicherry.
The countries which reported death toll higher than India were Indonesia and Sri Lanka. In Indonesia, Sumatra
and Java including Aceh Province were the worst sufferers. In Sri Lanka, Matara, Galle, Weligma, Hambantota,
Batticaloa and Colombo reported heavy casualties. The Jaffna peninsula also suffered heavy casualties. High
death toll was also reported from Phuket island of Thailand.

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 Besides a large number of tourists from Europe, North America, South America and Australia who had
come to the tsunami affected countries to celebrate Christmas and New year also lost their lives.

2. Loss of Property
Property worth crores of rupees has been damaged as a result of attack by tsunamis. Infrastructural elements
like houses, public buildings, transport and communication system etc. had been damaged almost beyond
repair. Sea water even entered the nuclear power plant at Kalpakkam which was closed for a number of days. In
Sri Lanka, rail tracks were twisted near Colombo and a train was derailed in which about 1,000 persons were
killed. According to preliminary findings of the government of India, the coastal areas of India, which include
large coastal tracts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Pondicherry and Kerala, have suffered financial losses of
billions of rupees. The financial loss in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands was pegged at f 2,500 crore.

3. Physiographical Changes
Tsunamis of 26th December 2004 were so strong that they could bring about drastic physiographic changes
in different parts of the world. Satellite pictures of the tsunami affected areas show conspicuous changes in
Chennai (particularly Adyar river course) as well as Trinket Katchall and Camorta Islands of the Andaman and
Nicobar. Water level in many islands had risen, number of beaches in many islands like Campbell Bay had
vanished and Trinket Island was split into two. Car Nicobar, which was worst affected sank to some extent.
Indira Point, the southern-most tip of the Indian Union, was almost completely washed out, shrinking the
coastline inland. These islands are hardly 125 to 200 km from the origin of tsunamis and had to face the worst
fury of the killing waves.
In Maldives, 130 of the 200 islands were substantially damaged and 19 inhabited islands were swept away.
Many of the smaller islands near the coast of Sumatra have either disappeared or they have been deformed
by the force of the earthquake. According to the U.S. Geological Survey many of the small islands of the southwest

67
coast of Sumatra might have moved to the southwest by as much as 20 metres. According to the U.S. Geological
Survey expert Ken Herdnut, the northwestern tip of Sumatra may also have shifted to the southwest by about
36 metres. However, Stuart Sipkin of the USGS National Earthquake Information Centre in Golden Colorado,
said it was more likely that the islands of Sumatra had risen higher out of sea than they had moved laterally.
Collision of the Indian and the Burmese plate created a fault 1,200 km long and 150-200 km wide in the Indian
Ocean.
The latest data available through the Global Positioning System (GPS) has shown that under impact of the
earthquake, almost whole of south-east Asia moved eastward by a few centimetres. On an
average Thiruvananthapuram moved by 26 mm, Bangalore by 15 mm, Singapore (westward) by 14 mm,
Diego Garcia by 12 mm, Kunming in China (south-westward) by 9 mm, Lhasa in Tibet (south-eastward) by 4 mm
and Dehradun by 2 mm. The data also reveals that the quake caused deformations on the earth’s surface cross
a radius of 4,500 km from the epicentre.

4. Motion of the Earth

The US Geological Survey also expressed the opinion (as expressed by Ken Herdnut) that tremendous energy
released by the earthquake made the earth wobble on its axis. According to Richard Gross, a NASA geophysicist,
the earthquake might have permanently accelerated the earth’s rotation due to shift of mass towards the
earth’s centre. This had caused the planet to spin 3 microseconds or one millionth of a second faster and to tilt
about 2.5 cm on its axis. In other words, day is shortened by about 3 microseconds and the north pole has
shifted towards east Siberia by 2.5 cm. Besides earth’s oblatiness (flattering at the poles and bulging at the
equator) decreased by one part in 10 billion.

5. Decline in Soil Fertility and Agricultural Production

Vast low lying coastal areas were submerged under sea water which increased the salinity of the soil and
reduced agricultural production. Cuddalore and Nagapattinam districts in Tamil Nadu were the worst affected.
Tests conducted on soil samples from these districts showed that sea water had seeped to a depth of about 90
cm of soil, thereby totally affecting the root zone (15-30 cm below ground). Soil profile tests showed high
salinity varying from 6.8 to 9.10 pH value (neutral value for pH is 7). This is highly saline condition in which no
paddy crop could be cultivated. In Nagapattinam district alone, more than 9,500 hectares of land had been
rendered unfit for cultivation by increased salinity. Horticulture also suffered heavy losses. The total loss in
Nagapattinam district was estimated at Rs. 5.2 crore. This land could be reclaimed by flushing the soil with fresh
water from the Cauvery river and by administering about two metric tonnes of gypsum per hectare. This process
normally takes about 3 to 4 years to show the desired results. Farmers had been advised to sow plants like
cashewnut which are saline-resistant.

6. Effect on Marine Life

The killer tsunamis had badly affected the marine life of the Indian Ocean. A large section of the coral reefs
of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands archipelago had been destroyed, while others suffered extensive damages.
According to marine biologists, satellite pictures showed that 45 per cent of the fragile coral reefs had been
destroyed. The surviving reefs were damaged by the debris washed into the sea from the islands. Experts say it
would take at least 700 to 800 years for reefs to re-form. The coral reefs around the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands are of fringing type i.e., they lie just off the coastline. Hence they have suffered extensive damage.
According to Greg Miller, Executive Scientist of Global Reef Watch, “The fragile coral reefs off the archipelago’s
islands are relatively new (about a thousand years old) and could not withstand the high speed tsunami waves”.
There were an estimated 316 species of corals around the islands of the archipelago. Some of the species that
were unique to the archipelago could have become extinct.
Fishing also suffered heavy losses at the hands of the powerful tsunamis. Sea beaches along the coasts of
the Indian Ocean became graveyards of the dead fishes after the tsunami swept across the ocean. Mangrove
areas that acted as nursery habitats to fish and shrimp were also damaged. The breeding, feeding and other
activities of large sea mammals such as whales, dolphins etc. were also adversely affected.

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 Marine exports from India to the tune of US $ 1.3 billion were
severely hit owing to wreckage caused by tsunamis. Since hatcheries
and aquaculture ponds of coastal areas from Kerala to Orissa have
been adversely affected, the marine production and hence the marine
exports were badly hit. Fish, prawns and shrimps form a major chunk
of India’s marine exports.

TSUNAMI DISTASTER MANAGEMENT AND

MITIGATION
Tsunamis are so powerful oceanic waves mat it is not in man’s
hands to control or check them. However, following few tips may be
helpful if forewarning about advancing tsunamis is received.
1. Get off the beaches and head for higher ground.
2. Stay away from rivers leading into the ocean.
3. Wait for all clear as there can be several giant waves in
succession.
Advance Warning about Tsunamis
The best way of escaping the fury of the killing tsunami waves is
to give advance warning of impending tsunamis to the vulnerable communities. Following few tips will help the
common man to apprehend the danger of tsunamis.
(i) If there is a major undersea earthquake, beware of the danger because tsunamis could reach the
coast in a few minutes.
(ii) Shaking of ground is a sufficient warning for the people living in the coastal areas about the im-
pending tsunami.
(iii) A perceptible rapid rise or fall in coastal water can also be taken as a forewarning about an ap-
proaching tsunami,
(iv) Coastal areas less than eight metres above sea level run the greatest risk of an attack by tsunamis.
They should be immediately evacuated if there is danger of an approaching tsunami.
It is possible to predict the onslaught of tsunamis by studying their speed, wavelength and depth of the sea.
Tsunamis often take some time to reach the sea coast from their place of origin because the wave length and
speed of tsunamis is drastically reduced when they approach the shallow sea. But on reaching the coastal
shallow waters, their energy is compressed and they attack the coastal population as lethal waves. Thus a
correct warning a few hours before the arrival of tsunamis can save thousands of lives and property worth
millions of rupees.
Such a warning system has been developed for the Pacific Ocean where tsunami formation is almost an
annual feature. This system is designed to warn about potentially destructive waves that may hit the coastal
areas in 3 to 14 hours. All the 26 member nations of the system receive specific early warnings with exhaustive
data on tsunamis and can bank on extensive network of seismic stations to locate potential tsunami inducing
earthquakes in near real time. The system is connected via satellite and telephone to nearby 100 water level
stations throughout the Pacific that can be used to verify the generation and possible severity of a tsunami.

TSUNAMI WARNING SYSTEM IN INDIA

Unfortunately India and other Indian Ocean rim countries did not have tsunami warning system before
26th December 2004 when the deadly tsunamis hit the coasts of Indian Ocean. Had public warnings been
issued about the killing tsunami waves across the Indian Ocean, thousands of lives and property worth billions
of rupees could be saved as the tsunami which hit the Sumatra Island took about three hours to crash into, the

69
Indian Coast. After the catastrophe, India has decided to install her own tsunami warning system at the cost of
Rs. 125 crore rather than becoming a part of the Pacific Warning System. It was planned to install the warning
system by the end of the year 2007 and was inaugurated on 15th October, 2007. The system comprises a real-
time network of seismic stations, bottom pressure recorders (BPR) and the tide gauges to monitor earthquakes
in the sea and tsunamis triggered by them. The centre receives the data from the seismic network of the Indian
Meteorological Department and other international set ups.
The system can detect earthquakes above 6 magnitude occurring the Indian Ocean in less than 20 minutes
and alert agencies within 13 minutes. This is done with the help of the BPRs—the key sensors that confirm the
triggering of the tsunami. Six BPRs, have been installed in all out of which four are in Bay of Bengal and two are
in the Arabian Sea. The system was successfully tested during the 8.4 magnitude earthquake that hit Indonesia
on September 12,2007.
The centre generates and disseminates timely adviories to the control room of the Home Ministry which
issues an alert to the public. To warn the ministry, a satellite based network for disaster management support
has been established. This enables the centre to also issue alerts to the state emergency operations centres.
The messages are to be sent by telephone, fax, SMS and e-mails to the authorised officials. It has been acclaimed
as the “most modern” tsunami warning system in the word by Peter Koltermann, the head of the tsunami co-
ordination unit intergovernmental oceanographic commission UNESCO.

UNUSUAL ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR AND TSUNAMIS

As in case of earthquakes, animals start behaving in unusual manner, before tsunamis actually strike the
coast. At the time of catastrophic tsunamis which wrecked havoc in Indian Ocean on 26th December 2004,
elephants in Thailand started wailing. They soon calmed down, but started wailing again about an hour later.
This time they could not be comforted despite their mahauts’ efforts. The elephants just kept running for the
hill. The elephants that were not working, broke their hefty chains. Soon the area was attacked by devastating
tsunamis caused by the earthquake (8.9 on Richter Scale) of Sumatra. Abnormal behaviour of birds and animals
was also observed in the coastal belt of Tamil Nadu (the worst hit area in India). Animals in forests were feeling
restless. Birds stopped crying and there was unusual silence. About two months before the tsunamis struck the
Indian coast, fishermen of Puducherry found fish with reddish tails, called Red Bait, in their trawler nets. The
sighting of this fish had always preceded a natural calamity. Catches of similar type in 1977,1979 and 1996 were
followed by major cyclones. It is a fishermen’s instinct that Red Bait portends disaster and it has often come
true. According to Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI), the Red Bait (measuring about 12. cm
when fully grown and is edible) is a deep water fish which surfaces during ‘upwelling’ of water. This phenomenon
is more pronounced on the West Coast. But this time upwelling happened on the East Coast and that too during
the non-upwelling season. Still -CMFRI was not alarmed, since unlike cyclones tsunami was completely unknown.
Some of the other instances of abnormal behaviour of animals and birds noticed on that fateful day were as
under.

70
 • Crows flew into CMFRI’s fish hatchery in Chennai and didn’t budge.
• Cows on the Chennai beach ran like mad away from the coast.
• At Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, black bucks and deer fled towards higher ground.
Vegetation. Impact of tsunamis can be considerably reduced by growing sea coast vegetation. Sea vegetation
can be effective protection if the vegetation-cover along the coast exceeds 70 per cent of the area. Unfortunately
most of the natural vegetation has been destroyed for obtaining fodder and fuel. In Tamil Nadu only 110 km
stretch out of a total coastal length of 1,076 km has sufficient vegetation cover.
A team of researchers led by Finn Danielsen of the Nordic Agency for Development and Ecology in
Copenhagen, Denmark, presented its findings regarding tsunami damages in Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu
in October, 2005 issue of the journal Science. According to the report presented by this team, “In the north,
stands of mangroves had five associated villages, two on the coast and three behind the mangrove. The villages
on the coast were completely destroyed, whereas those behind the mangrove suffered no destruction, even
though the waves damaged areas unshielded by vegetation north and south of these villages.” The overall
damages were found to be 35 per cent of coastal land without trees, 15 per cent where there were some trees

and less than 1 per cent where there was protection by dense tree growth.
Structural Protection. Structures like walls, ridges etc. can act as protective devices to some extent. Tamil
Nadu government had proposed to construct a sea wall along the entire 1,076 km long coastline from Chennai
to Kanniyakumari. But it has its own financial and ecological limitations. Although tsunamis constitute a natural
tragedy and man has hardly any control on such a powerful natural phenomenon yet man’s own misdeeds have
made the situation very dangerous and helped in aggravating the fury of tsunamis. For example, no construction
is allowed within 500 metres of the coast. There is legal obligation in India to leave this stretch of land vacant
but all sorts of construction (residential, commercial, recreational etc.) is carried on without caring for the law.
People living in this belt are most vulnerable to tsunamis and other sea related hazards. Mining of sand and
other minerals from the sea, as is done in Kanniyakumari, makes the concerned area highly vulnerable to
tsunamis. The sand deposited on the sea coast absorbes much energy of the waves, and saves from their fury.
There is urgent need to check unwanted construction and mining in ecologically sensitive coastal areas.

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 11 VULCANISM

MEANING OF VULCANISM
Volcanism or volcancity includes all the phenomena associated with movement of molten material from
the interior of the Earth to the surface. It is the process by which matter is transferred from the Earth’s interior
and erupted on to its surface.

In other words, it can be said to embrace all the activities and processes by which gaseous, liquid and solid
substances of internal origin are ejected on the surface.

Basically, there are three main processes—

(i) Generation of magma,

(ii) Intrusion of masses of magma, and
(iii) Extrusion of molten material on to the surface by simple and quiet activity or by forceful ejection through
explosive volcanic activity, breaking through the rocks.
The oldest rocks exposed on the surface of the Earth were produced by volcanic activity.

So volcanoes, were active 3500 m.y. ago and, although, the intensity of activity has waxed and waned
through the geological time, at present their products form most of the oceanic and part of the continental
crust.

Volcanic activity is, undoubtedly, one of the greatest threats to life on Earth, and strange although it may
sound, there would be no life on Earth without it, for the water brought from the Earth’s interior by volcanic
activity has allowed the creation of hydrosphere and atmosphere and has also been responsible for the evolu-
tionary processes of life.

The role of volcanism in crustal development requires an understanding of distribution of volcanoes in

relation to major features of the Earth’s surface—the ocean basins, mountain ranges, island arcs, continental
margins and rift valleys. It is this relation, the geotectonic setting of volcanism, which determines both the
formation and composition of magma, and hence, controls the amount of proportion of elements being added
to the crust in a given region.

PROCESS OF VULCANISM
Generation of Magma
Magma generation within the Earth is a result of complex interaction of increase in temperature, de-
crease in pressure and addition of water. Volcanic heat contributes about 1/100th of the total terrestrial heat
loss, but it is very localised along belts of rising convective currents or above 122 odd hot spots, associated with
rising plumes. The convecting layer probably occurs at depth of less than 700 km and contains a hierarchy of
different cell sizes. About half of the heat in the convecting layer is generated within the layer itself and half
comes from the mantle below. Magma rises within the Earth through piercing blobs or diapirs or as columns of
partly molten rock by a complex set of processes.

72
 The molten material that lies beneath the surface is called as magma and when the same molten material
comes to the surface, it is called lava. Silicate melts (magmas) form in the lower crust and upper mantle, and
that, under certain conditions, they can reach the surface to be erupted as lava. Lava differs from magma in
containing fewer volatile components; and in cooling either in the air or undsF wateF, §8 that it ery§talli§es
rapidly.

Magma which, having formed, remains deep within the crust, also cools, but only very slowly. In conse-
quence, crystals are much better formed than in the rapidly cooled lavas.

At shallow depth, a combination of diapir pressure, thermal expansion and gas pressure (partly from
groundwater turned to steam) may lead to surface eruption.

Magma generation in the upper mantle requires—

1. Increase in heat. Melting in magma source areas requires thermal energy of about 100 cal/gm of magma
produced. This energy may be supplied directly from—
(a) Local concentration of radioactive elements and their decay, which emit a, P and y rays, thus producing
heat.
(b) Energy given off during Earthquakes.
(c) Upward convection currents or plumes from the mantle.
(d) Frictional heating in those places, where two surfaces move over one another.
2. Decrease Pressure. The temperature increases with depth at a rate of about 30°C/ 1000 km, establishing a
temperature gradient which results in outward flow of heat from the Earth. However, the pressure on the
overlying rocks also increases. Increase in pressure results in raising the melting point of all the rocks, so
that at a level, the melting point of all rocks are raised above the prevailing temperature. At greater depths,
the melting point would be so high that even allowing for heat during flow to the surface, the temperatures
observed at the Earth’s surface would have to be much higher than they, in fact, are. Since the melting
point of silicates increases with load pressure, a decrease in pressure caused perhaps by faulting would
reduce the effective melting point at a given depth resulting in melting.
3. Role of water. Water increases the melting point of most silicates. When there is increase in water content
(which may be due to breakdown of hydrous minerals carried into the subduction zone), the melting point
is lowered, and hence, there is melting. However, the role of water is variable in the generation of magma.
With these concepts in mind, magma generation can be seen within the purview of plate tectonics, which
accounts for the causation, distribution and type of volcanic activity.

BOWEN’S REACTION SERIES

Although it is highly idealized, Bowen’s reaction series provides us with a visual representation of
the order in which minerals crystallize from a magma of average composition. This model assumes
that the magma cools slowly at depth in an otherwise unchanging environment.

Notice that Bowen’s reaction series is divided into two branches— a discontinuous series and a
continuous series.

Discontinuous Reaction Series.

The upper left branch of Bowen’s reaction series indicates that as a magma cools, olivine is the first
mineral to crystallize. Once formed, olivine will chemically react with the remaining melt to form
the mineral pyroxene. In this reaction, olivine, which is composed of individual silicon–oxygen
tetrahedra, incorporates more silica into its structure, thereby linking its tetrahedra into singlechain

73
 structures of the mineral pyroxene. (Note: pyroxene has a lower crystallization temperature than
olivine and is more stable at lower temperatures.) As the magma body cools further, the pyroxene
crystals will in turn react with the melt to generate the double-chain structure of amphibole. This
reaction will continue until the last mineral in this series, biotite mica, crystallizes. In nature, these
reactions do not usually run to completion, so that various amounts of each of the minerals in the
series may exist at any given time, and some minerals such as biotite may never form. This branch
of Bowen’s reaction series is called a discontinuous reaction series because at each step a different
silicate structure emerges. Olivine, the first mineral in the sequence, is composed of isolated tetra-
hedra, whereas pyroxene is composed of single chains, amphibole of double chains, and biotite of
sheet structures.

Continuous Reaction Series.

The right branch of the reaction series, called the continuous reaction series, illustrates that
calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar crystals react with the sodium ions in the melt to become
progressively more sodium-rich. Here the sodium ions diffuse into the feldspar crystals and
displace the calcium ions in the crystal lattice. Often, the rate of cooling occurs rapidly enough to
prohibit a complete replacement of the calcium ions by sodium ions. In these instances, the
feldspar crystals will have calcium-rich interiors surrounded by zones that are progressively richer in
sodium. During the last stage of crystallization, after much of the magma has solidified, potassium
feldspar forms. (Muscovite will form in pegmatites and other plutonic igneous rocks that crystallize
at considerable depth.) Finally, if the remaining melt has excess silica, the mineral quartz will form.

Ascent of Magma
To be discussed in the class.
Emplacement of Magma
To be discussed in the class.

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THE NATURE OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
Volcanic activity is commonly perceived as a process that produces a picturesque, cone-shaped struc-
ture that periodically erupts in a violent manner. Although some eruptions may be very explosive,
many are not. What determines whether a volcano extrudes magma violently or “gently”? The
primary factors include the magma’s composition, its temperature, and the amount of dissolved
gases it contains. To varying degrees, these factors affect the magma’s mobility, or viscosity The
more viscous the material, the greater its resistance to flow. (For example, syrup is more viscous
than water.) Magma associated with an explosive eruption may be five times more viscous than
magma that is extruded in a quiescent manner.

Factors Affecting Viscosity

The effect of temperature on viscosity is easily seen. Just as heating syrup makes it more fluid (less
viscous), the mobility of lava is strongly influenced by temperature. As lava cools and begins to
congeal, its mobility decreases and eventually the flow halts.

A more significant factor influencing volcanic behavior is the chemical composition of the magma.
A magma’s viscosity is directly related to its silica content. In general, the more silica in magma, the
greater its viscosity. The flow of magma is impeded because silica structures link together into long
chains, even before crystallization begins. Consequently, because of their high silica content, rhy-
olitic (felsic) lavas are very viscous and tend to form comparatively short, thick flows. By contrast,
basaltic lavas which contain less silica are relatively fluid and have been known to travel 150 kilo-
meters (90 miles) or more before congealing— in other words, crystallizing to become an igneous
rock.

The amount of volatiles (the gaseous components of magma, mainly water) contained in magma
also affects its mobility. Other factors being equal, water dissolved in the magma tends to increase
fluidity because it reduces polymerization (formation of long silicate chains) by breaking silicon–
oxygen bonds. Therefore, in near-surface environments the loss of gases renders magma (lava)
more viscous.

Why Do Volcanoes Erupt?

Most magmas are generated by partial melting in the upper asthenosphere at depths of about 100
kilometers (60 miles). Once formed, melt which is less dense than the surrounding rock will buoy-
antly rise toward the surface. Because the density of crustal rocks decreases toward the surface,
ascending magma may reach a level where the rocks above are less dense. Should this occur, the
molten material begins to collect, forming a magma chamber where it may reside for an extended
period before it either solidifies, or some of it ascends further. Only a fraction of magma generated
at depth ever reaches the surface.

Triggering a Volcanic Eruption One of the simplest mechanisms for triggering a volcanic eruption
is the arrival of a new batch of melt into a near surface magma reservoir. This phenomenon can

75
 often be detected because the summit of the volcano begins to inflate months, or even years,
before an eruption begins. The injection of a fresh supply of melt causes the pressure in the magma
chamber to rise until cracks develop in the rock above. This, in turn, mobilizes the magma, which
quickly moves upward along the fractured rock, often generating quiet outpourings of lava for weeks,
months, or even years. This mechanism is thought to have triggered numerous large eruptions of
basaltic lava along the East Rift Zone of Kilauea. The most recent eruptive phase in this region has
been almost continuous since it began in 1983. Although the influx of a fresh supply of magma is
thought to trigger many eruptions, it does not explain why some volcanic eruptions are explosive.

The Role of Volatiles in Explosive Eruptions All magmas contain a small percentage of water and
other volatiles that are held in solution by the immense pressure of the overlying rock. As a magma
body evolves, the earlier formed iron-rich minerals tend to sink, leaving the upper part of the
reservoir enriched in volatiles and silica-rich melts. Should this volatile-rich magma rise, or the
rocks confining the magma fail, a reduction in pressure ensues and the dissolved gases begin to
expand and form bubbles (This is analogous to opening a warm soda and allowing the carbon
dioxide bubbles to escape.) At temperatures of 1000°C and low near-surface pressures, these gases
can quickly expand to occupy hundreds of times their original volumes.

Very fluid basaltic magmas allow the expanding gases to migrate upward and escape from the vent
with relative ease. As they escape, the gases may propel incandescent lava hundreds of meters into
the air, producing lava fountains. Although spectacular, such fountains are mostly harmless and not
generally associated with major explosive events that cause great loss of life and property. Rather,
eruptions of fluid basaltic lavas, such as those that occur in Hawaii, are generally quiescent.

At the other extreme, highly viscous, silica-rich magmas may produce explosive clouds of hot ash
and gases that evolve into buoyant plumes called eruption columns that extend thousands of meters
into the atmosphere. When viscous magma ascends, the developing gas bubbles do not easily
escape but rather cause the molten material to expand resulting in a gradual increase in the internal
pressure. Should the pressure exceed the strength of the overlying rock, fracturing occurs. The
resulting breaks lead to a further drop in confining pressure which in turn causes even more gas
bubbles to form. This chain-reaction often generates an explosive eruption, in which magma is
literally blown into very fine fragments (ash) that are carried to great heights by the rising hot
gases.

As magma in the uppermost portion of the magma chamber is forcefully ejected by the escaping
gases, pressure on the molten rock directly below drops. Thus, rather than a single “bang,” volcanic
eruptions are really a series of explosions. This process might logically continue until he magma
chamber is emptied. However, this generally does not happen. Only within the upper portion of
the magma body is the gas content sufficient to trigger a steam-and-ash explosion. Most explosive
eruptions are followed by the quiet emission of “degassed” lavas.

To summarize, the viscosity of magma, plus the quantity of dissolved gases and the ease with which
they can escape, determines to a large extent the nature of a volcanic eruption. In general, hot
basaltic magmas contain a smaller gaseous component and permit these gases to escape with
relative ease as compared to more highly evolved silica-rich magmas. This explains the contrast
between “gentle” outflows of fluid basaltic lavas in Hawaii with the explosive and sometimes
catastrophic eruptions of viscous lavas from volcanoes such as Mount St. Helens (1980), Mount
Pinatubo in the Philippines (1991), and Soufriere Hills on the island of Montserrat (1995).

MATERIALS EXTRUDED DURING AN ERUPTION

Volcanoes extrude lava, large volumes of gas, and pyroclastic materials (broken rock, lava “bombs,” fine
ash, and dust).

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 Lava Flows
The vast majority of lava on Earth, more than 90 percent of the total volume, is estimated to be basaltic in
composition. Andesites and other lavas of intermediate composition account for most of the rest, while silica-
rich rhyolitic flows make up as little as one percent of the total.

Because of their lower silica content, hot basaltic lavas are usually very fluid. They flow in thin, broad
sheets or stream-like ribbons. By contrast, the movement of silica-rich (rhyolitic) lava may be too slow to per-
ceive. Furthermore, most rhyolitic lavas are thick and seldom travel more than a few kilometers from their
vents. As you might expect, andesitic lavas, which are intermediate in composition, exhibit characteristics that
are between the extremes.

Aa and Pahoehoe Flows Two types of lava flows are known by their Hawaiian names. The most common
of these, aa (pronounced ah-ah) flows, have surfaces of rough jagged blocks with dangerously sharp edges and
spiny projections. Crossing an aa flow can be a trying and miserable experience. By contrast, pahoehoe (pro-
nounced pah-hoy-hoy) flows exhibit smooth surfaces that often resemble the twisted braids of ropes. Pahoehoe
means “on which one can walk.” Although aa and pahoehoe lavas can erupt from the same vent, pahoehoe
flows have higher temperatures than aa flows. Consequently, pahoehoe flows are more fluid than lavas that
form aa flows. In addition, pahoehoe lavas sometimes transform into aa flows.

Block Lavas In contrast to fluid basaltic magmas which typically produce pahoehoe and aa flows, andes-
itic and rhyolitic magmas tend to generate block lavas. Block lava consists largely of detached blocks with
slightly curved surfaces that cover unbroken lava in the interior. Although similar to aa flows, these lavas consist
of blocks with comparatively smooth surfaces, rather than having rough, clinker surfaces.

Pillow Lavas When outpourings of lava occur on the ocean floor, or when lava enters the ocean, the
flow’s outer skin quickly congeals. However, the lava is usually able to move forward by breaking through the
hardened surface. This process occurs over and over, as molten basalt is extruded—like toothpaste from a
tightly squeezed tube. The result is a lava flow composed of elongated structures resembling large bed pillows
stacked one atop the other. These structures, called pillow lavas.

Gases
Magmas contain varying amounts of dissolved gases (volatiles) held in the molten rock by confining pres-
sure, just as carbon dioxide is held in soft drinks. As with soft drinks, as soon as the pressure is reduced, the
gases begin to escape. The gaseous portion of most magmas makes up from 1 to 6 percent of the total weight,
with most of this in the form of water vapor. Although the percentage may be small, the actual quantity of
emitted gas can exceed thousands of tons per day.Analyses of samples taken during Hawaiian eruptions indi-
cate that the gases are about 70 percent water vapor, 15 percent carbon dioxide, 5 percent nitrogen, 5 percent
sulfur dioxide, and lesser amounts of chlorine, hydrogen, and argon. Volcanoes are a natural source of air
pollution, including sulfur dioxide, which readily combines with water to form sulfuric acid.

Pyroclastic Materials
When basaltic lava is extruded, dissolved gases escape quite freely and continually. These gases propel
incandescent blobs of lava to great heights. Some of this ejected material may land near the vent and build a
cone-shaped structure, whereas smaller particles will be carried great distances by the wind. By contrast,
viscous (rhyolitic) magmas are highly charged with gases, and upon release they expand a thousandfold as they
blow pulverized rock, lava, and glass fragments from the vent. The particles produced in both of these
situations are referred to as pyroclastic materials (pyro = fire, clast = fragment). These ejected fragments range
in size from very fine dust and sand-sized volcanic ash (less than 2 millimeters) to pieces that weigh several
tons.

Ash and dust particles are produced from gas-laden viscous magma during an explosive eruption.

77
 As magma moves up in the vent, the gases rapidly expand, generating a froth of melt that might resemble
froth that flows from a just opened bottle of champagne. As the hot gases expand explosively, the froth is
blown into very fine glassy fragments creating ash and dust particles.

Also common are pyroclasts that range in size from small beads to walnuts termed lapilli (“little stones”).
These ejecta are commonly called cinders (2–64 millimeters). Particles larger than 64 millimeters (2.5 inches) in
diameter are called blocks when they are made of hardened lava and bombs when they are ejected as incan-
descent lava. Because of their size, bombs and blocks usually fall on the slopes of a cone; however, they are
occasionally propelled far from the volcano.

Instead of the size, pyroclastic materials are also identified by their texture and composition. In particular,
scoria is the name applied to vesicular (containing voids) ejecta that is a product of basaltic magma. These
black to reddishbrown fragments are generally found in the size range of lapilli and resemble cinders and
clinkers produced by furnaces used to smelt iron. When magma with an intermediate or silica-rich composition
generates vesicular ejecta, it is called pumice. Pumice is usually lighter in color and less dense than scoria.
Furthermore, some pumice fragments have such a preponderance of vesicles that they may float in water for
prolonged periods.

EXTRUSIVE VOLCANIC LANDFORMS

Volcanic Peak/Cone
Volcanic material that is ejected from and deposited around a central vent produces the conical shape
typical of volcanoes. The vent is the opening through which an eruption takes place. The crater of a volcano is
a basinlike depression over a vent at the summit of the cone. Material is not always ejected from the central
vent. In a flank eruption, lava pours from a vent on the side of a volcano.

There are three major types of volcanic cones i.e.,

shield, cinder cone, and composite volcanoes, with
markedly different in size, shape, and, usually, compo-
sition.

Shield volcanoes are broad, gently sloping volca-

noes constructed of solidified lava flows. During erup-
tions, the lava spreads widely and thinly due to its low
viscosity. Because the lava flows from a central vent,
without building up much near the vent, the slopes are
usually between 2° and 10° from the horizontal, produc-
ing a volcano in the shape of a flattened dome or
“shield”.

Most shield volcanoes have grown up from the

deep ocean floor to form islands or seamounts. For
example, the islands of the Hawaiian chain, Iceland, and
the Galapagos are either a single shield volcano or the
coalescence of several shields. Some shield volcanoes,
however, occur on continents. Included in this group
are rather massive structures located in East Africa, like
Suswa in Kenya.

Cinder cone (less commonly called a pyroclastic

cone) is a volcano constructed of pyroclastic fragments
ejected from a central vent. Unlike a shield volcano,
which is made up of lava flows, a cinder cone generally

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is formed exclusively of pyroclasts. In contrast to the gentle slopes of shield volcanoes, cinder cones commonly
have slopes of about 30°. Most of the ejected material lands near the vent during an eruption, building up the
cone to a peak. The steepness of slopes of accumulating loose material is limited by gravity to about 33°. Cinder
cones tend to be very much smaller than shield volcanoes. In fact, cinder cones are commonly found on the
flanks and in the calderas of Hawaii’s shield volcanoes. Few cinder cones exceed a height of 500 meters.
Cinder cones form by pyroclastic material accumulating around a vent. They form because of a buildup of
gases and are independent of composition. Most cinder cones are associated with mafic or intermediate lava.
Silicic cinder cones, which are made of fragments of pumice, are also known as pumice cones. Most cinder
cones are produced by a single, short-lived eruptive event. One study found that half of all cinder cones
examined were constructed in less than one month, and that 95 percent formed in less than one year. However,
in some cases, they remain active for several years. Parícutin in Mexico had an eruptive cycle that spanned 9
years. Cinder cones are the most abundant of the three major types of volcanoes. They are found by the
thousands all around the globe. Some occur in volcanic fields like the one located near Flagstaff, Arizona, which
consists of about 600 cones. Others are parasitic cones of larger volcanoes. The life span of an active cinder
cone tends to be short. The local concentration of gas is depleted rather quickly during the eruptive periods.
Moreover, as landforms, cinder cones are temporary features in terms of geologic time. The unconsolidated
pyroclasts are eroded relatively easily.
Composite cones or stratovolcanoes are earth’s most picturesque yet potentially dangerous volcanoes. It
is constructed of alternating layers of pyroclastic fragments and solidified lava flows. The slopes are intermedi-
ate in steepness compared with cinder cones and shield volcanoes. Pyroclastic layers build steep slopes as
debris collects near the vent, just as in cinder cones. However, subsequent lava flows partially flatten the profile
of the cone as the downward flow builds up the height of the flanks more than the summit area. The solidified
lava acts as a protective cover over the loose pyroclastic layers, making composite volcanoes less vulnerable to
erosion than cinder cones. The extrusive material that builds composite cones is predominantly of intermedi-
ate composition, although there may be some silicic and mafic eruptions. Therefore, andesite is the rock most
associated with composite volcanoes.
Composite volcanoes are built over long spans of time. Eruption is intermittent, with hundreds or
thousands of years of inactivity separating a few years of intense activity. Because of their long lives and
relative resistance to erosion, composite cones can become very large. Aconcagua, a composite volcano in the
Andes, is 6,960 meters (22,835 feet) above sea level and is the highest peak in the Western Hemisphere. Nearly
all the larger and better known volcanoes of the world are composite volcanoes. They tend to align along two
major belts. The circum-Pacific belt, or “Ring of Fire,” is the larger. The Cascade Range volcanoes described
earlier make up a small segment of the circum-Pacific belt.
FISSURE ERUPTIONS AND BASALT PLATEAUS
By far the greatest volume of volcanic material is extruded from fractures in the crust called fissures.
Rather than building a cone, these long, narrow cracks may emit a low-viscosity basaltic lava, blanketing a wide
area. The extensive Columbia Plateau in the northwestern United States was formed this way. Massive accumu-
lations of basaltic lava, similar to those of the Columbia Plateau, occur worldwide. One of the largest is the
Deccan Traps, a thick sequence of flat-lying basalt flows covering nearly 500,000 square kilometers (195,000
square miles) of west central India. Another huge deposit of flood basalts, called the Ontong Java Plateau, is
found on the floor of the Pacific Ocean.

Lava Domes
In contrast to mafic lavas, silica-rich lavas near the felsic (rhyolitic) end of the compositional spectrum are
so viscous they hardly flow at all. As the thick lava is “squeezed” out of the vent, it may produce a dome-shaped
mass of lava called a lava dome. Lava domes come in a variety of shapes that range from pancake-like flows to
steep-sided plugs that were pushed upward like pistons. Although lava domes often form on the summit of a
composite cone they can also form structures on the flanks of volcanoes. In addition, some domes form on
their own, independent of large volcanic structures. One example is the line of rhyolitic and obsidian domes at
Mono Craters, California.

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 Volcanic Pipes and Necks
Most volcanoes are fed magma through short conduits, called pipes, that connect a magma chamber to
the surface. In rare circumstances, pipes may extend tubelike to depths exceeding 200 kilometers (125 miles).
The best-known volcanic pipes are the diamond-bearing structures of South Africa. Volcanoes on land are
continually being lowered by weathering and erosion. Cinder cones are easily eroded because they are
composed of unconsolidated materials. However, all volcanoes will eventually succumb to relentless erosion
over geologic time. As erosion progresses, the rock occupying the volcanic pipe is often more resistant and may
remain standing above the surrounding terrain long after most of the cone has vanished. Shiprock, New Mexico,
is such a feature and is called a volcanic neck.

Calderas
Calderas are large collapse depressions having a more or less circular form. Their diameters exceed one
kilometer, and many are tens of kilometers across. Most calderas are formed by one of the following processes:
(1) the collapse of the summit of a large composite volcano following an explosive eruption of silica-rich
pumice and ash fragments (Crater Lake-type calderas);

(2) the collapse of the top of a shield volcano caused by subterranean drainage from a central magma
chamber (Hawaiian-type calderas); and (3) the collapse of a large area, caused by the discharge of colossal
volumes of silica-rich pumice and ash along ring fractures (Yellowstonetype calderas).

INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS LANDFORMS

Although volcanic eruptions can be among the most violent and spectacular events in nature and there-
fore worthy of detailed study, most magma is emplaced at depth. The structures that result from the emplace-
ment of igneous material at depth are called plutons. Because all plutons form out of view beneath Earth’s
surface, they can be studied only after uplifting and erosion have exposed them. The challenge lies in recon-
structing the events that generated these structures millions or even hundreds of millions of years ago.

Dikes
Dikes are tabular discordant bodies that are produced when magma is injected into fractures. The force
exerted by the emplaced magma can be great enough to separate the walls of the fracture further. Once crys-
tallized, these sheetlike structures have thicknesses ranging from less than a centimeter to more than a kilome-
ter. The largest have lengths of hundreds of kilometers. Most dikes, however, are a few meters thick and extend
laterally for no more than a few kilometers. Dikes often weather more slowly than the surrounding rock. When
exposed by erosion, these dikes have the appearance of a wall.

SILLS AND LACCOLITHS

Sills and laccoliths are concordant plutons that form when magma is intruded in a near-surface environment.
They differ in shape and usually differ in composition.

Sills Sills are tabular plutons formed when magma is injected along sedimentary bedding surfaces.
Horizontal sills are the most common, although all orientations, even vertical, are known to exist. Because of
their relatively uniform thickness and large areal extent, sills are likely the product of very fluid magmas. Mag-
mas having a low silica content are more fluid, so most sills are composed of the rock basalt. One of the largest
and most studied of all sills in the United States is the Palisades Sill.

Laccoliths Laccoliths are similar to sills because they form when magma is intruded between sedimentary
layers in a near-surface environment. However, the magma that generates laccoliths is more viscous. This
less-fluid magma collects as a lens-shaped mass that arches the overlying strata upward. Consequently, a lacco-
lith can occasionally be detected because of the dome-shaped bulge it creates at the surface. Most large lacco-

80
liths are probably not much wider than a few kilometers. The Henry Mountains in southeastern Utah are largely
composed of several laccoliths believed to have been fed by a much larger magma body emplaced nearby.

Batholiths
By far the largest intrusive igneous bodies are batholiths. Most often, batholiths occur as linear structures
several hundreds of kilometers long and up to 100 kilometers wide. The Idaho batholith, for example, encom-
passes an area of more than 40,000 square kilometers and consists of many plutons. Batholiths usually consist
of rock types having chemical compositions toward the granitic end of the spectrum, although diorite is com-
monly found. Smaller batholiths can be rather simple structures composed almost entirely of one rock type.
However, studies of large batholiths have shown that they consist of large numbers of distinct plutons that
were intruded over a period of millions of years. Batholiths may compose the core of mountain systems. Here
uplifting and erosion have removed the surrounding rock, thereby exposing the resistant igneous body. Some
of the highest peaks in the Sierra Nevada, such as Mount Whitney, are carved from such a granitic mass.

PLATE TECTONICS AND IGNEOUS ACTIVITY

Of the more than 800 active volcanoes that have been identified, most are located along the margins of
the ocean basins—most notably within the circum-Pacific belt known as the Ring of Fire. This group of volca-
noes consists mainly of composite cones that emit volatile-rich magma having an intermediate (andesitic)
composition that occasionally produce awe-inspiring eruptions. The volcanoes comprising a second group
emit very fluid basaltic lavas and are confined to the deep ocean basins, including wellknown examples on
Hawaii and Iceland. In addition, this group contains many active submarine volcanoes that dot the ocean floor;
particularly notable are the innumerable small seamounts that lay along the axis of the mid-ocean ridge. At
these depths the pressures are so great that seawater does not boil explosively, even in contact with hot lavas.
Thus, firsthand knowledge of these eruptions is limited, coming mainly from deep-diving submersibles.

A third group includes those volcanic structures that are irregularly distributed in the interiors of the
continents. None are found in Australia nor in the eastern two-thirds of North and South America. Africa is
notable because it has many potentially active volcanoes including Mount Kilimanjaro, the highest point on the
continent (5895 meters, 19,454 feet).

Locations of some of Earth’s major volcanoes.

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 Until the late 1960s, geologists had no explanation for the apparently haphazard distribution of continental
volcanoes, nor were they able to account for the almost continuous chain of volcanoes that circles the margin
of the Pacific basin. With the development of the theory of plate tectonics, the picture was greatly clarified.
The basic connection between plate tectonics and volcanism is that plate motions provide the mechanisms by
which mantle rocks melt to generate magma. Active volcanic areas are located (1) along convergent plate
boundaries where plates move toward each other and one sinks beneath the other; (2) along divergent plate
boundaries, where plates move away from each other and new seafloor is created; and (3) areas within the
plates proper that are not associated with any plate boundary. (Further to be discussed in the class.)

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 12 ISOSTASY

Isostasy is a balance or equilibrium of adjacent blocks of brittle lithosphere “floating” on the asthenos-
phere. Since lithosphere weighs less than mantle rocks, the crust can be thought of as floating on the denser
mantle much as wood floats on water.

Isostatic balance. (A) Wood blocks float in water with most of their bulk submerged. (B) Lithosphere
“floats” on asthenospheric mantle in approximately the same way. The thicker the block, the deeper it extends
into the asthenosphere.

Blocks of wood floating on water rise or sink until they displace an amount of water equal to their own
weight. The weight of the displaced water buoys up the wood blocks, allowing them to float. The higher a wood
block appears above the water surface, the deeper the block extends under water. Thus, a tall block has a deep
“root”—much like an iceberg floating on the water.

In a greatly simplified way, the lithosphere can be thought of as tending to rise or sink gradually until it is
balanced by the weight of displaced asthenosphere. This concept of vertical movement to reach equilibrium is
called isostatic adjustment. Just as with the blocks of wood, once lithospheric “blocks” have come into isos-
tatic balance, a tall block (a mountain range) extends deep into the mantle (a mountain root.)

Figure above shows both the blocks of wood and the blocks of lithosphere in isostatic balance. The weight
of the wood is equal to the weight of the displaced water. Similarly, the weight of the lithosphere is equal to the
weight of the displaced asthenosphere. As a result, the rocks (and overlying seawater) in figure above can be
thought of as separated into vertical columns, each with the same pressure at its base.

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 At some depth of equal pressure, each column is in balance with the other columns, for each column has
the same weight. A column of thick continental lithosphere (a mountain and its root) has the same weight as a
column containing thin continental lithosphere and some of the upper mantle. A column containing seawater,
thin oceanic crust, and a thick section of heavy mantle weighs the same as the other two columns. Thus, Isostasy
implies the existence of a level surface of constant pressure within the mantle, the depth of compensation.

The above conceptualization shows lithosphere as isolated blocks free to move past each other along
vertical faults, but this is not really a good picture of the structure of the lithosphere. It is more accurate to
think of the lithosphere as bending in broad uplifts and downwarps without vertical faults.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The original observations which led to the discovery of the principle of isostasy were made between 1735
and 1745 during the measurement of an arc of meridian in Peru by the French geodetic expedition under
Bouguer’s leadership. Pierre Bouguer, a French photometrist was the first to measure the horizontal gravita-
tional pull of Andes Mountains. He noted that the Andes could not represent a protuberance of rock sitting on
a solid platform. If it did, then a plumb-line should be deflected from the true vertical by an amount propor-
tional to the gravitational attraction of the mountain range. The deflection was less than that which was antici-
pated. They recognized that the Andes caused a horizontal attraction on the plumbline, which resulted in local
variations in the vertical direction. On investigation, they found that the observed deflection of the vertical was
much smaller than the value computed theoretically from the known topography of the Andes.

After Bouguer originally noted this discrepancy, a few years later Boscovitch postulated attenuation of
matter beneath the mountains to explain it. After about a century, similar results were observed near the
Himalayan mountain chain, by George Everest, surveyor general of India, in surveys south of the Himalayas,
indicating a lack of compensating mass beneath the visible mountain ranges.

The development of the theory was further helped by gravity surveys in the mountains of India in about
1850. A series of measurements were made at different elevations across the mountain range. These observed
values were then reduced to what they would have been if the mountains were leveled off and the observation
made at sea level. These values were then compared with the theoretical value for gravity at that latitude. The
results showed that the actual force of gravity over the mountain range is considerably less than it should be
theoretically.

This discrepancy between the observed and theoretical values can be explained only in terms of the
distribution of rock densities below sea level. For both Andes and Himalaya, the lack of mass or mass deficiency
beneath the mountain chain must be there to explain the reduced deflection of the plumb line, and it was equal
to the mass of mountains themselves. The term ‘isostasy’ was introduced to explain this phenomenon by
Dutton in 1889.

Thus, the theory of isostasy was conceptualized to explain that a mass above sea level is supported below
sea level, and there is a certain depth at which the total weight per unit area is equal all around the Earth; this
is known as the depth of compensation. The depth of compensation was taken to be 113 km (70 miles) accord-
ing to the Hayford-Bowie concept, named for American geodesists John Fillmore Hayford and William Bowie.
Owing to changing tectonic environments, however, perfect isostasy is approached but rarely attained, and
some regions, such as oceanic trenches and high plateaus, are nftt isostatically compensated.

THEORIES
Airy’s theory
Sir George Biddell Airy, an English mathematician and astronomer, in his hypothesis (1855) assumed that
the uppermost shell of the Earth is a low density ‘crust’ overlying a higher density substratum. The ‘crust’ and
substratum are each assumed to have uniform density throughout. But the thickness of the crustal layer is not

84
uniform. However, this theory supposes that the thicker parts of
the crust sink deeper into the substratum, while the thinner parts
are buoyed up by it. According to this hypothesis, mountains have
roots below the surface that are much larger than their surface
expression. This is analogous to an iceberg floating on water, in
which the greater part of the iceberg is underwater.

The relatively rigid ‘crust’ or lithosphere is assumed to float

on the fluid substratum (i.e., the asthenosphere). In the original
form of the hypothesis, the base of the low density crust is iden-
tical with the boundary between rigid lithosphere and weak as-
thenosphere, although the more realistic situation where the
boundaries are distinct can be incorporated without difficulty.
Compensation occurs as a result of variation in thickness of the
low density crust; mountain ranges are considered to be under-
lain by a thicker crust than normal (a root) and oceans by a thin-
ner crust than normal (an antiroot). Under mountains the depth
is greater than under oceans or plains. In other words, the moun-
tains have roots of light-weight materials which extends down
into the lower, more dense mantle rocks. The lower density (mass)
of the roots causes the observed gravity values measured in the
mountain ranges to be lower than predicted theoretically.

The conditions for isostasy, is

r = hpc/(ps-pc), where

r = depth of root,

h = height of topography,
pc = density of ‘crust’ and

ps = density of substratum.

There are several variations on Airy’s hypothesis. For instance, Vening Meinesz put forward the idea of
regional compensation, in which the root has wider lateral extent than the surface feature it is compensating.

Limitations of Airy
1. Applying the laws of floatation to Airy implies that Himalayas must be more deeper than the depth of
lithosphere, which is questionable.
2. The different crustal features like mountain, plains or plateaus cannot have the same density. The ocean
crust has the highest density, followed by plateaus and mountains have the lowest density.
3. The compensatory flow in the asthenosphere is not very well understood and explained.

Pratt’s Theory
The Pratt hypothesis, developed by John Henry Pratt, English mathematician and Anglican missionary,
supposed that Earth’s crust has a uniform thickness below sea level with its base everywhere supporting an
equal weight per unit area at a depth of compensation. In essence, this says that areas of the Earth of lesser
density, such as mountain ranges, project higher above sea level than do those of greater density. The explana-
tion for this was that the mountains resulted from the upward expansion of locally heated crustal material,
which had a larger volume but a lower density after it had cooled.

85
 Pratt’s theory differs from Airy’s in that Pratt assumed that
the boundary between the upper lighter material and the lower
denser rocks is at a uniform depth, called the depth of com-
pensation. He further postulated that there are variations in
the density of the lighter layer, which are related to the eleva-
tion of the surface. Lighter material lies under mountains, and
heavier material under oceans. The weight of columns of rock
extending from the surface to the depth of compensation in
different parts of the earth is thus the same.

Pratt’s hypothesis (1855) assumed that the density within

the shell of the Earth above the depth of compensation varies
laterally depending on the elevation of the overlying topogra-
phy. The condition of isostasy requires that

P (h + D ) = constant, where

D = depth of compensation,

h = height of topography and

p = the underlying density.

A small correction needs to be applied if the Earth’s curvature is taken into account.

Gravitational studies offer no means of determining which of these theories is more nearly correct. It is
possible that neither is absolutely correct, but evidence from other geological studies suggest that Pratt’s theory
comes closer to fitting all the facts we have. Seismic studies indicate that more dense material underlies ocean
basins than continents. These observations support Pratt’s assumption of a connection between density and
elevation .

Table : ‘Geographical’ Comparison between Airy and Pratt.

Airy Pratt
• SIAL is floating on SIMA. • SIAL is sinking in SIMA
• There is uniform density for all the columns • The different materials are all of varying density.
• The columns are of varying depth • The depths of columns are uniform.
• The line of compensation is a jig saw line • Line of compensation is as straight line.
because of different depth of columns.

HEISKANEN’S THEORY
The Heiskanen hypothesis, developed by Finnish geodesist Weikko Aleksanteri Heiskanen (1933), is an
intermediate, or compromise, hypothesis between Airy’s and Pratt’s. (Airy postulated that columns of rock are
nearly the same in density, floating like blocks in a fluid. Pratt suggested that different segments of the earth
are of different densities, but that the differences are compensated at a certain depth.)

This hypothesis says that approximately two-thirds of the topography is compensated by the root forma-
tion (the Airy model) and one- third by Earth’s crust above the boundary between the crust and the substratum
(the Pratt model).

86
 It has been observed that rocks at sea level are more
dense on the average than those at higher elevations (2.76
grams per cm3 at sea level down to 2.70 gm/cm3 at eleva-
tions in high mountains). He assumes that this change con-
tinues downward, tending to make deeper rocks more
dense than shallower ones in all sections of the earth’s crust.
In addition, different sections are thought to have different
densities and different lengths.

Heiskanen’s theory has the advantages to being based

on actual knowledge of density variations that can be ob-
tained by direct measurement, and when it is applied to
the observations we mow have on the gravitational field it
yields very low anomalies

GLOBAL ISOSTATIC ADJUSTMENT

There is no complete isostatic adjustment over the
globe because the earth is so unresting “and thus geological
forces (endogenetic forces) coming from within the earth very
often disturb such isostatic adjustment.

When an uplifted landmass or mountain is worn down

by the agents of erosion, the load on the underlying column
of the crust is reduced by the weight of the material that
has been eroded away. At the same time a neighbouring
column underlying a region of delta and seafloor where the denuded material is being deposited, receives a
corresponding increase of load. At the base of the crust the pressure exerted by the unloaded
column is decreased, while the pressure exerted by the loaded column is increased. In response to this pressure
difference in the mantle, there is a sub-crustal slow flow of mantle from under the loaded column towards the
unloaded column. Therefore, the loaded column sinks while the unloaded column rises. This process whereby
isostatic equilibrium is restored is call isostatic adjustment. This is made possible by a compensating transfer of
materials in the sub crust.

Some examples of isostatic adjustment include -

1. When denudation lowers the mountains, compensation causes the mountains to be uplifted to
maintain isostatic equilibrium.
2. Because of isostatic mechanism, continental masses which are depressed under the load of an ice
sheet will gradually recover as the ice melts (glacio-isostasy.)
3. River mouths will sink due to the great accumulation of sediments.
4. Development of coral reefs will result in gradual sinking of the crust.
5. Reservoir induced isostatic adjustments.
6. Adjustments due to large scale volcanic eruption.
ISOSTASY AND EROSION
Scientific experiments have indicated that, at present rates of erosion, the earth’s mountain ranges would
.be leveled in a single geologic period, certainly within 50 million years. But mountains hundreds of millions of
years old, such as the Appalachians of the eastern United States, still stand above their surroundings. What
seems to happen is that as erosion removes the load from the ridges, isostatic adjustment raises the rocks to
compensate. Rocks formed deep below the surface, tens of thousands of meters down, are thereby exposed to
our view and to weathering and erosion. Isostatic adjustment due to erosion and deposition of sediment. Rock

87
within the mantle must flow to accommodate vertical motion of crustal blocks. Mantle flow occurs in the
asthenosphere, deeper than shown in C.

The sialic mountains along the plate margins may have

been pushed beyond the elevations justified by the depth
of their roots, and isostatic readjustment will not commence
until the overload has been removed. After that, the moun-
tain masses undergo isostatic uplift as mass is eroded, a pro-
cess that ensures their persistence for a long time.

Slow accumulation is now taking place in the Missis-

sippi Delta. For millions of years, the great river has been
pouring sediments into its delta, but these deposits have
not formed a great pile nor have they filled in the Gulf of
Mexico. Isostatic adjustment constantly lowers the mate-
rial to make room for more.

ISOSTASY AND REGIONAL LANDSCAPES

In studying the effects of the isostatic principle, we tend to be preoccupied with mountain ranges, moun-
tain building, plate compression, and associated phenomena. But we should not lose sight of the consequences
of isostasy in areas of less prominent, less dramatic relief. Erosion is active on the plains too, and, milions of
tons of material are carried away by streams, rivers, and other erosional agents. Even moving ice and wind
denude and reduce land surfaces. Unlike the mountain zones, however, the plains are vast in area and slopes
are gentler. Rivers erode less spectacularly on the plains than in the mountains as a consequence of several
factors.

The sialic crust has certain rigidity. It does not behave, as in Airy’s model, as a series of discrete columns.
Therefore, isostasy affects plains and plateaus in phases. For a certain period, the amount of material removed
does not trigger isostatic readjustment because the hardness of the crust prevents continuous uplift. Thus, at
any given moment, an area may not be in isostatic equilibrium. Instead, it awaits the time when readjustment
is forced by the removal of a sufficient mass of landscape.

ICE SHEETS AND ISOSTATIC REBOUND

When ice sheets spread over continental areas during glaciations, the weight of the ice (which can reach
a thickness of several thousand meters) causes isostatic subsidence or sinking of the crust below, just as sedi-

88
ments accumulation has produced in other regions. This is what happened in northern North America and
Eurasia during the most recent glaciation, where the last of the great ice sheets melted less than 12,000 years
ago. During the maximum extent of these continental glaciers, the crust below was depressed by their weight.
When the ice sheets retreated, isostatic readjustment caused the crust to rebound. The upward readjustment,
however, could not keep pace with the relatively rapid melting of the ice. In geologic terms, the melting re-
moved the enormous load of the ice sheets almost instantaneously.

The weight of glaciers depresses the crust, and the crust rebounds when the ice melts.

Studies show that the ensuring isostatic rebound is still going on; the crust is still not in equilibrium. In the
heart of Scandinavia, the site of a huge ice sheet, the crust is rising at more than l m per century, a very fast rate.
In some coastal parts of Norway, metal rings placed in rocks centuries ago to tie up boats are now much too
high above sea level to be of use. Similarly, much of coastal California is flanked by ancient beaches tens of
meters above the present-day sea level.

DAMS AND CRUSTAL EQUILIBRIUM

When a river dam is constructed, the weight of the impounded water may be enough to produce isostatic
accommodation in the crust. Measurable readjustment of this kind has taken place in the area of Kariba Lake,
formed behind the great dam on the Zambezi River in Southern Africa, and around Lake Mead behind Hoover
Dam on the Colorado River in Nevada.

CONCLUSION
The theory of isostasy is no longer a theory but is accepted as a fact. It helps us to understand the internal
structure of the earth, the relief features of the earth’s surface, the drifting of continents, the relative rise and
fall of land and sea and a host of other problems.

89
 12 RECENT VIEWS ON MOUNTAIN BUILDING

Orogeny is fundamental process in the differentiation of earth’s crust. The term Orogeny was coined
by GK Gilbert (1890) to describe the process of mountain building. Mountains are landforms of the
second order distributed all over the globe not only upon the continents but also upon the ocean floors.
The problem of mountain building has long puzzled geologist though there has been no lack of theories to
account for the process. Geologists have known for a long time that the Fold Mountains have been built up
of vast accumulation of sedimentary deposits which have been squeezed, folded and uplifted but the precise
mechanism whereby this was affected has long eluded them.

Since Fold Mountains represent the world’s a major and most complex mountain systems the process
of mountain building is usually described in terms of their formation. However mountains can be classified
according to their most dominant characteristics and the process of formation.
1. Residual/Relict Mountains are remnants of former (old) mountains and plateaus, which have been subject
to severe denudation. They are formed by differential erosion because of differing solubility and erodability
of rocks in the region. Certain resistant areas may withstand the lowering by agent of denudation as
in mountain Monodnock USA and also a plateau may be dissected by rivers as in Deccan Plateau,
by leaving behind residual mountains.
2. Volcanic mountains are formed by the accumulation of volcanic material round the zone of volcanic
eruption. Oceanic ridges are formed by spreading boundary volcanism. Converging boundary volcanism
produces island arc like Japanese arc. In-pate volcanism at hotspots may produce volcanic mountains
like in Hawaii.
3. Fault/Block Mountains are formed by vertical movements of blocks along faults because of tensional
forces or occasionally compressional ones at work in a region. As a result the block is moved up
relative to the neighbouring areas, forming the mountains. Black Forest, Vosges and Western Ghats
mountain present good example.
4. Up warped Mountains are formed by up warping of continental crust relative to the surrounding.
Magmatic intrusion which usually causes the up warping is ultimately exposed due to erosion of the
overlying material. Up warping in a limited area forms dome mountains which look like blisters in the
earth’s surface. Large scale up warping when dissected by agents of denudation forms a mountain
range.
5. Fold Mountains comprise the largest and the most complex mountain systems. Although fold moun-
tains differ from one another on particular details but all possess some common features:
a) They are arranged in linear belt generally consisting of roughly parallel ridges.
b) They consist of thick sedimentary sequences most of which are of shallow marine origin.
c) They all have folded structures.
d) Faulting, thrusting, metamorphism and igneous activity are present in varying degree. Examples
of Fold Mountains are Himalayan, Alps, Andes, Appalachian, Urals etc.
Several theories have been suggested to account for successive orogenies during the course of earth’s
history. The major orogenies have occurred at intervals of 20 to 100my. For practical purposes, however,
these periods of mountain building may be divided into three broad groups.

90
 1. Young mountain building
2. Old mountain building
3. Ancient crystalline shields

THEORIES OF FOLD MOUNTAIN OROGENY

Early theories of Fold Mountain Orogeny were dominated by contractionist approach. The
contractionists considered the earth as a heat engine running down i.e. cooling and contracting. Based
on this basic premise they put forward their theories of mountain building e.g.
a) HAROLD JEFFERYS suggested that Fold Mountains are simply wrinkles in the earth’s crust produced
as the earth cooled from its original semi molten state.
b) JOLY suggested periodic melting and solidification of the simatic layer due to radioactive heat and
consequent sinking or buoying up of sialic layer (continental crust). Thus process creates
horizontal compressive forces causing folding, thrusting and upliftment of sediments at the
continental margins resulting into the formation of mountains.
These two and many other early theories could not gain wide acceptance. Any viable theory must
explain the deposition of thick sedimentary sequences in shallow marine water their compaction, folding,
upliftment, faulting, thrusting, metamorphism and the associated igneous activity.

GEOSYNCLINAL THEORY
Geosynclinal theory was the first theory to receive wider acceptance because it threw light on most
of the characteristic of Fold Mountain and the process involved in their formation. It was during 1850s by
James Hall and later modified by Dana during 1870s. They were the first to talk about the existence of long
linear troughs called syncline and subsidence of crust under the weight of deposition.

A Geosyncline is a large subsiding trough of deposition, a huge but gentle depression in the crust
that slowly fills with sediments from higher adjacent land areas. It looks like the simple depression i.e.
sometimes called a syncline, but it is so large that the term Geosyncline is used.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GEOSYNCLINES:
1. Geosynclines are long, narrow and shallow depressions of water.
2. Geosynclines are characterized by gradual sedimentation and subsidence.
3. Geosynclines are generally bordered by two rigid masses which are called forelands.
4. The nature and patterns of Geosynclines have not remained the same throughout geological
history, rather these have widely changed.

TYPES OF GEOSYNCLILNES WERE LATER IDENTIFIED:

a) Miogeosynclines developed along continental shelves, are found where rivers bring enough
sediment to the sea for huge, subsiding deltas to form, as at the mouths of the Nile and the
Mississippi. They mainly consist of limestones and well-sorted quartzose sandstones and from
the evidence of shallow-water formation of geosynclines. These rocks generally from in the
inner segment of geosyncline.
b) Eugeosynclines,, developed seaward along continental rises, coincide with the deep ocean
trenches that form where one plate of the earth’s curst plunges (is subducted) beneath
another. Thick volcanic sequences, together with graywackes (sandstones rich in rock frag-
ments with a muddy matrix) cherts, and various sediments reflecting deepwater deposition or
processes, were deposited in eugeosynclines, the outer, deepwater segment of geosynclines.

91
 Sediments and volcanic rocks in theses trenches have been crumpled and thrust up from the
ocean floor to from mountains such as the Coast Ranges of western North America.
c) Taphrogeosyncline, a depressed block of the Earth’s crust that is bounded by one or more hig-
angle faults and that serves as a site of sediment accumulation.
d) Parageosyncline, a deep geosyncline that passes into coastal plains along continental margins.
The filling of a geosyncline with thousands or tens of thousands of feet of sediment is accompanied
in the late stages of deposition by folding, crumpling, and faulting of the deposits,. Intrusion of crystalline
igneous rock and regional uplift along the axis of the trough generally complete the history of a particular
geosyncline, which is thus transformed to a belt of folded mountains.

These theorists essentially explain Orogeny in five stages:

a) Geosynclinal stage: In this stage vast amounts of sediments accumulate on a large linear trough
which keeps subsiding under the weight of deposition. Due to isostatic adjustments the layer
below sediment deposition in the continental shelves becomes synclinal.
b) Lithogenesis: It is the process by which deposited sediments are converted into solid rocks by
compaction and cementation.
c) Tectogenesis: It is the process by which the earth’s crustal rocks are deformed and their
structures created. When such process acts regionally they contribute to orogenesis.
d) Orogenesis: It is a process which includes folding, faulting and thrusting during which
sediments within geosynclines are bulked and deformed as they are compressed into long
linear mountain chains. Simultaneously some sediment, on being pushed much deeper, melts
to generate magma, which moves upwards and intrudes the overlying sediments. Thus a
complex mountain chain consisting of folded and faulted sedimentary and metamorphic rock
is created. This stage is comparatively short lived.
e) Glyptogenesis: It is a post orogenetic phase during which the characteristic surface forms are
sculptured by erosion. Removal of material from the top and consequent upward isostatic
adjustment exposes the batholith from underneath the mountain ultimately forming a shield.
Although the geosynclinal theory proves for the basic steps in mountain building the underlying
cause of orogenesis was not explained and there were Raised against the theory. What produced the subsid-
ence in the geo-syncline? Why did sediments accumulate, relatively undisturbed for millions of year’s and
suddenly go through a period of deformation? Such unanswered questions forced geologists to continue
to evaluate the complex problem of mountain building.

PLATE TECTONIC MODEL

It is an improvement over the geosynclinals idea. It explains the various process in mountain building
and decipher many of the puzzling aspects.

Orogenesis results as large segments of earth’s lithosphere are displaced according to this theory.
Fold mountain orogeny occurs along converging plate boundaries. Here the colliding plates provide for the
compressional stress to fold, fault, metamorphose, thrust and uplift the thick sedimentary accumulations
along the margins of continents while melting of the sub-ducted oceanic lithosphere provides a source
of magma that intrudes and extrudes, further deforming and metamorphosing theses deposits.

However the characteristics of mountain belts and the sequence of events vary depending on the
type of interaction at plate margins and the type of rock sequence involved in the deformation.

There are three type of converging interactions ocean to ocean, continent to ocean and continent to
continent collisions.

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 1. Orogenesis at Island Arc (Ocean to Ocean Oreogenesis)
Island arcs are often generally related to fold mountain ranges. They form where a section of the ocean
floor is subducted in the ocean basin away from the continent, i.e., where ocean floor crust is on either side of
the convergent plate boundary .

(1) As two plates collide, the plate with higher density descends beneath to form a trench.
(2) The ocean floor crust along with sediments is thrust beneath giving rise to rocks metamorphosed under
high pressure conditions on the continental side of the trench.
(3) When the descending plate reaches over 100 km in depth, partial melting takes place. Magma rises to
form a pile of volcanic rocks.

93
 (2) The wedge of sediments along the margins of the
continent are deformed above the subduction zone
as the ocean basin decreases in size. Subduction
begins as the oceanic crust is consumed.
(3) As the continents approach each other before col-
liding, segments of the remaining ocean crust are
deformed by overthrusting, and are finally
squeezed between the converging plates.
(4) The oceanic slab descending into the mantle, be-
comes detached and sinks independently. When
the slab has been consumed, the volcanic activi-
ties and the earthquakes generated by it, cease.
(5) As the continental crust moves into the subduction
zone, its buoyancy prevents it from descending into
the mantle more than perhaps 40 km below its
normal depth. It is then thrust under the overrid-
ing plate, creating a double layer of low density,
which rises buoyantly to produce a broad belt of
deformed rocks with adjacent high plateau. Frag-
ments of oceanic crust (ophiolite assemblage) are
caught between the plates and squeezed upward
to be plastered against the plates. It, thus, marks
the site of welding of two plates. Hence known as
suture zone (Latin: ‘sutura’- stich). The Indus
Tsangpo Suture zone is one such example.
(6) As resisting forces build up, convergence stops, the mountain belt erodes and adjusts isostatically.
(7) The welding together of two large continents produces a single large continental mass with internal moun-
tain range.
The Himalaya, the Alps, the Urals, and the Atlas mountains were formed 100 m.y. ago when the Deccan
shield moved northward and collided with the Eurasian shield, giving rise to the Himalayas and the extensive
highlands of the Tibetan plateau. Earthquakes do occur in this region but they are shallow and occur in a broad
diffuse zone because there is no descending oceanic plate. The European Alps were formed as a result of
convergence of Eurasian and African plates but in this case oceanic crust had not been totally consumed(the
Mediterranean). The Urals were formed much earlier, i.e., during late Palaeozoic when the Siberian continental
mass collided with Europe. They are not like Himalayas or Alps, i.e., they are not tectonically active.

96
 13 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH S CRUST

In the beginning, the surface of the Earth was very much like that of Mercury, Venus and other tempera-
ture was also very high. There were no continents or ocean basins, no land or sea, and no life. It was only at the
end of the Precambrian that the planet actually had continents, ocean basins and life. The precise way in which
this evolution took place is not known and several questions have to be answered in the context of the origin
and evolution of the Earth’s crust. These questions are—
1. What was the extent of the first crust, was it local or of worldwide scale?
2. What were the processes responsible for the growth of the crust and at what rate did the early crust grow?
3. What was the composition of the early crust?
4. When and how did the crust got separated into continental and oceanic crust?
The oldest rocks of the Earth’s crust collected from Greenland, Australia and South Africa are continental
rocks roughly 3.8 b.y. old. These are not a part of the primitive crust but possess an advanced continental
composition. Most of these rocks are metamorphosed sedimentary rock. This means that (i) the oceans had
already formed by this time and (ii) sediments demonstrate that some high standing continental platforms
evolved very early in the Earth’s history. The mineralogy and chemistry of some of these Archean metamorphic
rocks show that they crystallised at about 550 to 8000° C at 5 to 8 kilobars at depths of 2.7 km. These rocks
were also underlain by an additional 35 km of crust. Thus, some type of continental crust 50-70 km thick
existed on the Earth by 3.8 b.y. ago. It is presumed that the earliest terrestrial crust may have formed between
4.2 to 4.5 b.y. and since then it has been partially recycled and the first stable crust did not form until about 4
b.y. ago. The extent of the first crust may be determined by comparison with the lunar crust and crust of other
terrestrial planets. For example, the lunar highlands appear to represent the remnants of the early lunar crust
(4.5 to 4.3 b.y. old) which covered almost the entire lunar surface. On Mercury and Mars, the widespread
primitive crust has been preserved. If the history of the Earth is similar to these planets, which of course it is,
then it is very likely that the Earth also had an early crust that covered its surface.

The origin of the crust can be explained in terms of three groups of theories—

1. Inhomogenous Earth accretion model.

2. Catastrophic model.
3. Non-catastrophic model.

INHOMOGENOUS EARTH ACCRETION MODEL

This model assumes that there was a hot solar nebula
. The temperature in the nebula was constantly falling.
With the fall in temperature, the various compounds of
the solar nebula condensed and accreted, i.e., solid
particles collided to form planetary bodies in the disc
around the Sun. This progressive condensation and
accretion resulted in planetary growth. The zoned struc-
ture of the Earth with an iron core surrounded by a
silicate mantle, may have been produced by sequential
condensation and accretion of the Earth from the cooling
solar nebula.

97
 The last compounds to condense produced a thin layer of planetary surface, rich in alkaline and other
volatile elements, which formed the first crust.

However, if the crust evolved in this manner, i.e., by inhomogenous accretion, the non-volatile elements
like uranium, thorium and Rare Earth Elements (REE) should have been concentrated in the core and lower
mantle. Instead, they are concentrated in the crust. This concentration may have been the result of magmatic
transfer from within the Earth, producing a crust of magmatic origin and concentrated REE in the crust.

CATASTROPHIC MODEL (SURFACE IMPACT)

The Earth has been subjected to extensive severe
bombardment. The tremendous energy given off dur-
ing large impacts may have produced a localised melt-
ing within the Earth and the magmas derived from these
meltings may have solidified to form the first crust.
When large bodies hit the Earth’s surface, craters were
formed and energy was transferred to the Earth . These
craters were approximately 10 km deep and there was
a sudden drop in pressure. This sudden release of pres-
sure together with the production of a series of radiat-
ing fractures resulted in partial melting of the mantle
beneath the crater. Erosion of the crater rim, and intru-
sion and extrusion of dominantly mafic magma from
underneath filled the crater. Fractional crystallisation
of mafic magmas produced granitic magma, which were
intruded at shallow depths. The crater, which was filled
by sediments and igneous rocks, rose isostatically to
form a protocontinent. The impact of collision may also
have initiated a convection cell beneath the
protocontinent, thus, thickening the crust and causing
it to grow by peripheral magmatic accretion. Such a
collision may also have initiated the formation of a
mantle plume, which rose and provided a possibility
for the future growth of continental nuclei. Perhaps the
Archean continental nuclei were produced over rising
mantle plumes that were triggered by the impact on the Earth’s surface. Following this analogy that impact
necessarily leads to generation of magma, significant amount of magma should have been produced on the
Moon. This is, however, not the case.

NON-CATASTROPHIC MODEL
PLATE TECTONICS AND CRUSTAL EVOLUTION
According to the theory of Plate Tectonics, crustal evolution takes place as a continental nuclei emerges
from the upper mantle, undergoes gradual accretion and grows slowly in geological time.

The primitive crust was of an oceanic type and the continents were small or possibly non-existent. Then,
the continents started growing slowly through the chemical differentiation of the mantle. The Earth has been
cooling since it first differentiated from others planets. The temperature, in the Earth’s early stages of history,
was very high. Largely this was a result of :
1. The kinetic energy released by the impact of meteorites and asteroids.
2. The release of gravitational energy during the separation of the core (sinking of metal phase).
3. The radioactive decay of isotopes.

98
 The larger amount of heat availability meant that
the hot mantle was less viscous, flowed more rapidly
and convected more vigorously than today’s mantle.
There were numerous hot spots (columns of hot
fluidmagma) in the mantle. This heat was largely dissi-
pated by way of formation and cooling of a basaltic
layer. Thus, the primitive hot Earth may have been over-
whelmed by volcanism. Eruptions may have occurred
entirely beneath a global ocean, which condensed from
vast clouds of gas released first during accretion and
later during volcanism. Thus, there was vigorous small
scale mantle convection. Partial melting above a rising
convection current in the mantle formed magma of
basaltic composition, which accumulated upon the
floor of the ocean and eventually rose above the sea
level. This crust experienced periodic melting and was
recycled back into the mantle. During this process,
lighter components were separated out and distributed
near the Earth’s surface. Where convecting currents
met and moveddownwards or where loading occurred,
this primitive crust was hot and light enough not to
sink, and instead, it compressed, metamorphosed to
greenstone and became thickened.

A downward bulge was created, partially melted

and this differentiated magma became granitic. (Be-
cause of its low density, it injected into the rocks above
(greenstones, marked by large granitic intrusion). These
types of rocks are preserved in the oldest shields as
deformed granite-greenstone belts. In this way,
aprimitive crust differentiated into silicic and granitic
crust and its recycling was prevented.

99
 The solidified lava, which was unable to sink, existed like a volcanic island arc or a small continental block.
These island arcs were subjected to ordinary processes of erosion and sediments were deposited on the sub-
merged flanks of continental nuclei. The products of this chemical weathering were altered by rising hot gases
and silica rich solutions from below. Recycling of this material further produced rocks of low density which
were granitic in character.

At this stage in the Earth’s evolution, tectonic activity started. The granitic continental nuclei, which was
formed earlier, was unable to sink. Vigorous convection currents reacted in the collision of non-granitic rocks
and this helped in the subduction process which began at the base of the continents. The subduction and finally
melting, which was further facilitated by the presence of oceanic water, produced silica-rich (andesitic) magma
due to magmatic differentiation. These low density granitic intrusions further stabilised the continental nuclei.
As a result of continued collision, the newly added volcanic material and sediment were deformed into oro-
genic belts. At the mountain roots, metamorphism and granitic intrusion occurred. Finally, erosion and isostatic
adjustment produced a new segment of the stable crust in which igneous and metamorphic rocks, which were
formed deep in mountain roots, were exposed at the surface. These rocks were subjected to weathering. The
sediments derived from this process were deposited at the margin and once again the entire process was
repeated. Continents, thus, grew by marginal accretion.

The following ‘evidences’ support the occurrence of these sequence of events—

(i) The location of active island arcs.

(ii) The accretion of mountain ranges along the margins of continental nuclei.
However, two questions are left unanswered—

(i) Firstly, in the conversion of weathered products of basalt into granite, what happened to the excess
iron and magnesium, and
(ii) Secondly, potassium and sodium, which constitute granite, are rare in the sediments that have formed
from basalt.
The continental crust, once formed, may be subjected to intracontinental rifting, if it lies above the diverg-
ing convection currents. Continued divergence leads to the separation of continents and the formation of a
new crust. Of these two crusts, the oceanic crust will be basaltic and younger.

If this model is accepted, it provides a mechanism for the formation of both continental and oceanic
crusts in the Earth’s early history.

The basic nature of the crust (composition and structure) and how a granitic crust evolved from basaltic
crust, can be explained in terms of plate tectonics. The differentiation takes place when the basaltic crust is
subducted leading to generation of a granitic crust, rich in silica and acidic matter. Similarly, the growth of crust
by marginal accretion can also be explained in terms of plate tectonics. Marginal accretion takes place when
plate collision leads to formation of mountains on the margins of the already formed crustal nuclei.

100
 GEOMORPHOLOGY (LECTURE – 1) Hand-out:

DEVELOPMENT OF GEOMORPHOLOGY

PARADIGMS
It is a period in the development of discipline when an idea/approach becomes dominant and the entire discourse or
research in the discipline is in accordance with the said idea/approach.

1. NON- PARADIGMATIC STAGE :

Although the term Geomorphology was used in 1870, it has ancient continuity. For ex -: Several Greek-Roman scholars
were curious to know about the origin of various landforms like mountains, valleys, etc.

GREEKS

 Xenophanes – He speculated from the seashells found at the top of mountains that the earth must have
been risen & fallen.
 Herodotus – He speculated that the southern part of Egypt was a former marine bay that was formed by
accumulation of silt brought by the NILE River.
 Aristotle – He observed that the land & sea change their position or places i.e areas that are dry land today
would have been seen in the past and vice- versa.
 Strabo – He observed that land rises and falls, that means upliftment & subsidence.

For ex-: one important observation – the size of delta is directly related to the size and nature of the catchment area of
the river forming it.

ROMANS

 Lucius Seneca – He seems to be the first person to appreciate that the rivers form their own valleys.

ARAB SCHOLARS

 IBN SINA – He believed that there are two types of mountains. One type was formed by the accidental
process – Earthquakes & volcanoes and the second was formed by the differential erosion performed by rivers
and winds

RENAISSANCE PERIOD

 Leonardo da Vinci – He believed that the changes in the level of Land & Sea explain the presence of
marine fossils found at the top of the mountains. He also held the view that the rivers cut their own valleys.
 GIOVANI TAZZETI – He recognized that the stream erosion is an active phenomena involved in the
creation of landforms.
 JEAN GUTTARD – Mountains are destroyed by rivers.
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 During the non- paradigmatic stage, despite the presence of scholars having scientific views about the origin of
landforms, it was the catastrophic viewpoint which was the dominant one. As per this school of thoughts, the
landforms have been created by some special processes. Despite the dominance of this viewpoint, this period
cannot be considered as a paradigm because the scholars of this field contributed widely across other discipline
as well and could not differentiate the subject matter of their own discipline from other disciplines

2. CLASSICAL PARADIGM
Originated in 1785 by James Hutton. He gave the principle of uniformitarianism. He was against the catastrophic
viewpoint. According to this principle ‘present is the key to the past’.

He opinioned that majority of earth surface has been shaped by processes operating gradually over long period of
geological time (GRADUALISM). Thus, he put forward that ‘present is the key to the past’. In other words, the study of
present processes can reveal the historical development of landforms.

Hutton’s ideas were presented in a simplified manner by John Playfair which had a huge influence on Charles Lyell, who
later became the main protagonist of “uniformitarianism”.

This principle ultimately became the core around which J.W. Powell, G.K. Gilbert developed the classical paradigm.

Powell can be regarded as the father of genetic principles of landform evolution, many of which are incorrectly
attributed to W.M. Davis. He developed the idea of base level of erosion during his expedition to Colorado Mountains &
thus, later directly influenced the concept of peneplain and the cycle of erosion put forward by Davis.

G.K. Gilbert is considered as the pioneer of process studies of geomorphic landforms. He put forward the idea of
equilibrium.

Equilibrium is a condition which can be considered as the final form when P.F = R.F. He also put forward the idea of
graded river. It is a river which is able to transport its entire available load.

The major concepts developed in this period are classical as they form the basis of geomorphological discipline even
today.

3. HISTORICAL PARADIGM
In 1899 W.M. Davis came up with the concept of cycle of erosion. It did not emerge as the result of any crisis phase but
gradually emerged from the basic principle of classical paradigm.

W.M. Davis and his normal cycle of erosion were the examples of this paradigm phase.

W.M. Davis based his cycle of erosion on the idea of evolution propounded by Darwin. He also beautifully combined the
already existing popular geomorphological concepts viz., base level of erosion, graded rivers etc. Probably, this was one
of the reasons that his idea gained popularity within a short period.

In his cycle of erosion concept, he compared landforms with living forms that pass through sequential stages – Youth-
Mature-Old with geological time. Thus, landforms of present times can be associated with these stages depending upon
the characteristics that they display. For example, Himalayan mountains system is in its youth stage. This idea became
the dominant paradigm in the Anglo – American geomorphological school of Sub –Aerial Denudation.

His idea of time-being the dominant factor in landform evolution to the neglect of other factors of structure & processes
was severely criticized in mainland Europe. The most prominent challenge came from Germany in the form of PENCK’S
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CONCEPT OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT. He tried to bring back the process as focus point of the study of landform.
Despite these challenges Davis’ idea gained popularity as Penck’s idea was misinterpreted and could not get popularity
initially.

4. PROCESS PARADIGM
In the early 20th century positivistic idea of objective science began to develop in the intellectual circles. Thus, the
historical paradigm which was based upon incomplete evidence & many inductive ideas came under severe criticism. It
was felt that Geomorphology needs to be made an objective science. As a result, the decade of 1980’s considered as a
crisis phase in the development of geomorphology. It was followed by process paradigm in 1940s.

The process paradigm focuses on contemporary processes and landforms. It believes that landform development can be
explained from the perspective of presently operating processes.

The main proponents were:

1. HORTON – channel ordering & laws related to channel morphology.

2. J.T. Hack – he revived the equilibrium concepts of Gilbert and started the non-cyclic school of Sub- Aerial
Denudation.
3. SHORLEY – He used SYSTEM ANALYSIS In Geomorphology.
4. S.A. SCHUMM – Gave the concept of Meta-stable equilibrium.
5. M.P Billing – Father of structural school. Highlighted what role the structure plays in the landform development.
6. L.C. KING – He tried to revive the Historical Paradigm.

In 1970’s, influenced by the “FUNCTIONAL” Philosophy, applied paradigm developed as a sub-paradigm within the
major Process Paradigm. Its focus has been on application of geomorphological concepts to provide solution to the
problems confronting society.

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
In recent times, Geomorphology studies have been dominated by contemporary processes. However such a
viewpoint is limited in the sense that it can’t explain the development of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd order landform. To
understand their development, long periods should need to be considered for their study.

Three developments in recent time require special consideration:

a) As a result of process studies, large and detailed database of processes & operations have been developed.
b) There has been the development of plate tectonic theory which is comprehensive enough to explain operation
of all major endogenetic processes.
c) Development of sophisticated & highly accurate dating techniques.

As a result, it can be asserted that time is ripe to bring back the time-dependent studies along with time-independent
studies in geomorphology.

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 GEOMORPHOLOGY (LECTURE - 2) Hand Out:

PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF THE EARTH’S INTERIOR.

SOURCE OF INFORMATION:

Although DIRECT sources give us first-hand information about earth’s interior, it is the INDIRECT source which gives us
more information.

DIRECT SOURCES:

(a) Ocean drilling / deep digging (e.g. Kola project, Russia).

Positives

 First-hand information is received.

 It can be used to correlate the validity of information received from the indirect sources.

Negative

 Limited information as it is difficult to dig deeper.

(b) Volcanism.

Positive

 Give us direct information – composition of rocks, volcanic dust, etc. and prevalent temperature.

Negative

 Speculation – authenticity of the information particularly, the depth of origin of magma cannot be
ascertained.

(c) Celestial objects

INDIRECT SOURCES:

a) Seismic waves study.

Positive

 It provides X-ray like pictures of earth’s interior as their behavior depends upon the properties of material
through which they propagate.

Negative

 Authenticity will always be questioned.

b) Lab experiment under high temperature & pressure conditions and High mineral density experiment.

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  The database of information will be accumulated.
 Without this database, the nature of seismic waves cannot be ascertained.

c) METEORITES – objects falling into the atmosphere from space. Study of meteorite remnants of ancient planet
– The core of these meteorites are iron-rich.
d) Paleo-magnetism – The reversal of magnetic poles takes place. A Geomagnetic time scale is created. It
gives us ideas about the characteristics of core.

ROLE OF SEISMIC WAVES

Concept – [Travel time + reflection + refraction]. The technique is based upon the study about the behavior, travel time
and reflection & refraction of seismic waves as these are determined by materials through which they pass.

TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES

1) Body waves (2 types)

a) P- Wave – analogous to sound wave – is a longitudinal wave.
 Direction of the movement of wave particles is ‘to and forth’.
 Fastest of all waves, earliest to arrive at seismic station.
 Propagation and velocity depends upon the elasticity and density of the material through which they
propagate.
 P-waves can pass through all mediums.

b) S-waves – analogous to light waves – are transverse waves – direction of the movement of wave particles is
perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave.
 Propagation & velocity depends upon the sheer- modulus of the material. So, it cannot pass through Gas and
Liquid.

2) Surface Waves – (2 types)

a) Love Waves- horizontal to the surface and are transverse. They are the cause of widespread destruction. They
are the most widespread surface waves.
b) Rayleigh waves- most destructive wave as the intensity of destruction is high. They occur in certain
circumstances. Their movement is orbital in nature.

Refraction

It was found that the body waves follow a wave-like path inside the earth’s interior. As a result, it was inferred that
the density of earth progressively increases towards the centre.

Reflection: Where there is sharp change in the density, reflection takes place. Seismic waves also reflect at certain
depths which are found globally and it is the result of abrupt changes in property i.e., Density of the material. This
reveals that the earth has a layered structure.

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S-wave–shadow zone It reveals that part of the earth located in the interior is liquid in nature, referred to as core
which is separated from solid mantle above it.

P-waves–Shadow zone There is the presence of reflecting P-waves in the P- wave shadow zone. They travel even
within the core. However, sharp changes in the density of core causes deflection in their path that shows the core itself
is divided into inner and outer core.

INTERIOR OF EARTH

CRUST
It is the outermost thin eggshell layer of the earth. It is characterised by high variability in terms of thickness and
composition. Broadly, it is divided into continental and oceanic crust.

Parameter Oceanic crust Continental crust

Average thickness 7km 20 to 70 km (thickest under
mountains)
Density 3.0gm/cm3 2.7gm/cm3

Composition Basalt underlain by gabbro Andesitic to granitic

Buoyancy Older oceanic crust becomes Fully buoyant that’s why it is
less buoyant and subducts into above the oceanic crust
mantle.
Seismic velocity of P-waves High Low comparatively to oceanic
crust
Destructibility Subduction takes place Continental crust never
undergoes destructive process.
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 It is always deformed
Age Are younger than continental Older than oceanic crust age –
crust because there is around 4 billion years ago .
continuous destruction &
creation of new oceanic crust.
They are not older than 200
million years.
Tectonic activities As it is thin, greater tectonic Limited due to its greater
activity. Magma intrudes thickness
frequently

Crustal Thickness Bouguer anomaly Stability Other characteristics

region (Deviation from
equilibrium)

Continental 35kms Very low (-10 to - Highly  Low to moderate elevation.

shield as 30) more or less in stable  Highly deformed pre-
cratons equilibrium Cambrian metamorphic &
igneous rocks.
 Unaffected by Post Cambrian
tectonics activities.
Mid- 88kms -10 to -40: low Stable  Similarities with shield.
continental  The major difference being the
presence of rocks belong to
Post Cambrian period.
 Lies on the edge of shield.
 Almost merging with
platforms.
Young fold 65kms -200 to -300: Very Highly  They are narrow elongated
mountains high unstable region attaining elevation
excess of 3kms.
 Overlain by sedimentary rocks.
 Towards the core
metamorphic and igneous
rocks are found.
 Heat flow can also take place.
Island arc 65kms -200 to -300: Very Highly  high similarity with young fold
high unstable mountains.

MANTLE-
It forms the largest volume of the earth – 83%. It is made up of ultra-mafic – magnesium and iron. Ultra-mafic has dual
properties to long term stresses – these rocks behave as plastics, and they can flow. When stress is short term, they can
behave as solid & brittle.

a) Outer/ upper mantle

On average, it is found to be at the depth of 100kms. It has similar properties with crust – solid and brittle. As a result,
both of them behave as single unit referred to as the lithosphere. It is broken into number of interlocking fragments
which are known as lithospheric plates.

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b) Asthenosphere

It extends from 100 to 250 km. But in some area it could extend up to 410kms. Physically it is plastic/semi-solid layer. It
allows lithosphere to float.

In the upper layer, rate of increase of temperature is very high. As a result, concentration of radioactive minerals is very
high. Temperature increases near to the melting point of rocks.

Composition – olivine (iron + magnesium).

c) Transition layer / inner-outer layer

Presence of deep-focus earthquakes.

Phase change – olivine is converted into spinal.

d) Inner mantle

Spinal converted to perovskite. Minerals acquiring compact nature as we go deep into the mantle. Due to the compact
nature, high-pressure fault is created and results in deep-focus earthquakes.

The rate of change of temperature in mantle particularly below the asthenosphere is very slow.

Such low rate of temperature change is believed to be the result of convection currents that distribute heat in the
mantle and help in cooling down.

CORE
The innermost layer of the earth. Suddenly, the density increases in the upper layer of the core.

Earlier it is believed that very high density of core was due to large superincumbent load and higher pressure. However,
mineral density experiments proved that there is a critical limit in the rocks beyond which density cannot increase
despite increase in pressure. Thus, it implies that the core is made up of materials with higher density by their nature.
The study of meteorites proved that iron could be one of such materials.

Thus, it is concluded that core is mainly made up of iron with its major impurities – Ni, O2, sulphur.

Division of core into outer liquid and inner solid layers is the result of the same process which has given the same
structure to the earth as a whole i.e. density differentiation.

As a result of density differentiation, pure Fe is collected towards the centre and their accumulation continues to grow
with time. The accumulation of comparatively pure form of iron towards the centre gives a solid state to the inner core
as pure iron has a higher melting point.

In the outer core, impurities with iron lower its melting point and thus, it is found in liquid state.

The process of density differentiation still continues at all the layers of the earth.

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THERMAL PROFILE OF EARTH INTERIOR
Threefold reason for high temperature.

 Earth was already very hot during its formative stage. This initial heat was trapped inside as a result of the
formation of outer crust made up of rocks.
 The decay of radioactive minerals.
 The density differentiation process itself is exothermic.

Layer 1 asthenosphere – concentration of radioactive minerals results in increased temperature.

Earth temperature increase from 0 degree Celsius at the surface to 5500 degree Celsius or more at the centre.
Determining temperature at the earth interior is difficult and there are large uncertainties.

Both geothermal and melting point curves generally increases towards the centre. But melting point curves increase
rapidly with the depth than the geothermal curve.

There are two layers – ‘asthenosphere’ and D” layer where the temperature is enough to melt the rocks.

a) Lithosphere – stiff; because the temperature is much colder than its melting point.
b) Asthenosphere – weaker and softer; because it is very close to its melting point, partial melting likely to occur.
c) Mantle – the rate of temperature increase is 0.8degree C/km and it is because of two reasons: Lack of
concentration of radioactive minerals and convection currents.
d) D” layer – Sharp increase in temperature and partial melting is thought to occur.
e) Outer core – it’s in molten state because the temperature is higher than the melting point of iron.
f) Inner core – solid; because the temperature is lower than the melting point of iron.

GEO-MAGNETISM:
It refers to the earth’s magnetic field which seems to be highly complicated at any instance and location. This
nature of geomagnetism is the result of super-impositions of many physical processes.

Earth magnetic field exhibits Di- polarity, where magnetic lines emerge from the magnetic South Pole and converge
into magnetic North pole. However, it is not fully Di-polar as the magnetic poles are declined by 11 degrees from
the geographic poles as well as several other non-polar ingredients are superimposed on it.

Three properties:

Declination – The direction to magnetic north pole with respect to the direction to the geographical North Pole.

Inclination – It is the angle which the magnetic field line makes tangent on the earth's surface. It increases from the
equator towards the pole. Inclination can be locked in the magma. Thus, we can find in which latitude rocks have
been formed.

Magnitude – Strength of the magnetic field.

All three properties are variable in nature.

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Causes of origin:
There cannot be a permanent bar magnet inside the earth due to the very high temperature prevalent there.

Thus, the earth’s magnetic force is believed to be generated by the fluid motion taking place in the liquid outer
core. It is mainly driven by temperature differentiation and forces of buoyancy that develop at base of outer core as
earth slowly cools and solid Iron condenses to the inner core below.

The rotation of earth causes the rising fluid to rise in curved trajectories or in curved coils. Thus, electrically
conducting fluids in coiled manner results in the generation of electricity which supports its own magnetism. Thus,
core behaves as a Natural Dynamo which produces Geo- magnetism. It is because of the self-generating nature of
this Geo-Dynamo that the earth has been able to sustain its own magnetism for billions of years.

Variability in Geo-magnetism:
a) Long term:

1) Secular variation – These are slow long term changes in the magnitude and declination properties. It is
because of these variations that the magnetic charts have to be updated on a yearly basis. In present
times, magnitude of geo-magnetism is declining.

2) Magnetic reversal – These are the flip-flops of magnetic poles between times ranging from 1000 years to
millions of years. On an average, it occurs at an interval of 3 lakh years i.e., BRUNHES MATUYAMA
reversals.

3) Excursions – Temporary movement of the poles away from their natural positions. Poles can migrate to
different places. They can be taken to faraway places.

Such events can be the cause of secular variation:-

Geo-magnetic reversal and Excursion are thought to be the result of even greater magnitude disruption. One
viewpoint which has gained prominence in recent times is that such disruptions can be the result of remnant
lithospheric part reaching core-mantle boundary.

Seismic Profiling has revealed that part of the subducting lithospheric plate can reach up to core-mantle boundary.
It has the potential to cause large scale disruption in the flow of outer core. It is believed that when disruption is
limited to Outer core, excursion (migration of magnetic poles) occurs. If disruption also affects the Inner core, then
magnetic reversal occurs.

Whatever be the cause of Magnetic reversal, there is now a general consensus among geo-scientist that the
reversal events are associated with a pause in geo-magnetism. When geo-magnetism restarts there is a probability
of reversal.

D” layer – It is likely to be the remnant of the lithosphere at core-mantle boundary.

b) Short term changes: (on day to day basis)

Ionospheric and Diurnal variation.

On the sunlit side of the earth in the Ionosphere, Periodic differential heating and earth’s rotation causes flow of
electrically conducting ions across the earth’s magnetic field. This leads to the phenomenon of magnetic induction
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 that generates electric current in the ionosphere. This electric current supports their own magnetic field which is
superimposed upon earth general geomagnetic field. This produces diurnal changes in Geo-magnetism.

MAGNETO-SPHERE & MAGNETIC STORMS:

Magneto-sphere is the space in the near-earth environment upto which earth’s Geo-magnetic field extends.

The magnetosphere shape is distorted due to the dynamic presence of sun. From the sun, coronal mass ejection
carrying the Helio-magnetic field at supersonic velocity (called as solar winds) interacts with the earth’s magnetic
field. The magnetosphere obstructs solar wind on dayside and does not allow it to enter earth’s atmosphere. As a
result, on the Sun-lit side, the magnetosphere is compressed.

These solar winds are deflected from the surface of the magnetosphere towards the night side. Frictional impact of
the solar winds causes extension of Magnetosphere towards the night side.

Under normal circumstances, Magnetosphere effectively prevents solar winds from entering the earth’s magnetic field.
However, due to Magnetic Reconnections, they can enter earth’s atmospheric system. Magnetic Reconnection occurs
when two oppositely oriented magnetic field lines come in contact with each other. This causes the snapping of the
magnetic field (Geo.) due to which charged particles from Sun enters the Earth’s magnetic field.

Impact: - It is at the magnetopause and magnetotail that magnetic reconnection occurs. Along the magnetopause and
magnetotail, Helio-magnetic field can take any direction. As a result, Magnetic Reconnection would follow. Due to this
Magnetic Reconnection the charged particles coming from the sun are concentrated near the poles, leading to bright
light referred to as Aurora Lights.

As the result of Magnetic Reconnection, high-velocity solar winds also blow in the upper part of the atmosphere. In
analogy to meteorology, these are referred to as Magnetic Storms. These magnetic storms can damage satellites and
disturb the communication system on the earth.

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY:

Up to 18th /19th centuries, the idea of permanency of earth surface was dominant in the geo-scientific fraternity. It was
essentially tied with the School of Catastrophe, which believed that the earth surface was exceptionally created. Such an
idea of permanency was challenged by the emergence of the Continental Drift Theory of Alfred Wegner in 1912.

Tenets of the theory:-

 The position of continents was not fixed in the past, but there have been changes in their positions. About 250
million years ago, there was a Super-Continent named Pangaea.
 The Super Continent split into 2 parts: Laurasia and Gondwanaland by about 165 million years ago.
 By the end of the Cretaceous period, these two parts further split into smaller pieces and over time drifted to
the present geospatial location/position.

Evidence to support the theory: -

a) Jigsaw fit of the continents:

Wagner saw remarkable parallelism between the 2 coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. He suggested that these
parts/continents (South America & Africa) are broken parts of a single continent named Pangaea and it
presented the case of jigsaw fit. In 1960’s, Sir Edward Bullard with his associates produced a map, that tried to
fit the edges of the continental shelf of South America and Africa taking the depth of 900m isobath line.
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 b) Geological evidence – Age provinces.
Wegner found several age provinces i.e rocks having similarities in age as well as structure distributed across two
coasts of Atlantic, suggesting an interconnection between these age provinces.

He also found distinct igneous and metallic provinces distributed across Gondwanaland – South America,
Madagascar, and even India. Moreover, several Mountain belts appear to terminate at one coast of the Atlantic
only to reappear again on the opposite coast e.g. – Appalachian costs, Greenland & north Europe (west
boundary).

c) Fossil Evidence:
Wegner used the fossils of Mesozoic life forms which he found to be widely distributed across the
Gondwanaland – S.A., Australia, India, and Antarctica.
E.g. – glossopteris fern (small plant) mesosaurus.
Wegner rejected the possible explanations like: land-bridge hypothesis, stepping stone, parallel evolution and
suggested that this could only be explained through the presence of super-continents and its disassociation &
drift.
d) Paleo-climatic evidence:
Wegner documented evidence for the presence of glaciers in the tropical areas of Gondwanaland continent.
Moreover, he also used the finding that the Coal resources of north-America and Europe were formed due to the
deposition of tropical vegetation while the North- America and Europe are outside the tropics. Both the findings
are difficult to explain based on the prevailing climate.
According to Wegner, this problem could be solved, if the continents are joined together as a super-continent &
their relative positions is moved southwards. This will bring present temperate areas into tropical zones and
tropical areas into Polar and Sub-Polar areas.
Critical assessment:-
Despite being full of scientific evidence and rational conclusions, Wegner’s C.D.T contained many grave errors. These
include:-

a) Mechanism of Drift:
Wegner suggested that C.D was accomplished by 2 forces:
1) The gravitational force of the sun and the moon led to drift in westward direction of the continents.
2) The centrifugal force generated due to earth’s rotation led to the northward movement of the continents.
This became the rallying point of criticism. It was criticized on the ground that, if the gravitational force of Sun
and Moon was so strong, then it would have halted the rotation of the earth itself. Centrifugal force cannot
account for drift of such large continents.

b) Wagner tried to paint the whole picture with the same brush. In other words, he tried to explain all geological
phenomena through the mechanism of Continental drift.
For example: - fold mountains are formed as a result of frictional impact of ocean floor on the continental edges.
E.g. – formation of island arc like West Indies: as a result of eastern portion of drifting continents unable to keep
pace with the rest of the continents.

c) He used unnecessary Philosophical Jargons e.g. – he described movement of continent over the ocean floor
similar to the movement of ice breaker over ice. In fact, at times, he contradicted himself as in earlier part of
theory he had written that continent easily moved over ocean floor.

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 Despite these shortcomings, it is important to note that Wegner’s theory was highly scientific. Much of its criticism
emerged from the fact that it was way ahead of its times. Moreover, Wegner did not take into account the
confidence of contemporary scientific fraternity before presenting his ideas.

Although C.D.T. did not directly affect the development of Plate Tectonics Theory, yet it served as motivational
viewpoint for several geoscientists who wanted to prove Continental drift which later contributed to the development
of Plate Tectonics Theory.

POST DRIFT THEORIES:

a) Convection current theory

One of the Geographers who was motivated by C.D.T was Arthur Holmes. He ultimately went on to discover the possible
mechanism of the drift and came to the conclusion that it was the convection currents in the mantle that causes the
drift to take place.

He discovered that the reason for the gradual change of temperature in the mantle could be related to the presence of
mechanism through which mantle is able to cool itself down and distribute the heat.

This mechanism is the convection current which bring hot mantle up and sink cold heavy mantle down. When the rising
limb of convection current reaches at the base of the crust, it spreads laterally. Such a lateral flow can cause movements
in the crustal rocks due to friction at the base of the crust.

According to Holmes, C.D.T can be established by the convection current network in the mantle.

b) Mapping of the ocean floor

1940s saw the development of SONAR technology that enabled scientists to do Bathymetry over the large areas of
ocean floor.

Due to the advancement in technology, the then-prevailing view that the ocean is flat was discarded. It was discovered
that the ocean bottom topography is highly variable and irregular.

Some important findings that affected the development of Plate tectonics theory -

a) Presence of oceanic trenches on the ocean floor. These are narrow – linear deep valley present almost parallel
to the Coastline and Island arcs.
b) Presence of very long linear volcanic mountains ridges on ocean floor – Mid Oceanic Ridge zones of active
volcanism.
c) It was also found that the age of ocean crust progressively increases away from the Mid Oceanic Ridges – Direct
sampling result.

c) Paleomagnetic studies

It refers to the study of ancient magnetism that is contained in the rocks formed during that period.

It is found, that magma containing magnetic minerals solidifies due to cooling below Curie temperature. These minerals
acquire contemporary prevailing geomagnetic properties. These properties are locked in the igneous rocks. Similar
locking can also result during the formation of sedimentary rocks containing magnetic minerals. When magnetic
minerals deposit in the basin, they lithify and align themselves according to the then prevailing geomagnetism.

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Two ways:-

a) Remote sampling b) Direct sampling

Advantages:-

 Paleo-magnetic studies have helped in establishing the theory of Sea Floor Spreading. It was found that
alternate stripes of rocks having reverse polarity away from the Mid Oceanic Ridge are the result of Sea Floor
Spreading. This has helped in the development of plate tectonic theory.
 On the basis of Paleo-magnetic studies polar wandering curves of Europe and north- America were drawn which
ultimately proved that the Continental drift was a reality.
 With the help of these studies Paleo-magnetic time scale has been drawn which provides important correlative
method for dating of rocks.
 Paleo-magnetic properties attained through the study of inclination properties of geomagnetism reveals about
the paleolatitude of rocks.
 The understanding of the patterns of geomagnetic reversals in the past geological periods can help in
understanding the characteristics of earth’s core. It can also be used in predicting such events of the past.

Paleo-magnetism and C.D.T.

Through Paleomagnetic studies of rocks belonging to the past geological period of Eurasia, polar wandering curves were
drawn. These curves show that the magnetic north pole has shifted its position in the past 500 million years from
Central pacific through Aleutian Islands to Arctic Canada where it is presently located. This path was referred to as polar
wandering curves of Eurasia.

Such findings presented problems in explanation, therefore, it is concluded that the magnetic north pole had wandered
far away from the geographical North Pole. Later, when polar-wandering curves of north-America were drawn, further
complication rose as the new polar wandering curves were parallel to the Eurasian curve.

It’s a well-known fact that the magnetic poles cannot remain far-away from the geographical poles for long duration.

Other reason for polar wandering:-

When these continents were brought together, it was found that the 2 curves tend to overlap. Thus, it was suggested
that it is not the poles that were moving but the rocks were.

In effect, there was the existence of joint continent in the past which over the time drifted to occupy the present
position. As a result of this drift, apparent polar wandering curves were found. This discovery proved that the
Continental drift was a reality.

d) Sea-floor spreading by Harry Hess in 1960

In early 1960’s, Harry Hess put forward the theory of Sea Floor Spreading. According to this view, the Mid Oceanic
Ridges (MOR) are the places on the earth surfaces which are located directly above the upward rising limb of the
convection currents. As these currents reach at the bases of lithospheric plates, they are forced to spread laterally along
the base of the lithosphere. This creates tensional forces along the MOR which cause fracturing and faulting in Mid
Oceanic Ridge region. This causes melting of rocks leading to the magma generation and thereby producing new oceanic
lithospheric plates.

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The fact that the area of ocean basin is nearly constant implies that the ocean lithosphere is also destroyed. This is done
by the subsiding limbs of convection current, that facilitate bending & subduction of oceanic lithospheric plate into the
mantle.

e) Mapping of earthquakes and volcanic zones.

When the earthquakes and the volcanoes which occur on the earth surface were plotted on a map, it was found that
the majority of them occurred along fixed belts such as.

1. – Pacific boundary is also known as the pacific ring of fire.

2. – Another belt coinciding with Mid Oceanic Ridge.

3. – Another major belt – mid-continent belts passing through the Mediterranean Sea- Alpine and Himalayan chain.

It was J. Tuzo Wilson who ultimately decoded the pattern and opined that these zones were nothing but plate
boundaries. He coined the term “Plate” and concluded that the lithosphere was broken into a network of interlocking
fragments known as lithospheric-plates.

PLATE TECTONIC THEORY

The outer rigid lithosphere is broken into a number of interlocking fragments which are called lithospheric plates. These
lithospheric plates, as a result of their buoyant nature with respect to the asthenosphere, are floating over it. As a
result, plates interact with each other along their boundaries leading to several tectonic activities.

There are 7 major plates and 13 minor plates. It is important to note that all the major plates with the exception of the
largest pacific plate are made up of both oceanic and continental material. This is a significant improvement over the
idea of Continental Drift. Thus, we got to know that continents are not moving over the ocean crust but are moving
along with them.

The minor plate which has been discovered can be entirely made up of single type material. For example Nazca plate,
Coco plate etc. are made up of oceanic material, while the Arabian plate is mostly made up of continental material.

The lithospheric plates are made up of extremely rigid and strong material and thus behave as efficient stress guide. In
other words, stress applied on one margin of the plate is directly transferred to another end without any deformation of
plate’s interior. This explains why major tectonic activities like earthquakes, mountain building etc. are concentrated
along the plate boundaries.

Plate boundaries:
1) Divergent boundaries/ constructive plate boundaries:

There are spreading zone on the earth's surface where lithospheric plates move away from each other. As tensional
forces are generated by diverging lithosphere, fractures & openings develop along the boundaries. This causes release
of pressure immediately below, leading to the lowering of melting point of mantle rocks. This triggers melting in the
mantle thereby generating magma.The magma is emplaced in the fractures and openings generated by the tensional
forces. Thus, in effect, construction of new oceanic lithosphere takes place along these boundaries due to which they
are also referred to as Constructive plate boundaries.

The most widespread example of divergent boundaries is the network of Mid Oceanic Ridges, encompassing a length of
more than 70,000 km.
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However, they can also develop on the continents. Example: East Africa Rift valley.

In the near geological past, the Red sea and the Gulf of Aden represent such type of divergent boundaries formed over
the continental lithosphere. The continental part will move apart by the creation of new ocean basins. Eventually, such
divergent boundaries will become similar to Mid-Oceanic Ridges over the ocean floor.

Divergent boundaries represent Ridge and Plateau topography. Along these zones earth releases heat i.e. outflow of
heat from the interiors occur along these boundaries. Thus, rocks are found to be in warm and expanded state. So, they
represent elevated platforms on the earth surface.

A rift valley lies in the central part of these Mid-Oceanic Ridges. Rift valley is a zone of active volcanism.

2. Convergent plate’s boundaries/ destructive plate boundaries:

These are zones on the earth's surface where lithospheric plates are forced to converge, ie; move towards each other.
As a result, the destruction and deformation of lithospheric plates follow. Therefore, these boundaries are referred to as
destructive plate boundaries.

1. Ocean – Ocean convergence:

Found to be located in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, but they are not found in Indian Ocean.

Pacific Ocean – Aleutian Island, Kuril Island, Japan, Philippines.

Atlantic Ocean – subduction takes place along the Caribbean Sea, West Indies are island arcs.

When ocean – ocean plates converge, the denser & heavier, which is usually the older one, will start subducting into the
mantle. As this water rich oceanic plate subducts into the mantle, high pressure and temperature drives the water out
of the plate. As a result, accumulation of large amount of water lowers the melting point of mantle rocks. Thus, as a
result of partial melting of subducting oceanic lithospheric plate and mantle rocks, large amount of magma is generated.
This magma is emplaced on to the edge of overriding oceanic lithosphere leading to the formation of a zone of explosive
volcanoes. As the phenomena continue, more and more magma is emplaced. As a result, the chain of volcanoes grows
in size & rises above the sea level; which are referred to as the Island arcs.

2. Ocean – Continent convergence.

Ocean –continent convergence has similar characteristics to ocean – ocean convergence as both represent the
subduction zone. Here too the denser oceanic lithosphere plate subducts into the mantle, thus, the involvement of
water triggers melting and associated volcanism. However, in this case, emplacement of magma takes place on the
overriding continental lithospheric plate. As a result, some differences can be seen.

There can be two situations. First, the volcanic arc is formed where the magma is emplaced on the subaerial part of the
overriding continental lithosphere. Here volcanic arc forms large zone of folded rocks.

Ex- includes Rockies & Andes.

Second situation can be the formation of Island arcs if magma is emplaced on the continental margin which is
submarine. Ex- includes Indonesia.

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3. Continent – Continent convergence:

Stage 1 – Consumption of oceanic lithospheric plate.

Continent – continent collision is always preceded by ocean-continent convergence. The subduction of oceanic plate
brings the two continental plates together. Once the oceanic part is fully consumed, collision between the two
continental parts takes place. For example – before the collision of Indian plate with Eurasian plate, it was separated by
the Tethys sea lithosphere. Only after the Tethys sea lithosphere is fully consumed, the convergence between the Indian
and the Eurasian plate occurred.

Stage 2 – Continent – continent collision causes deformation and crustal shortening because both the plates are
buoyant and cannot subduct into the mantle. As a result, chain of folds mountain range is formed. Until the convection
currents in the mantle are active, the convergence can continue. As a result, previously formed mountain ranges can
gain in height and formation of newer parallel fold mountain ranges takes place.

However, when the convection currents become inactive, these boundaries will become inactive and the two
continental parts will suture into one and for all practical purposes behave as a single continental landmass.

3. TRANSFORM BOUNDARY:
Also referred to as transverse or Conservative plate boundaries.

These represent the fault lines along which two lithospheric plates slide past each other. Thus, along such boundaries
parallel movement between the plates is found. Therefore, there is neither the creation nor the destruction of the
plates. Thus, they are also referred to as conservative plate boundaries. Such a fault is an example of transverse of
strike-slip fault.

These are referred to as transform boundaries because their presence helps in transformation in relative movement
along the plate margins. Along the transform boundaries, a divergent motion along one boundary of the plate can be
converted to a convergent motion along the opposite side of the boundary. The majority of these boundaries are found
along the Mid-Oceanic Ridges where they connect individual ocean ridges into a global network of Mid-Oceanic Ridge
system. If fault lines were not present the plates wouldn’t have moved. Such boundaries can also develop over the
continents. Example: - San Andreas fault system of California.

Along such boundaries interlocking of rough edges can lead to the formation of seismic gaps and earthquakes can
follow. This is the reason why the Mid-Oceanic Ridges form a very important belt of earthquake activity.

Rate of Plate movement

Different plates move at different rates, some slowly and some comparatively faster. For example, American plate is
moving at a slow rate 1-3 cm/year. On other hand, the movement of the Indian plate is comparatively faster i.e: 5-7 cm/
year. Among the major plates, Pacific plate is moving at a faster rate of 7-8 cm/year.

The rate of movement of plates depends on the density. It is tied with intensity of slab pull and ridge push mechanism
which in turn related to density of subducting plates and also tied with the nature of convection currents.

In this aspect plate tectonics improve over C.D T. According to it plates can move in all directions, unlike only westwards
and northward as visualized by C.D theory. Re

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Forces causing plates movement:
There is now a general consensus among Geo-scientists that the Slab pull and Ridge push are the primary mechanisms
that causes the plate movement.

As gravity pulls the subducting oceanic plate towards the centre of earth, referred to as the Slab-pull, tensional forces
are generated along the Mid-Oceanic Ridge and it causes fractures and openings in the rocks. These fractures are filled
by the magma generated in the mantle. Emplacement of magma in these openings generates a pushing force away from
the centre of these openings towards the subducting ends of the plate called as the Ridge Push. Thus, slab pull and ridge
push work in tandem to generate the primary forces of plate movement.

There is also an agreement that this primary movement is facilitated by the flow of convection currents in the mantle.
However, there is no consensus on the exact nature of convection currents. But, there is an agreement that not, one
type, but many types of convection currents are found in the mantle. Thus, different scientists have presented different
viewpoints.

(Q). Discuss how Plate tectonics theory is an improvement over the idea of continental drift theory?

Answer: Although C.D did not directly influence the development of plate tectonic theory, both of them talked about
the no- permanency of earth's surface. Many of the viewpoints put forward by the C.D.T as a challenge to the
Catastrophic school were taken into logical conclusion by the plate tectonic theory.

a) Continental crust and Oceanic crust – C.D.T visualized continent to be floating over the ocean basin. Plate
tectonics theory had improved on this idea and reveals that plate move over asthenosphere. Both continents &
ocean are moving.
b) Mechanism of drift – C.D.T wrongly envisioned the gravitational pull of the sun & the moon as the cause of the
drift. PTT has corrected the error by incorporating the idea of Slab pull and Ridge push.
c) The direction of movement of lithospheric plates – As a result of the wrong visualization of forces, C.D.T put
forward restricted view of direction of continental drift to westwards & northwards. As PTT is based upon
improved concepts of gravitation pull of earth & convectional currents, it visualizes the plate movement to
occur in all the directions.
d) C.D.T could not properly explain the origin of tectonic features. For ex: - fold mountains & island arcs. According
to C.D.T, these are formed by the combined effect of frictional drag of oceanic floor and lagging eastern floor of
the continent. PTT has significantly improved explanation on not only the origin of Fold Mountains & island arcs
but also other tectonic feature likes origin of earth crust, isostatic equilibrium etc. For ex: - according to P.T.T,
fold mountains are formed along the convergent boundaries by the compressional forces causing deformation
and shortening of crustal rocks. Similarly, Island arcs are the result of subduction zone volcanism.

Criticism of Plate tectonics theory:

a) Lithospheric plate floating over the asthenosphere: According to P.T.T average thickness of the lithosphere is
100kms. However, seismic evidence reveals that it is highly variable & below the shield area, it can extend
beyond 300km.
b) According to P.T.T, lithosphere is floating over the asthenosphere but seismic evidence has revealed that in
many places: asthenosphere is either very thin or is completely missing below the shield region of the world.
c) According to P.T.T, construction of oceanic lithospheric plate occurs at divergent margins, while the destruction
occurs at subduction zone margins. It is found that divergent boundary is found to be longer than the
subduction boundary which leads to greater construction of oceanic plates at the divergent boundary than its

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 destruction at the convergent boundary. P.T.T is silent on this issue. The viewpoint that earth is expanding is put
forward but there is no evidence to validate it.
d) P.T.T believes that plates are made up of extremely rigid material as a single unit. However, satellite imagery has
shown that many parts of the plates are not moving in the same direction. Such finding has led to the discovery
of microplates and result in the emergence of Microplate tectonics theory.
e) P.T.T believes in the youthful nature of oceanic crust i.e; not older than 200 million years due to continuous
recycling. However, ocean dating provides evidences of rocks older than 200 million years and this has been
portrayed as a severe challenge to the PTT.
f) Plate tectonics theory believes that convection current plays an important role along with slab pull and ridge
push mechanism. However, it is still ambiguous about the exact nature of convection currents.
Although P.T.T explains all the major tectonic phenomena, it falls short in many cases. For ex: - it is unable to
explain why some geological periods are characterized by greater volcanism and tectonism compared to other
periods. Similarly, it is unable to explain and substantiate the occurrence & mechanism of deep-focus
earthquakes.

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 GEOMORPHOLOGY: Lecture Note-3
VOLCANISM
Tasks accomplished by volcanism:-
 Cooling down of earth surface
 Density differentiation
a) Volcanism includes all the processes beginning from the generation of magma to its emplacement whether above
the surface or beneath the surface. When the magma is emplaced below the surface, the process is referred to as
intrusive volcanism; while it is emplaced above the surface the process is called extrusive volcanism. Whatever be
the type, it always involves 3 inter-related processes – origin, ascent and emplacement of magma.
b) Origin of magma – it is related to a number of factors/functions:-
i. Temperature profile
ii. Pressure regime
iii. Amount of water involved
iv. Rocks involved

i. Temperature profile
The role of temperature in magma generation can be gauged from the fact that almost all the magma rising towards
earth’s surface generate in two layers i.e. asthenosphere & core mantle boundary. In the upper layer of earth due to the
concentration of radio-active minerals, rate of temperature increase is very high. As a result, in the asthenosphere,
actual temperature reaches near the melting point of asthenosphere rocks. Thus, any lowering in the melting point in
this zone can trigger melting.
At the core-mantle boundary, there is sudden increase in the prevailing temperature that causes melting.
ii. Pressure regime
Melting of rocks is also facilitated by the prevailing pressure regime. Pressure is directly related to the melting point of
rocks. Any reduction in pressure results in the lowering of melting point of the rocks which triggers melting. This
phenomenon is significant in the magma generation along the Mid Oceanic Ridge. Generation of tensional forces lead to
the development of fractures and openings along the Mid Oceanic Ridge. As a result, pressure is released directly
beneath which leads to the lowering of melting point of asthenosphere rocks. Thus, magma is generated due to partial
melting of asthenosphere rocks.
iii. Amount of water involved.
Another factor controlling the origin of magma is the amount of water involved. Involvement of large amount of water
decreases the melting point of rocks which can trigger melting. This phenomena is very significant along the subduction
zone. As water rich oceanic lithosphere subducts into the mantle, the prevailing high pressure and high temperature

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drive the water out of the subducting plate. This leads to accumulation of large amount of water in this zone, which
lowers the melting point of asthenosphere rocks triggering the melting and generation of magma.
iv. Composition of rocks

Intermediate Felsic
Less silica High silica
Less viscous High viscosity
Make layer 1 of continental crust Make layer 2 of continental crust
Andesitic Granite
Composition of rocks determines the composition of magma. Both in theory & practise, melting of the rocks is always
partial. Therefore, the composition of magma formed is always different from the composition of parent rock. [In
general, the magma formed is silica rich than the original rocks]. Normally, partial melting of ultra-mafic rocks leads to
the formation of mafic magma, while partial melting of mafic rock leads to intermediate to felsic magma.
c) Ascent of magma :- As soon as the magma is formed, its tendency is to ascend upward due to its buoyancy
compared with its surrounding. During the ascend, further magmatic differentiation takes place due to the
phenomena such as crystal outing and assimilation of xenoliths. In fact, this is the reason why a single volcano can
emit magma of different compositions.
d) Emplacement of magma :- Although various factors control the emplacement of magma, most important of them
is the composition of magma. Magmas having composition mafic to ultramafic have least silica content. As a result,
they have greater mobility and thus can easily reach the earth surface if an outlet is available. When such magma is
emplaced on the surface, it leads to formation of large explosive features such as oceanic crust, shield volcanoes
and basaltic plateaus.
On the other extreme are the felsic magmas having SiO2 contents more than70%. As a result, they are highly viscous and
generally lose their mobility before reaching the earth surface. Thus, they are usually emplaced below the surface as
intrusive landforms. However, if they somehow reach the surface, they lead to explosive eruption. Lying in between the
two extremes are the magmas with intermediate composition. They are viscous but not as much as the felsic magma. As
a result, they can frequently reach the earth surface and generally cause explosive eruption. On the earth surface they
form medium to small sized landforms such as the Composite Cone Volcanoes.
TYPE OF ERUPTION
Eruption from the volcano depends upon a number of factors including the temperature and pressure regime which is
basically a function of the amount gases involved, addition of fresh batches of magma into the chamber etc.
On the basis of the frequency of eruption, volcanoes can be classified into dormant, active and passive.
Active volcanoes erupt at regular intervals separated by a few years.
A volcano can be active if there is continuous build-up of gaseous pressure due to the nearby presence water or by the
arrival of fresh batch of magma.

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A volcano is said to be dormant if the periods separating eruptions is longer. This can be due to lack of enough build-up
of pressure in magma composition that can lead to an eruption.
In the case of extinct volcanoes, eruption hasn’t taken place for very long period of time. This can be primarily due to
empty magma composition or magma composition migrating elsewhere.
Eruption can be classified on the basis of INTENSITY.
Type of eruption Magma composition Characteristics

Icelandic Basic – low viscosity, low Nature of eruption very silent

gaseous content. very fluid – formation of very
large lava cones.
Hawaiian – shield volcanoes Basic – low viscosity but Nature of eruption silent.
gaseous content is moderate to Fluid – broad domes refers to
high. as shield volcanoes.
Strombolian Less basic/partly moderate Eruption – weak to violent
viscosity, Moderate to high Less fluid – formation of small
gaseous content. volcanic cones
Intermediate Composition eg:- Cinder cones.
Vulcanian Acidic i.e. silica content high, Moderate to violent eruption.
moderate to high gaseous Structure:
content. Composite Volcanoes.
Explosion Crater.
Vesuvian: Intermediate magma – viscous, Violent eruption Landforms
i.e strong vulcanian acidic: same as vulcanian.
Gaseous content greater than
vulcanian.
Plinian – very strong vulcanian More acidic, thus more viscous, Eruption very violent, no Cone
and very high gaseous content formation due to very violent
eruption
Pelean Very acidic, highly viscous Violent eruption associated
magma with ash-cloud formation.
VOLCANIC DOMES can be
formed.
Krakatoan Highest silica content, very Cataclysmic: very high explosive
viscous eruption:
Landforms associated: Large
explosion CALDERA.

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 BASIC LAVA
Aa (Hawaiian name) Pahoehoe(Hawaiian name)
Greater silica content Comparatively less silica
Less mobility because of more viscosity More mobility
Its surface is smooth having lots of wrinkles
Rough surface formed due to breaking of
thicker crust
Less mobile More mobile
BLOCK LAVA: Acidic lava with more silica content, thus, lesser mobility. Formed as block structure having curved
surface.
PILLOW LAVA: formed in an environment where cooling occurs at a very fast rate. e.g. – Ocean floors.

PYROCLASTIC MATERIALS
3 types:-
a) Volcanic bombs
b) Cinder / lapilli
c) Volcanic ash
a) Volcanic bombs
Large size rock fragments having a size of more than 64mm.It can be formed in two ways.
1) Blown away rock particles of volcanic cone.
2) They can also be formed by the solidification of magma in the atmosphere.
b) CINDER/ LAPILLI
Its formation is basically the function of gaseous content as gaseous content controls the amount of froth.
Depending on the size they can be classified as cinder and in (2-64) mm in size.
c) ASH – If froth generation is high, then there is the formation of volcanic ash (< 2 mm in size).
d) Associated landforms.

 Extrusive landforms
i. Basaltic / lava plateaus.
Magma reaches the surface through cracks and fissures. As it comes out of fissures it travels long distance and
spread out over a large area (basaltic lava). We find layer by layer emplacement of lava leading to plateau
formation. E.g. – Maharashtra plateau – extension – Malwa plateau.

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ii. Volcanic cones/peak.
Types of volcanic Composition of Size Characteristics
peak magma
a) Shield volcanoes Basic/basaltic Radius> 100km Very large volcanic peak.
Ex:- Hawaiian, reunion Gentle slope 2o – 10o
island Can also be very tall. E.g.
Hawaiian volcanic peak.
Height and Width: generally
lower
b) Composite / Strato Intermediate, acidic Radius 1 to 10 km Height/ width: generally
Ex:- pacific ring of fire, greater.
Mt. Fuji Characterised by steeper
slopes < 33o
Rockies:St :Helens It is made up of alternate layer
Andes: MT: Vesuvius of magma and pyroclast.
and It is formed as a result of
Mt: Catapoxi different episodes of eruption
separated by time.
With each eruption episode a
layer of lava is deposited.
Since the eruptions are of
violent type, lot of pyroclastic
materials are also formed. As
a result, a layer of pyroclast is
deposited over lava layer
following each eruption
episode
c) Cinder –Cone Larger gaseous Height 500 mts. They are very small in size.
Volcano content Radius 500 mts. They are very asymmetric in
Ex. Commonly found shape.
in Hawaiian Island Steeper slopes around 33o.
Formed as a result of cinder &
ash deposit which tends to
maintain steep angle of
repose.

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 More/less represent transient
features.
Small + unconsolidated
sediments.
They are easily eroded and
removed.
They tend to form over larger
volcanoes they are referred as
PARASITIC CONE.
CALDERA – it is a very large opening/depression in the volcanic peak. Usually, it is filled with water.
a) Explosion caldera – these are formed by the violent volcanic eruption that blew apart upper part of volcanic
peak. ex:- Caldera lake in the U.S.A
b) Engulfment caldera: It is formed as a result of the phenomenon called engulfment in which migration of magma
chamber takes place from beneath the volcanic peak. As supporting rocks are removed by the migrating
magma, the collapse of volcanic peaks leads to their formation. Such types of caldera are very common in
Hawaiian Islands. According to some scientists, they can also be formed due to erosion as can be found in
extinct volcanoes.
Intrusive landforms
If emplacement occurs beneath the surface, slow cooling and slow solidification follows. Thus, there is enough time for
the formation of crystals. Therefore, intrusive landforms display crystalline structure.
Classification:- SIZE & DEPTH
When their size is very large and formed at greater depths, they are called as plutonic landforms. Ex:- Batholith and
stock
Non- plutonic: comparatively smaller in size and near to the surface.
Plutonic: formation of large crystals, intergrowth of crystals – very strong and resistant rocks.
Classification:- Nature of emplacement with respect to Sedimentary strata
1. DISCORDANT: They cut across exiting strata ex:- Batholiths & Dykes
2. CONCORDANT: These are those rocks which are emplaced in between the existing strata.
Batholith: Formed by amorphous Plutonic rocks. It is the largest intrusive landform. It is mainly made up of granite.
It is basically an erstwhile magma chamber which has been later solidified. It is commonly found at the core of Fold
Mountains.
Diagram :
Dyke– It is a vertical intrusion of magma cutting across already existing strata. Usually, they are formed as intrusion
of magma in already existing faults. Dyke is wall like intrusion that serves as natural reservoirs.

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 Sill – It is a sheet like intrusion of magma in between the existing strata. They can be exposed to surface and when
exposed they are not eroded easily and commonly form tablelands in plateaus.
Laccolith – It is a mushroom shaped concordant rock form near the surface. It leads to doming/formation of
domes. It is composed of silica-rich magma which has less mobility than that of sill.
Phacolith – when rocks are formed over anticline and syncline
Lapolith – saucer-shaped formation
 Pseudo – volcanic features – They are not true volcanic features.
a) Impact Craters – Craters formed by the impact of meteorite fall
b) Atomic crater and mining crater
c) Salt-plug domes – formed by the chemical reaction in Solution

DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANISM/ VOLCANISM AND PLATE TECTONICS

Spreading centre volcanism – Coincides with divergent boundaries. Ex: - MOR, Great African rift valley. Volcanism
started due to tensional forces along the divergent boundary.
Subduction zone volcanic belt – Ex: - pacific ring of fire – Caribbean, Stromboli
Inter plate volcanic zone: Located in the interior of the plates. As hotspots are randomly located on the core-mantle
boundary, such volcanoes are not located in any specified belt and are widely distributed.
Q1) How does Plate Tectonic Theory explain Volcanism?
Q2) Relationship between Volcanism and PTT?

EARTHQUAKES
(A) CONCEPT
Earthquake is the vibration of the earth’s crust caused by sudden release of large amount energy. This energy travels in
the form of seismic waves. Earthquakes are mainly caused by surface waves. It can be explained by the ‘Elastic Rebound
Theory.’
The elastic rebound theory successfully explains the mechanism of earthquakes. According to this view, rocks are elastic
in nature. Application of pressure on the rocks by the forces ranging from plate tectonic to anthropogenic origin causes
the rocks to bend and store the applied force in the form of elastic energy. As the accumulation of elastic energy
becomes greater than the strength of rocks, crustal rocks fracture and return back to their original state. During the
process the stored elastic energy is suddenly released leading to the generation of earthquakes waves.

(B) CAUSES
According to plate tectonics, most of the earthquakes are generated due to the interaction between plates. Such
processes are concentrated along the plate boundaries and thus, plate boundaries form belts of the majority of the

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earthquakes. According to plate tectonics, earthquakes can occur along all the 3 types of boundaries viz., convergence,
divergence and transform as well as within the plate interiors.
Depending upon the location/depth of the focus, there are 3 types of earthquakes:
a) Shallow focus earthquake (0 – 70km)
b) Intermediate focus earthquake (70 – 300km)
c) Deep focus earthquake (300 – 700km)
Shallow focus:
Such earthquakes can occur along all the 3 types of boundaries as well as in the plate interiors.
1) Convergent boundaries:
Diagram:
Along the convergent boundary, earthquakes are caused as a result of a variety of phenomena including:
(i) Bending and subduction of the plate which can cause fracturing in crustal rocks.
(ii) Due to associated volcanoes.
(iii) Due to collision between plates which can cause faulting, fracturing and folding in the crustal rocks. These are
referred to as Thrust faults.
Along the C-C convergent boundary no subduction occurs, as a result, generation of earthquakes are primarily related to
the collision which causes crustal rock to fold and fault.
2) Transform fault
Along the transform boundaries, the earthquakes are generated due to the interlocking of the rough edges of plates as
they slide past each other. This interlocking leads to the generation of seismic gaps. Seismic gaps represent the zones
where the movement of plates has been stopped by the bending caused by the interlocking. Soon these rocks will
fracture and generate earthquake.
3) Divergent boundaries
Diagram:
Along the divergent boundaries, earthquakes can be caused as the result of pushing by the magma which causes the
rocks to bend and fracture. This phenomenon is significant in the generation of earthquake particularly when the
divergent boundary is located on the continent.
Along divergent boundary, majority of volcanic eruption is of silent type which does not generate intense earthquakes.
However, sometimes, moderate earthquakes can be occurred due to the involvement of large amount of gases.
In the plate interiors particularly on the continents, shallow focus earthquake can result from rejuvenation of ancient
fault line during the plate movement. These ancient fault lines are the weak zones within the plates which represent the
suture zone along which small continental parts merge to form bigger continents. Faulting and fracturing along these
week zones can lead to earthquakes.
The rejuvenation can be a result of hot spot and related mantle plumes. These mantle plumes can otherwise commonly
lead to earthquake in the plate interiors.
Diagram:
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Benioff zone
It is a narrow zone located along the subduction zone boundary where all 3 types of earthquakes i.e shallow,
intermediate & deep focus tend to occur. The width of benioff zone is the function of angle of subduction plate. If the
angle of subduction is steeper, then the zone will be comparatively narrower while the angle of subduction is gentle,
then the width will be wider. Depth of Benioff zone extends from surface to 700 km.
Intermediate and deep focus earthquakes:
Discovery of Benioff zone revealed that these earthquakes are mainly limited to subduction zone. This clearly meant
that these earthquakes are associated with the subduction of oceanic lithospheric plates into the mantle. Mineral
density lab experiments revealed that parts of subducting lithospheric plates can be rigid enough to allow brittle
fracturing up to the depth of 300 km. In other words, cause of intermediate focus earthquake is similar to shallow focus
earthquakes as explained by the Elastic Rebound Theory.
As the plate subducts, the mantle obstructs this subduction which causes the lithospheric rocks to bend and fracture
generating Intermediate Focus Earthquakes.
Mineral density experiments also proved that beyond the depth of 300 km, temperatures become too high for the
lithospheric rocks to retain their rigidity. Thus the deep-focus earthquakes cannot be caused due to elastic rebound.
Thus, what is the exact mechanism of deep focus earthquake is still unknown.
In recent times, the phase change theory has become the popular view point in explaining the occurrence of Deep Focus
Earthquakes. According to this theory minerals of subducting lithosphere plates undergoes the process of phase change
and acquires a more compact and crystalline structure which leads to a special type of high pressure faulting, suggesting
that cause of deep focus earthquake beyond 300 km is the result of mineral olivine phase change to spinal which
ultimately further changes into perovskite up to 690 km depth.
OTHER CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE
Natural Anthropogenic

Meteoritic impact. Nuclear explosion.

Landslide event. Reservoir induced.
Isostatic rebound. Construction activity and mining.
Some natural events like meteoritic impact and landslides can cause earthquake. Meteoritic impacts can lead to very
high magnitude earthquake while landslide event generates feeble earthquake.
In recent times, it has been found that areas experiencing isostatic rebound can also experience feeble earthquakes. In
such areas, upliftment of crust causes its vibration, generating weaker earthquakes. This is found to be true in areas
experiencing glacio-isostatic readjustment like the Baltic Sea region.
Human activities can also generate earthquakes. Most common anthropogenic earthquakes are the result of nuclear
testing/explosions where large amount of energy is suddenly released.
Other manmade earthquake is the reservoir induced seismicity.
Diagram:

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Large reservoir involves impounding of large weight of water which can cause bending and fracturing in the underlying
crustal rocks. This phenomenon can become significant when ancient weak zones or contemporary fault lines are
located in the reservoir site.For ex: - impounding of water in the KOYNA reservoir has led to the reactivation of ancient
fault lines.
Diagram:
Construction of very large man-made structures in such a tectonically fragile zone can have similar impacts as reservoir
induced seismicity. Mining could also lead to generation of earthquakes. This is particularly true when the roof of
underground mines is collapsed.

(C) DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES:

According to PTT, majority of the earthquakes occur along the plate boundary. They display belt pattern.
Diagram:
At mid-oceanic ridges earthquakes are caused by transforms boundaries which join the individual ridges.
3 zones (major zones):
a) Pacific rim. b) Mid-Oceanic ridges – MAR, MIOC, EPR.
c) Continental – along the alpine and Himalayan chain.
Other Minor zones:
a) Great African rift valley. b) Caribbean – Cayman and Puerto Rico trench.
c) Nova scotia.
Some Isolated ZONES (within the plate interiors due to mantle plume and hotspot activities):
a) Pacific (islands). b) In India (Koyna reservoir).
Magnitude & intensity:
Magnitude is the measure of the amount of energy released during earthquake activity. It is measured on a logarithm
scale called the Richter scale.
Intensity is the measure of the effect/ the destruction caused during the earthquake. It is measured by the Mercalli
scale.

Factors controlling the intensity of earthquakes:

a) Magnitude – directly related to intensity. High magnitude earthquake >7 in Richter scale – higher intensity. Such
submarine earth quakes have the capacity to generate Tsunami.
b) Depth of the focus – It is the shallow focus earthquake which has the highest intensity. For ex: - Tsunami
generating earthquakes are usually shallow focus earthquakes.
c) Distance from the epicenter – as we move away from the epicentre, the intensity of earthquake reduces.
Diagram: Important Seismic zones in India.
d) Structure of underlying rocks/ geological settings/ geographical settings:
Rigidity of rocks – less rigid rocks is characterized by greater intensity of the earthquake. Less rigid rocks – more
vibration will take place.

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 Other aspects: structural settings also control earthquake. E.g.: In weak settings, Earthquake generated landslides
can increase its intensity significantly.
Geographical location –Eg: Coastal areas can be subjected to large scale devastation due to earthquake-generated
tsunami compared to similar magnitude earthquakes in the interiors.
e) Man-made factors – the strength of man-made structure – “It is not the earthquakes that kill but the buildings do”.
This is the reason why similar magnitude earthquakes have higher intensity in developing countries as compared to
developed countries.
f) Type of land-use controls the density of population as well as type and strength of built-up areas. In sparsely
populated areas such as grazing land, the intensity is generally low. But in areas of high density of population like
urban locations, the intensity becomes high.
g) Preparedness – it includes the training of general public about the behavior during earthquake activity, Earthquake
resilient building code etc.

Management of earthquakes:
i. Earthquakes intensity zonation/ identification of seismic zones – At the global level, the seismic zones
coincide with plate margins & identification of weak zones within the plates.
ii. Making a suitable land use policy:
 Building codes – National building code 2005 governs the building structure in India. Implementation –
all the new/upcoming structure should be according to the Building codes.
 In Already existing weak structures and Historical monuments – we are following seismic retrofitting
policy to strengthen the weak structures.
iii. Strengthening of the critical emergency infrastructure.
iv. Training of the stakeholders – such as training the general public about how to conduct themselves during
an earthquake event. We have incorporated disaster management in the academic curriculum.
v. Educating people about signs of earthquake – large earthquakes are preceded by foreshocks. Strange
behavior of animals – can help to sense the p-waves.
vi. Financial mitigation – Emergency relief funds needs to be created. Allowing burden to be shared. Insurance
mechanisms can be used.
vii. Continued research about earthquake – it would help us in future prediction and mitigation of earthquake.
“Global earthquake monitoring project” – India is part of this global initiative on how to improve our
mitigation strategies.

PREDICTION of Earthquake
With our understanding of PTT, our capacity to predict Earthquakes has definitely improved, particularly with respective
to long term prediction. Two types:-

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a) Long term:
Today, we can make prediction of future earthquakes ina number of ways with considerable accuracy:
1. Remote sensing/satellite imagery – we can monitor the seismic gap and plate movements.
2. Study of rocks and related features: Small faults and fractures in rock system – emission of radon gas.
b) Short term: Our short term prediction is very poor and not up to the mark. Studying the arrival of p-waves with
accuracy needs a large network of seismograms.

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 GEOMORPHOLOGY: (Lecture Note - 4) Hand Out

TSUNAMI – Catastrophic waves:

Tsunamis are very large catastrophic oceanic waves which are formed by the abrupt disturbance of sea surface. Series of
ripples created from the origin of submarine earthquakes can cause devastating Tsunami.

A) Causes:

i. Tsunami-generating Earthquake:
 Epicentre lies in submarine to near to the ocean region.
 Magnitude should be above 7 on Richter scale.
 Shallow focus – up to 30 km – most intense Tsunami are generated.

Diagram:

For the generation of the earthquake, the crustal fracturing should generate vertical movement so that Sea surface
is disturbed. (Mid Oceanic Ridge – Transform fault – no vertical movement- no tsunami).

ii. Landslides:

Diagram:

 Landslides originating outside the sea and plunging into the sea.
 Continental shelf and slops are characterized by continuous deposition of sediments. They represent fragile
zones where slopes failure are common, leading to landslides and generation of Tsunamis. Such slope-failure
can cause other natural hazards like earthquakes. Ex: - near the coast of Papua New Guinea.
iii. Sub-marine – volcanic eruption:
Diagram:
Disturbance can be created and tsunami can be generated. ex: - Krakatau volcanic eruption – Indonesia.
iv. Other causes – Fall of meteorites and man-made causes – submarine explosion and falling of artificial satellite.

B) Nature of wave prorogation:

i. Deep/Open ocean:
 They are characterized by long wave length (about 300km) and low amplitude (about 1m).
 As a result of low amplitude, tsunami is difficult to detect in the Open Ocean.
 Tsunami is a gravity wave. Velocity is controlled by depth of the sea. In the Open Ocean, sea floor does not
affect the wave motion. So Tsunami travels at higher speed.
ii. Shallow sea:

Friction from the sea floor retards the motion. Since the front portion of Tsunami waves first reaches the shallow sea
their velocity is reduced while the rear portion travels at comparatively faster pace. As a result, the rear portion will
climb up on the front portion. So, amplitude will increase with corresponding decrease in the wave length resulting in
the conversion of kinetic energy to potential energy. Thus, the amplitude of waves can reach upto 30mts. Due to their
very high amplitude; base can become unstable and break on to the coast.

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TSUNAMI Wave Train: During a Tsunami event, many successive waves hit the coast one after another, referred to as
tsunami wave train. At least 10 waves can be there. Depending upon which part arrives, the sea-level fall and rise. Rise –
arrival of crest, fall – arrival of trough

Factors controlling the intensity of Tsunami:

a) Magnitude of causal event – if Tsunami are the result of catastrophic event like earthquake, volcanic eruption
and Meteoritic impact, much larger waves are generated resulting in much greater intensity. However, in the
case of low magnitude events like landslides, the consequent waves generated are comparatively shorter with
low intensity.

b) Distance of the coast from place of origin of Tsunami. If the coast is far away from the source, impact/ intensity
would be less. If the distance is larger, by the time the waves reach the coast, gravity must have lowered their
strength resulting in lower intensity.

c) Configurationof the sea – The intensity of tsunami has been found to be comparatively greater in the partially
enclosed sea e.g.- Gulfs and Bays. This happen because Tsunami waves in enclosed sea can creates SEICHES. As
the next wave arrives, resonance can increase its intensity.

d) Time of arrival of Tsunami Waves. If Tsunami arrives during a high tide or along with major storms, their
intensity can increase.

e) Nature of coast line:

Natural defence: Corals, mangroves, beaches, sea cliff.

Beach: Act as Buffer zone between populated areas and shoreline.

Artificial defence mechanism: Creating walls along the shorelines.

The characteristic of the coastline i.e.whether it is protected by Natural or Artificial line of defence also affects the
intensity of Tsunami. Natural features like corals, mangroves, beaches, sea cliffs etc. act as effective barriers to the
tsunami and reduce their intensity. Similar objective can be accomplished by artificial structures like sea walls.

f) Type of land-use along the coast. It affects the population density as well as type of man-made structures. If
population density is high like the case of urban areas or fishing villages, intensity of tsunami will be greater as it
leads to greater loss of life and property.

g) Preparedness – If better preparedness with the Early Warning System, better communication system etc. is in
place, then the intensity of Tsunami can be reduced.

Management of Tsunami:
a) Identification of Tsunami prone coast: on the basis of identification, coastlines are demarcated into coastal
sediment cells. It is based on multi-hazard risk analysis, where threat of other hazards likes – cyclone, coastal
erosion etc. are taken into account.

b) Making a suitable land use policy based on a suitable Coastal regulation zone legislation.

Diagram

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 Primary Hazard Zone – permanent structures are not allowed & presence of natural barriers can be found e.g. –
Mangroves need to be conserved.

Secondary Hazard Zone – It acts as a buffer zone. It could be used for Eco-system services – plantation site,
tourism spots etc. but permanent structures are not allowed.

Existing structure: upgrading the strength by Soft core (e.g. conserving the natural barriers mangroves forest) &
hard core (e.g. Sea walls) methods.

c) Tsunami early warning system:

 Network of seismograms is established.

 If waves are recorded, it will send it to satellite.
 The satellite will relay information to the centre.

d) Effective communication system, better preparedness – Identification and creation of quick evacuation routes,
use of rapid mass transportation. Various formal processes and awareness program using all possible avenues
like social media communication.

ISOSTASY

Concept of Isostasy:

On a fast rotating earth the upstanding landmasses are found to be in mechanical stability in relation to low lying
landmasses. This equilibrium condition has long puzzled geologists and in 1859 C.E. Dutton coined the term Isostasy to
describe this equilibrium condition.

Isostasy is the condition of rest and peace in which the crust and the mantle tend to be in the absence of disturbing
forces. In simplest form,Isostasyvisualises that lighter lithosphere floating over a denser asthenosphere. In other words,
it is an ideal condition of gravitational equilibrium which the lithosphere has attained with respect to the
asthenosphere.Such equilibrium can be visualised at global scale (such as continent & ocean basin), at regional scale
(equilibrium between mountains & surrounding plains) as well as at local scale for individual topographic landforms.The
idea of Isostasy implies that the pressure due to the weight of each lithospheric column become same everywhere at
certain depth referred to as level of compensation.

Historical development:

Pierre Bouger in his expedition to Andes in 1735 found that the peak of Chimborazo was not attracting the plumb -lines
in the manner as expected from it. He concluded that the gravitational attraction of the Andes was much smaller than
expected. Similar finding were registered by G. Everest during the geodetic survey of north Indian plains. He later found
that the difference between kalyan&Kalyanpur computed geodetically was greater than the figures attained in
astronomic calculation. He ultimately concluded such a discrepancy must be due to small closure errors in the
triangulation surveys.

J.H.Pratt disagreed with this view of Everest as he felt this discrepancy was related to the disturbing effect by the
Himalayas nearby. He concluded that the matter is complex and further research is needed.

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AIRY’S VIEW:

Diagram:

Unlike Pratt, Airy was not surprised and felt it should have been anticipated. He believed that the thin outer crust
floating over a fluid layer of greater density which he called as lava/substratum. This dense fluid layer is exerting the
force of buoyancy as the crust floats over it and displaces the material of the lava according to its own weight.

According to Airy, the crust (SIAL) was broken into individual columns of uniform density. Each of these columns
achieves the isostatic balance individually by replacing the same weight of lava material as their own weight which
varies with the size of these columns.

He suggested that elevated regions would be underlain by less dense material such that there is substitution of heavy
lava by the lighter crust. In other words, different sized crustal columns occupy different depths in the substratum.

To demonstrate the idea, he compared the situation with wooden block floating over water where longer wooden block
occupy greater depths. Thus he concluded, like these wooden blocks, crustal columns move and achieve isostatic
equilibrium by making roots in the lava/ substratum.

He summarised his idea into the dictum: Uniform density with varying depth.

Thus in Airy’s view, density does not changes horizontally but vertically within the columns. This was the reason why the
Himalayas have lesser gravitational attraction as the denser lava beneath is replaced by lighter roots of the Himalayas.

Although the concept of Airy commands great respect in scientific circle, it is not immune to errors. For ex: - Pratt has
criticized Airy for neglecting the role played by the varying horizontal density of the crustal columns. The density of
crustal rocks/columns varies. The oceanic crust is denser than the continental crust. Even within the continents, there is
variability in the density of different crustal regions. Moreover, if Airy’s view is accepted in its totality, then the features
like Mt. Everest should have a root equivalent to 7900m. Such a long root is unsustainable as it melts at such greater
depths due to prevailing high temperatures.

Despite these shortcomings, the fundamental concept of Airy that isostatic equilibrium is nothing but flotation
equilibrium seems to be correct along with the idea of root formation. It has been proved by seismic wave studies that
crust is much thicker beneath the elevated landforms , that is mountains.

Pratt’s view:
Diagram:

Varying density with equal depth:

By studying the rocks of the Himalayas and neighbouring plains, Pratt found an inverse relation between the height of
landforms its density. Thus, he came to the conclusion that there is a line of compensation above which there is
horizontal variation in density along this line of compensation. The density, however, does not change within a single
column i.e with depth. Thus he opined the phrase varying density with equal depth.

Although the view of Pratt successfully takes into account the horizontal variation in density, it is full of errors. Pratt
criticized Airy for using law of floatation&denied the operation of any such mechanism. However, as has been pointed
out by ‘Bowe’ the law of flotation is implicit in the concept of Pratt. Moreover, Pratt opines that different Salic columns
occupy same depth within the earth interior which is in direct contradiction with the evidence given by seismic studies.

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Ques. Differentiate between Airy’s and Pratt views on Isostasy.

Heiskanen’s View:
Heiskanen tried to achieve a balance between both the viewpoints, though his ideas are more inline with Airy’s view.
According to him, isostatic adjustment is achieved by variation in the thickness of crustal blocks as suggested by Airy as
well as by the variation in the density between columns as suggested by Pratt. According to him ¾ of compensation
weight of crustal columns is attained by root formation i.e.¼ isattained by difference in density along the crustal
columnsand this eliminates the need to form very long root and thus eliminates the error of Airy.

Plate Tectonics viewpoint:

With the emergence of PTT, geological paradigm is dominated by Plate tectonics and every tectonic phenomenon is
explained on the basis of this theory.According to PTT, lithospheric plates are made up of extreme rigid and strong
material. As a result, they do not behave in the manner as visualised by the traditional views. Plates do not fracture due
to loading and unloading phenomena. In fact, they are characterised by great flexural strength and they partly
compensate the weight of loaded material due to this flexural strength. Instead of fracturing the lithospheric plate
bends to accommodate the loading process. In this process, they do lead to root formation. However, it can be stressed
that root is regionally spread and its nature is different from the local root formation suggested by Airy. Seismic
evidences also attest to this assertion and reveal that beneath higher landforms thick crust is found in a regionally
distributed manner. Evidences found across the globe also attest to the fact of lithospheric bending. For ex:- presence of
foredeeps along the foot of the mountain, depression found along the Hawaiian island in the pacific floor as well as
along the great barrier reef are such examples.

If the weight of feature is more than the strength of holding capacity of lithospheric plate, then fracture could occur and
boundary formation could take place ultimately.

Isostatic adjustment:
It refers to the transient response of lithospheric plates to the phenomena of loading and unloading over a period of
time.

Diagram- Natural.

Diagram- Manmade.

Loading on the lithospheric plates can be caused by mountains building, sediment depression, and formation of large
glaciers ice sheets, following climate change, growth of coral reefs or due to man-made activities such as impounding
large amount of water in reservoir. Uploading is the result of erosion, melting of glaciers following interglacial period,
human activities like mining etc.

Loading ultimately causes lithospheric plates to bend/sag,leading to isostatic subsidence. Thus when mountains are
formed lithospheric plates tends to accommodate itself which lead to the formation of foredeeps. In the case of
Himalayas, the foredeeps are filled by sediments to form the Indo-Gangetic plains.

On account of unloading, thelithospheric plate tries to return to its original shape due to its flexural strength which
results in isostatic upliftment. Thus, the Himalayas experienced isostatic upliftment following the end of Pleistocene ice
age which not only reduced the weight of glacial sheets but also removed the protective cover thereby exposing them

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to fluvial processes. Thus, the Himalayas experience phase of uplift inQuartnary period, similar isostatic adjustments can
be found at Hudson Bay and Baltic Sea coast.Isostatic adjustment as a result of growth / reduction of ice-sheets
following the climatic changes is referred to as Glacio isostatic adjustments.

Ques. Explain the phenomena of glacio – isostatic adjustment with world example?

GEOSYNCLINES
(A) CONCEPT:
Diagram:

Geosynclines are narrow, linear, long and shallow trough/Seas located between two continental land-masses referred to
as forelands. Geosynclines are characterized by active sedimentation and subsequent steady subsidence of the floor. As
the result of gradual subsidence, they can accommodate deposition of large quantities of sediments. As sedimentation
continues, the forelands converge towards each other by deforming the sediments into Fold Mountains. The location,
pattern and dimension of Geosynclines have been changed throughout the geological history due to various geological
process & earth movements.

(B) HISTORICAL DEVELPOMENT:

The concept of geosynclines came into existence in 1859. Based upon his research on the stratigraphy and structure of
the northern Appalachians, James Hall discovered that the folded Palaeozoic sediments belonging to mountain ranges
are shallow-water type of marine origin having a thickness of 12 km. James Hall also found that the thickness was ten to
twenty times greater in comparison to the unfolded rock strata of corresponding ages, found in the interior lowlands
towards the west.

The deposition of massive sequence of shale, sandstone and limestone suggests that the underlying floor of older rocks
subsided by a similar amount. The mountain formation was preceded by prolonged periods of down-warping during
which the process of sediment accumulation maintained a balance with the subsidence of the crust. Dana (1873) called
such elongated belts of subsidence and sedimentation ‘geosynclines’.

H. Stille further categorised geosynclines into miogeosynclines and eugeosynclines. Eugeosynclines are characterised by
intermittent volcanic activity during the process of sedimentation, whereas miogeosynclines have low volcanic activity.

The two classes are found side by side separated by a geanticline in the middle. Miogeosynclines are now considered to
be former continental margins like those fringing the Atlantic Ocean and eugeosynclines represent the inverted and
deformed equivalents of ocean basins of smaller magnitude such as the marginal basins of the western part of the
Pacific, the Sea of Japan and the Sea of Okhotsk.

Schuchert categorised geosynclines on the basis of size, location and evolutionary history. The three categories
according to him are as follows:

i. Monogeosynclines are exceptionally long and narrow tracts. Such geosynclines are situated either within a
continent or along the littoral areas. They are called ‘mono’ since they pass through only one cycle of
sedimentation and mountain-building. An example is the Appalachian geosyncline which was folded from the
Ordovician to the Permian period.

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 ii. Polygeosynclines are broader than monogeosynclines. These geosynclines had a longer period of existence than
the monogeo-synclines. They passed through more than one phase of orogenesis. The Rockies and the Ural
geosynclines are examples of polygeosynclines. Such mountain ranges exhibit complex parallel anticlines called
geanticlines.
iii. Mesogeosynclines are surrounded by continents on all sides. They have greater depth and a long and complex
geological history.

E. Haug defined geosynclines as deep water regions of considerable length but relatively narrow in width. Haug drew
palaeogeographical maps of the world to prove that the present-day fold mountains originated from massive
geosynclines of the past. Haug postulated five major landmasses belonging to the Mesozoic Era, namely (i) North
Atlantic Mass (ii) Sino-Siberian Mass (iii) Africa- Brazil Mass (iv) Australia-India-Madagascar Mass and (v) Pacific Mass. He
identified four geosynclines located between these rigid masses: (i) Rockies geosyncline (ii) Ural geosyncline (iii) Tethys
geosyncline and (iv) Circum-Pacific geosyncline. According to Haug, the transgressional and regressional phases of seas
have a direct impact on the littoral margins of the geosynclines.

The finer sediments are deposited centrally in the geosynclines whereas the coarser sediments are deposited in
marginal areas where depth of water is shallow. All the geosynclines do not have the same cycle of sedimentation,
subsidence, compression and folding of sediments. Haug’s theory is criticised because of its confusing ideas.

The palaeogeographical map by Haug shows that land areas are disproportionately larger than oceanic areas or
geosynclines. Critics raise questions about the existence of such a huge landmass after the Mesozoic Era. Haug’s idea of
deep geosynclines is also not acceptable as there are evidences of marine fossils found in Fold Mountains. Marine
organisms from which the fossils are derived are found only in shallow waters. According to J.W. Evans, the form and
the shape of geosynclines change according to the changes which occur in the environment.

According to Evans, (i) geosynclines may be placed between two landmasses, e.g., Tethys geosyncline between Laurasia
and Gondwanaland; (ii) geosynclines may be found in front of a mountain or a plateau, for example, after the origin of
the Himalayas there was a long trench in front of the Himalayas which was later filled with sediments leading to the
formation of the vast Indo-Gangetic plains; (iii) geosynclines are found along the continental margins; (iv) geosynclines
may exist in front of a river mouth.

According to Arthur Holmes, earth movements rather than sedimentation cause subsidence of geosynclines through a
long and gradual process, e.g., the deposition of sediments up to 12,160 metres in the Appalachian geosyncline could be
possible during a period of 300,000,000 years. Holmes identifies four types.

i. Geosyncline Formed by Magmatic Migration: Holmes considers earth crust to be made of three layers:
a. External layer of granodiorite (10-12 km thick);
b. Intermediate amphibolite (20-25 km thick);
c. Eclogite and some peridotite. The migration of magma from the intermediate layer to the surrounding areas
causes subsidence of the upper layers, leading to the formation of a geosyncline.
ii. Geosynclines formed by the Metamorphosis: The lowermost rock layers are metamorphosed due to
compression caused by convergence of convective currents. Thus, the density of rocks increases resulting in
geosyncline formation. Holmes believes that the Caribbean Sea, the western part of the Mediterranean Sea and
the Banda Sea were formed by this process.
iii. Geosynclines Formed by Compression: Subsidence may occur in the earth crust due to compression. Such a
compressional activity occurs because of converging convective currents. Examples are the Persian Gulf and the
Indo-Gangetic trough.
iv. Geosynclines Formed due to Thinner Sialic Layer: When a column of rising convectional currents diverges after
reaching the bottom layer of the crust, two possibilities arise, (a) the sial is stretched apart owing to tensional
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 forces. This causes thinning of Sialic layers and the formation of geosynclines. (b) The continental mass may be
broken apart to form geosynclines. Examples are found in the former Ural geosyncline.

Dustar identified three types of geosynclines in his classification mainly on the basis of structure of mountain ranges, (i)
Inter-continental geosynclines are located between two land masses. (Schuchert’smonogeosyncline coincides with this
type.) (ii) Circum-continental geosynclines are located on the borders of continents; (iii) Circum-oceanic geosynclines are
found along the littoral areas of oceans. Such geosynclines are also called special type of geosynclines or unique
geosynclines.

Geosynclinal Orogen Theory of Kober:

The German geologist Kober in his book Der BauderErde has established a detailed and systematic relationship between
geosynclines and rigid masses of continental plates and the formation of Fold Mountains. Kober’s geosynclinal theory is
based on the contraction forces produced as a result of the cooling of the earth. In Kober’s view, the forces of
contraction of the earth lead to horizontal movements of forelands which in turn squeeze sediments into massive
mountains.

According to Kober, the mountains of the present occupied the geosynclinal sites of early periods. The geosynclines or
mobile zones of water have been identified as ‘orogen’ by Kober. The rigid masses which surround the geosynclines are
termed as ‘kratogen’. Such kratogens include the Canadian Shield, the Baltic Shield, the Siberian Shield, Peninsular India,
the Chinese Massif, the Brazilian Mass, the African Shield, and the Australian and Antarctic rigid blocks.

Kober considers the Pacific Ocean to have been formed when the mid-Pacific geosyncline separated the north and the
south Pacific forelands which were later filled with water and sand. He identified morphometric units based on the
surface features of the earth during the Mesozoic Era, e.g., (i) Africa together with some parts belonging to the Indian
and Atlantic Oceans, (ii) Indian Australian landmass, (iii) Eurasian landmass, (iv) Northern Pacific continent, (v) Southern
Pacific continent, (vi) South America and Antarctica.

Kober has demarcated six major mountain- building periods. Three very little-known mountain- building periods
occurred during the Precambrian Period. This was followed by two major periods during the Palaeozoic Era—the
Caledonian orogenesis was over by the end of the Silurian Period and the Variscan orogeny was finished in the Permo-
Carboniferous Period. The sixth and last orogenesis called Alpine orogeny was completed in the Tertiary Epoch.

Kober opined that the whole process of mountain-building passes through three stages closely interlinked with one
another.

(i) Lithogenesis: This stage is characterised by the creation, sedimentation and subsidence of geosynclines.
Geosynclines are formed due to contraction caused by the cooling process of the earth. The forelands or
kratogens which border geosynclines succumbed to the forces of denudation. As a result, there was constant
wearing away of rocks and boulders from forelands and deposition of the eroded material on the beds of
geosynclines. This led to the subsidence of geosynclines. The twin processes of sediment deposition and the
resultant subsidence led to further sediment deposition and increasing thickness of sediments.

(ii) Orogenesis: In this stage, the geosynclinal sediments are squeezed and folded into mountain ranges. There is
a convergence of forelands towards each other due to the force of the contraction of the earth. The
enormous compressive forces produced by these moving forelands produce contraction, squeezing and
folding of sediments deposited on the geosynclinal bed.

The parallel mountain ranges found on both sides of the geosyncline have been termed by Kober as rand
ketten meaning marginal ranges. Kober viewed the folding of geosynclinal sediments to be dependent upon
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 the intensity of the compressive forces. Compressive forces of normal and moderate intensity produce
marginal ranges on two sides of the geosyncline leaving the middle part unaffected.

The unfolded middle part is termed as zwischengebirge (between mountains) or median mass. Kober tried to
explain the forms and structures of fold mountains in the context of the median mass. He viewed the Tethys
geosyncline as bordered by the European foreland in the north and by the African foreland in the south.

(iii) Gliptogenesis: This phase of mountain- building is characterised by a gradual ascent of mountain ranges and
the on-going denudation processes by natural agents.

(C) Geosynclinal cycle:

Whatever be the pattern, location, or compositional nature of Geosyncline the entire geosynclinal history can be
studied in the form Geosynclinal cycle. It was KOBER who first identified the stages of Geosynclinal cycle which was later
modified by others and was divided into 5 major stages.

1) Geosynclinal stage: It is a stage characterized by vast amount of sedimentation in geosynclines. Such an

accumulation leads to subsidence of Sea-floor making it Synclinal in nature. It is usually the longest stage of all
the five.

2) Lithogenesis stage: In this stage, the deposited sediments are converted into solid/compact rocks by the
process of diagenesis – the process of formation of sedimentary rocks. Diagenesis mainly in the form of
Lithification& Cementation.

3) Tectogenesis stage: As a result of reasons unknown, tectonic forces are generated due to which foreland
begins to converge towards each other. This starts the process of deformation and folding of sedimentary rocks
formed in the geosyncline.

Diagram:

4) Orogenetic stage: As a result of tectogenesis, there is crustal shortening which culminates in the formation of
fold mountain belt. These Fold Mountains further evolve.

Diagram:

For e.g. The rivers experiencing youthful stage carve out their V-shaped valleys leading to isostatic uplift. This
stage also sees emplacement of magma in the core of mountains belts, ultimately causing the stabilisation of
these mountains.

5) Glyptogenetic stage: It is the last stage in which Fold Mountains are denuded by the exogenetic forces. The
erosion & removal of material leads to uploading & consequent Isostatic upliftment, which in turn, exposes the
Batholith which lies at the core of the mountains to the surface. (Batholith is exhumed).

The sediments formed from the denudation of mountains are deposited along the flanks leading to formation of
sedimentary platform which surrounds the exhumed batholith.

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(D) CRITICAL ANALYSIS:
Although the theory has many inaccurate details, 2 major problems from the contemporary viewpoints are:

a) The theory was unable to explain the origin of tectonic forces leading to the convergence of forelands. Later,
Arthur Holmes suggested that it could be due to convection currents in the mantle. This has been further
improved by PTT which sees these convergences due to the presence of convergent boundaries.

b) The Geosyncline theory is able to correctly explain the formation of Fold Mountains from the rocks which were
formed in marine environment. However, there exist a great variety of Fold Mountains. In fact, many of these
have been formed as deformation of rocks belonging to the continental crust. Geosyncline theory is unable to
explain the formation of such fold mountains.

Diagram:

Despite these shortcomings, it represented a significant departure from the then prevailing view on Fold Mountains &
orogeny. It tried to explain their formation using the contemporary understanding of earth movements and geological
processes. In fact, later PTT built upon the foundations laid by the geosyncline theory, which was able to explain Fold
Mountain building to a great extent.

Ques. How tectonic theory improves upon geosyncline theory with respect to formation of Fold Mountains?

(E) The Modern Concept of Geosyncline: Improvement by Plate tectonics theory:

The ideas about geosynclines underwent a significant change with the introduction of the Plate Tectonic Theory. A
continental margin placed along a plate margin known for subduction, collision or transform-fault motion is called an
active margin, while a continental margin which shifts away from a spreading axis is termed passive.

For example, on the east coast of North America, a passive continental margin keeps depositing sediments with the
gradual movement of the continent away from the spreading axis. The lithosphere becomes cooler and denser at an
accelerated rate accompanied by an increasingly deeper ocean floor of the passive margins, as the sediments continue
to get deposited on the ocean floor. Such a thick column of sediment along the border of a passive margin is called
geosyncline.

The studies conducted during the second phase of the 20th century reveal that a geosyncline is a thick, rapidly
accumulating body which lies parallel to the continent. The age-old idea of a geosyncline or an intra-cratonic trough
bordered by mountains contributing sediments needs to be abandoned. The accumulation of sediments may take place
on the continental shelf and slope or in a trough or trench.

Nowadays, the term ‘geocline’ is used because the structure of a geosyncline is not a two-sided trough; rather, it is
more open towards the ocean.

Geoclines of passive continental margins can be divided into two types: miogeoclines or the wedges of shallow water
sediments of marine origin which constitute the continental shelves; and eugeoclines or wedges of deep sea sediment
deposited at the foot of the continental slope and lying on the oceanic crust. Both types of geoclines are made by
sedimentation accompanied by slow subsidence of the lithosphere. In the Gulf of Mexico, the miogeocline sediments
attain a thickness of 20 km at the external fringe of the continental shelf. Eugeocline sediments are found in the oceanic
crust just above an oceanic volcano. The uninterrupted accumulation of sediments in the miogeoclines for about 200
million years has been possible due to sinking of crust as a result of sediment loading. The miogeocline areas bear great
economic importance due to the availability of mineral oil.

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 GEOMORPHOLOGY: (Lecture Note - 5) Hand Out

Plate tectonics and mountain building

• According to PTT, Fold Mountains are the result of convergent forces which act along the convergent plate
boundary. Thus, the phenomenon of orogeny occurs at convergent plate margins, which can be of 3 types:
1. Ocean-Ocean convergence: According to plate tectonic ocean – ocean convergence can take 2 forms as.
(a) Steady state Convergence
• As a result of continuous subduction of the oceanic plate, magma is generated at a faster rate which ultimately
leads to the formation of Arc of volcanoes on the overriding oceanic plates. As volcanic materials continue to pile
up, these volcanoes rise above the sea level in the form of Island arc.
E.g. Aleutian Islands, Kuril Islands.
• Part of these island arc structure are accretionary wedge which are found to be located parallel to them and also
nearby the trenches. These are deformed sedimentary rocks which are scrapped from the subducting oceanic
lithospheric plates. Sometimes, these accretionary wedges can rise above the mean sea level leading to the
formation of parallel chain mountains present as islands. E.g. – Middleton & Barbados.
(b) Collision type Convergence
Diagram.
• In collision-type Ocean – Ocean convergence, the subduction of oceanic lithospheric plate is not smooth and is
characterized by several collisions between the plates. Therefore, a complex type of island arc structure is formed
and referred to as matured island arc. In such system, the volcanic arc and accretionary wedge are merged with
each other and rocks are greatly deformed and metamorphosed. Partly such system are igneous metamorphic and
sedimentary metamorphic. E.g. Japan and Philippines.
2. Ocean-Continent Convergence
Diagram:
• Ocean – continent convergence has similarities with ocean – ocean type in that the fold mountain ranges formed
represent volcanic landforms and sedimentary accretionary wedge. However, their characteristics are different
from that of ocean – ocean convergence as they are formed over the continental plates. Two different types of
situations can be found:
Formation of island arc structure. Here, a volcanic arc is formed over a continental margin located in sub-marine
situation. As a result, the volcanic arc’s appearance is of an island arc structure as it rises above the sea level. Here
too an accretionary wedge parallel to main island arc is formed due to the scrapping of sediment from the
subducting oceanic lithospheric plate. However, the accretionary wedge can be comparatively large as sediments
are received from nearby continent as well.
• Here the chains of volcanoes are formed on the sub-aerial continental margin. On account of this Andean type
volcanism; the deformation of crustal rocks leads to the formation of large fold mountain zone referred to as
cordillera. Andean type volcanism can produce more than one cordillera. For example, in Andes there are two
cordilleras – western and eastern. Here also, a large accretionary wedge is formed which ultimately rises above the
sea level to form a parallel range of fold mountain of marine sedimentary deposit. It is referred to as the Coast
Range and is located on the seaward margin of the mountain system.

Formation of Andes
Diagram:
• Andes are formed of two parallel cordillera ranges as eastern and western cordillera. They are narrower towards
the north and the south and are broader at the middle. At the middle part of the Andes, a broader anti-Plano basin
is sandwiched between the eastern and the western cordillera system.

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• Andes represent a Fold Mountain formed as a result of oceanic – continental convergence. Their formation began
in the late Jurassic period with the opening of Pangaea. On their western margin, an active boundary is formed due
to the subduction of oceanic plates e.g. – Nazca plate along Peru-Chile trench.

Q. Why are they broader in the middle?

Ans: The subduction of Nazca plate along the Peru-Chile trench has been active since the Jurassic period through the
Cretaceous, Tertiary periods and becoming very active in the Miocene period. Such an activism has been continued
even in Pliocene and Quaternary periods. Probably, such an activism might be the result of the formation of South
East Pacific Rise which reinforces subduction through ridge push mechanism.
Diagram:
• With the formation of western cordillera in the cretaceous and early tertiary period, an eastern piedmont basin
was formed and subsequently active sedimentation occurred in the basin. As a result of faster subduction, faster
magma generation has led to greater volcanism and large amount of magmatic plutons migrated towards the
surface. This led to the generation of convergent forces causing creation of thrust sheets along the eastern part of
the piedmont basin which in turn led to the formation of eastern cordillera. In the process, the rest of piedmont
basin was also uplifted leading to the formation of an anti-Plano basin which is today represented by the Bolivian
plateau.

Continent – continent collision: - Alpine type orogeny

STAGE 1
Diagram:
• Before the occurrence of continent- continent collision, the two continents are separated by an oceanic part.
Subduction of oceanic-continental lithospheric plate causes the continental blocks to converge towards each other.
During this phase, there can be formation of island arc/volcanic arc, the rocks of which would be preserved in the
subsequent mountain chain system. During this stage, the seaward continental margin behaves as geosyncline
where large amount of sediments are deposited.
STAGE 2:
Diagram:
• With continued subduction of oceanic lithospheric plate, the continental blocks continued to converge. Ultimately
the oceanic lithospheric plate is fully consumed and is cut-off from the continental part. This leads to continent –
continent collision. In the process, the sediments in the geosyncline are deformed and folded into mountain chain
in the manner which is parallel to previously formed volcanic/ island arc. Frequently, the previously formed island
arc is plastered between the two continent blocks and form part of present suture zone. For e.g. – Volcanic rock
forms found in the suture zone of Ladak-Kohistan sector of the Himalayas.
STAGE 3
• This stage occurs only when the tectonic forces remain active after the complete consumption/subsidence of the
Oceanic lithospheric plate. Under such scenario, collision occurs between the continental blocks. The crustal block
belonging to continental crust gets deformed, faulted and folded. Such folding & faulting lead to emergence of
thrust sheets one above the other, ultimately causing the formation of parallel range of mountains. For ex: - in the
case of Himalayas, after the formation of Tethys Himalayas, such continued convergence led to the formation of
inner-middle and outer Himalayan ranges.
• Continent-continent convergence represents the most intense type of collision. As a result the orogen formed has
displayed most complex structure, certainly true in the case of Himalayan ranges.
• The ending of tectonic processes which has led to the mountain building stops further convergence between the
plates. As a result the two continents blocks get sutured into each other and boundary becomes inactive. In all
probability, the two continental blocks behave as single continent landmass in the future.

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 have solidified to form the first crust. When large bodies hit the Earth’s surface, craters were formed and energy
was transferred to the Earth. These craters were approximately 10 km deep and there was a sudden drop in
pressure. This sudden release of pressure together with the production of a series of radiating fractures resulted in
partial melting of the mantle beneath the crater. Erosion of the crater rim, intrusion and extrusion of dominantly
mafic magma from underneath filled the crater.
Fractional crystallisation of mafic magmas produced granitic magma, which were intruded at shallow depths. The
crater, which was filled by sediments and igneous rocks, raised isostatically to form a proto-continent. The impact
of collision may also have initiated a convection cell beneath the proto-continent, thus, thickening the crust and
causing it to grow by peripheral magmatic accretion.
Such a collision may also have initiated the formation of a mantle plume, which rose and provided a possibility for
the future growth of continental nuclei. Perhaps, the Archaean continental nuclei were produced over rising
mantle plumes that were triggered by the impact on the Earth’s surface. Following this analogy that impact
necessarily leads to generation of magma, significant amount of magma should have been produced on the Moon.
This is, however, not the case.
(4) Non- catastrophic models:
Plate Tectonics and Crustal Evolution
Crust has formed in several stages:
Stage 1:
 Origin of oceanic crust and continent nuclei:
[Earth was in hot-molten state  Surface – cooling fast  Thin outer layer was formed Composition-mafic
similar to oceanic crust (Basic to Ultrabasic)]
• In the initial phase, the hot molten earth was experiencing rapid cooling over the surface. This resulted in a thin
outer layer made up of rocks composed of basic to ultra-basic. It is a variant of homogenous model of earth
accretion which tries to fill the gap left by it.
According to it, the earth was subjected to external bombardment of meteorites once it was formed. The
tremendous energy given off during large impacts may have produced a localised melting beneath the cratons that
were formed. Magma emplacement into these cratons would have produced the first prototype continent.
Magmatic differentiation would have occurred converting the basic magma to the felsic magma. Emplacement of
such felsic magma would have led to stabilization of prototype continent.
• Further meteorite impact would have initiated convection current beneath the prototype continent leading to
thickening and growing of the continental crust through the peripheral accretion process.
• Although the model is able to convincingly explain the origin of prototype-continents and their accretionary
growth, several difficulties have been encountered. The basic fundamental idea that the energy is supplied by
meteorite impact seems to be unsupported by the evidences. If this was the case, then the earth surface should
have been filled with impact cratons as in the case of moon.
Oceanic crust:
Diagram
• Once the oceanic crust was formed, several volcanic episodes would have occurred, leading to emplacement of
basic to ultra-basic magma on the surface of oceanic crust. These emplacements would have represented the first
continental nuclei. Many of these would have been destroyed due to subduction into the mantle but many
remained intact and are even found preserved today in the old shield areas of the world in the form of old green
stone belt.
• Due to continued accumulation of magmatic materials, thickening of crust in these zones would have occurred. As
a result, during the ascent, fractional crystallization of crust at shallower depth would have occurred leading to the
formation of silica rich felsic magma. It would have led to stabilization of continental nuclei. These newly emplaced
various rocks are found today in the continent shields in the form of new green stone belt.
Stage – 2

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 Formation/growth of continental nuclei through continent accretion.
Diagram:
• As a result of continued accumulation of volcanic materials and their exposure to sub-aerial denudation, large
amount of sediments were generated. These sediments were deposited along the flanks of the continental nuclei.
Eventually, it led to formation of sedimentary platforms flanking the continental nuclei. As a result, the continental
nuclei further were stabilized and cratonic shield surrounded by platforms were formed. For e.g. – Canadian Shield,
Brazilian and Columbian shield.
• It is believed that, during this phase, the plate tectonics would have begun due to subduction and associated slab
pull force in several regions. The beginning of plate tectonics might have led to further evolution of crust, where
the oceanic crust was being recycled into the mantle and the continental crust continued to grow in size by the
phenomena of peripheral accretion.
• In fact, collision and accretion among several cratons would have occurred resulting in the formation of larger
continents. During such collision, new fold mountains would have formed. The denudation of such land forms
would have resulted in the formation of sedimentary platforms.
Diagram: Cratons of India.
Stage 3: Further Evolution Of earth crust:
Super Continent Cycle: Formation of super-continent – disassociation of super continent
• Continued operation of plate tectonics and subsequent collision of plates/continents lead to formation of super
continents which represents a unified large land mass, constituting mainly of existing continental parts. It is
believed that many such super-continents had been formed in the past. By 1.6 billion years ago, Rodinia super
continent was formed. Similarly Gondwana super continent was formed by the late Ediacaran Period. It broke off in
Jurassic. Pangaea super continent was formed in late Triassic. The present time Eurasia along with Africa together
represent a type of super continent.
Formation of ocean basins.
• It is followed by the stage of disassociation where the continents are again separated away from each other due to
opening of new ocean basin between them. This phenomenon has been accomplished in 3 stages.
STAGE – 1 Rift valley stage:
Diagram – formation of rift valley
• It is believed that the presence of large continental land mass for longer period of time leads to generation of hot
spots beneath it. These hot spots generated mantle plumes of magma and its ascent to the base of super
continents. The push by the mantle plumes caused the upwarping of the crust and thus tensional forces are
created. Such tensional forces create radial fractures along which the keystone blocks subside to form rift valleys.
[Keystone hypothesis]. The Great African Rift Valley is one such example.
STAGE 2 – Linear sea stage:
[Tensional forces will continue  Continental block will get separated  Formation of oceanic ridge above the
volcanic zone Presence of linear sea]
Diagram:
As a result of continued tensional forces, an oceanic ridge forms in the rift valley zone. Along this zone, new magma
of basaltic composition is emplaced. As a result, the continental masses move away from each other. In this stage,
they become separated by a linear sae which is connected with the main sea. Presently, Red sea & Gulf of Aden are
such examples.
Stage 3 – Open ocean stage, mid – oceanic ridge:
Diagram
• As the divergent forces continue to operate, eventually, it results in sea floor spreading. Thus, continental masses
are separated far away from each other by a large ocean in between them. Presently the Atlantic & Indian oceans
present classic examples of this stage.
• Thus, by the super continental cycle, the formation and disassociation of earth crust continue to evolve.

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