Cell Physiology

Meaning of cell physiology

 Cell physiology refers to the study of the functions of cell structures.

-Some of the functions carried out by the cell structures includes;
 Synthesis of carbohydrates by photosynthesis in the chloroplast.
 Energy production by respiration in the mitochondria
 Protein synthesis in the ribosomes.
-Oxygen and glucose required enter the cell while carbon (IV) oxide and water
produced leave the cell through the cell membrane.

Structure and properties of cell membrane

-A membrane is a surface structure which encloses the cell and the organelles.
-Movement of all substances into and out of the cells takes place across the cell
membrane.
-The cell membrane is made up of three layers-a phospholipid layer sandwiched
between two protein layers.
-The cell membrane is perforated with pores which allow for passage of
substances into and out of the cell.

Properties of cell membrane

(a)Semi-Permeability
-The tiny pores on the cell membrane allows small molecules to pass to pass into
and out of the cell but not large molecules. This makes the cell membrane
selectively permeable.
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-This is selective permeability and the cell membrane is described as semi-
permeable.
(b)Sensitivity to changes in temperature and pH
- The cell membrane contains a protein layer.
-These proteins are adversely affected by extreme changes in temperature and
pH
-Such changes affect the membrane structure thus hindering the its normal
functioning.
(c)Possession of electric charges (polarity)
-The cell membrane has both positive and negative charges on its surface.
These charges:
 Affects the manner in which substances are moved in and out of the cell.
 Helps the cell to detect the changes in the environment.

Physiological processes
-Some of the physiological processes taking place across the cell membrane
include;
- diffusion -osmosis -active transport.

(i) DIFFUSION
 Diffusion is the process by which particles move from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration.
 Diffusion continues to occur as long as there is a difference in concentration
between two regions (concentration gradient).
 Diffusion does not require energy.
Role of Diffusion in Living Organisms
 Absorption of materials into cells
-Plants absorb the mineral salts dissolved in the soil water through their roots.
-End-products of digestion diffuse from the intestines into the blood stream.
 Gaseous exchange in plants and animals-Movement of respiratory gases (such
as Oxygen and Carbon (IV) oxide) across the respiratory surfaces is by
diffusion.
 Excretion nitrogenous wastes like carbon (IV) oxide, and ammonia out of cells
is by diffusion.
 Transport of manufactured food from the leaves to the other parts of the
plant.
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Factors
~- Affecting Diffusion
 Diffusion Gradient
An increase in the concentration of molecules at one region results in a steeper
concentration gradient which in turn increases the rate of diffusion.
 Temperature
-An increase in temperature increases the energy content in the molecules and
this causes them to move faster.
-Therefore an increase in temperature also increases the rate of diffusion while a
decrease in temperature decreases the rate of diffusion.

 Size of Molecules or Ions

-Small and light molecules diffuse faster than large and heavy molecules.

 Surface Area to Volume Ratio

-The larger the surface area to volume ratio, the faster the rate of diffusion.
-For example, in small organisms such as Amoeba the surface area to volume
ratio is greater hence faster diffusion than in larger organisms.
-Therefore small organisms depend on diffusion as a means of transport of
foods, respiratory gases and waste products.
 Thickness of the membranes and tissues.
-The thicker the membrane or tissue the lower the rate of diffusion.
-This is because the distance to be covered by the diffusing molecules is greater.
-However if the molecule is thinner, the rate of diffusion is greater.
(ii) OSMOSIS
 Osmosis is the process where solvent molecules (water) move from a lowly
concentrated (dilute) solution to a highly concentrated solution across a
semi-permeable membrane.
-Osmosis is a special type of diffusion that involves the movement of water
molecules only and not solute molecules.
 Osmosis takes place in cells across the cell membrane as well as across non-
living membranes such as visking tubing.

Practical activity-To demonstrate osmosis using a visking tubing

 The set-up of the experiment is as shown below.

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 At the beginning of the experiment
Observation
-The visking tubing become swollen as a result of the increase of its contents.

At the end of the experiment.

Discussion
-The visking tubing has a higher concentration of solutes than the distilled water
in the beaker.
-The water molecules have therefore moved from the beaker into the visking
tubing by osmosis thereby increasing its contents.

N/B-The wall of the visking tubing allow only the small water molecules to pass
through but not the large sugar molecules. The membrane is therefore said to be
semi-permeable.

Osmosis through a semi-permeable membrane

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-The medium (solution) surrounding cells of organisms is described by the terms
hypotonic, hypertonic and isotonic. -A solution whose solute concentration is
more than that of the cell sap is said to be hypertonic.
-A cell placed in such a solution loses water to the surroundings by osmosis.
-A solution whose solute concentration is less than that of the cell sap is said to be
hypotonic.A cell placed in such a solution gains water from the surroundings by
osmosis.
-A solution which has the same solute concentration as the cell sap is said to be
isotonic. When a cell is placed in such a solution there will be no net movement of
water either into or out of the cell.

Osmotic Pressure
 The term osmotic pressure describes the tendency of the solution with a high
solute concentration to draw water into itself when it is separated from
distilled water or dilute solution by a semi-permeable membrane.
-Osmotic pressure is measured by an osmometer.

Osmotic Potential
-This is the hidden pressure of a concentrated solution that only becomes real
when the solution is separated from distilled water by a semi-permeable
membrane.

Water Relations in Animals

-Animal cells contain dissolved salts and sugars in solution form in their
cytoplasm.
-However, the membrane is not rigid enough to withstand high internal pressure
resulting from inflow of water as they lack a cell wall.
For instance.
 When a red blood cell is placed in distilled water or hypotonic solution, there
would be a net flow of water molecules into the cell by osmosis.
 The cell would swell up and eventually burst. This bursting of red blood cells is
referred to as haemolysis.

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-Similarly, when a red blood cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water is drawn
out of the cell by osmosis.
-The cell then shrinks by a process known as crenation.

Water Relations in Plants

Turgor pressure and wall pressure

 Plant cells are bound by a cell membrane and a cellulose cell wall. At the
centre is a vacuole with a sap containing dissolved salts and sugar.
 When plant cells are placed in distilled water (or in a hypotonic solution),
water to enters the cells by osmosis, because the osmotic pressure in the cells
is higher than the osmotic pressure of the medium.
 As the cell gains more water, its vacuole enlarges and exerts an outward
pressure on the cell wall called turgor pressure .
 As a result the cytoplasm is pushed outwards and it in turn presses the cell
membrane next to the cell wall. When the cell is stretched to the maximum,
the cell wall prevents further entry of water into the cell. The cell becomes
firm and rigid and is said to be turgid.
 When the cell wall is being stretched towards the outside, it develops a
resistant pressure to the stretching that is equal and opposite to the turgor
pressure called wall pressure.

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 Plasmolysis
 When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic medium, it loses water by osmosis.
Because the osmotic pressure of the cell is lower than that of the medium.
 As water moves out of the cell, the cell begins to shrink, becomes less rigid and
is said to be flaccid.
 With loss of more water, the cytoplasm reduces in size and the cell membrane
pulls away from the cell wall towards the centre.

 The process by which plant cell lose water, shrink and become flaccid is called
plasmolysis.
 Plasmolysis can be reversed by placing the cell in distilled water or hypotonic
solution a process called deplasmolysis.

Wilting
 The term wilting describes the drooping of leaves and stems of herbaceous
plants after considerable amounts of water have been lost through
transpiration.
 It is observed in hot dry afternoons or in dry weather when the amount of
water lost through transpiration exceeds the amount absorbed through the
roots.
 Individual cells lose turgor and become plasmolysed and the plant droops.
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 At night, the plant may recover from wilting because the stomata are closed
and the rate of evaporation and transpiration is reduced.

Roles of Osmosis in Living Organisms

 Absorption of water from the soil-By osmosis, water is absorbed by the root
hairs from the soil and also distributed from cell to cell in the body.
 Support in plants -especially herbaceous ones, is provided by turgor pressure,
which results from intake of water by osmosis
 Opening and closing stomata. –This results from turgidity and flaccidity of the
guard cells due to the changes in osmotic pressure of the guard cells.
 Feeding in insectivorous plants.-These are plants that trap insects using
special structures that suddenly change their turgor pressure when disturbed.
 Osmoregulation-Animals are able to regulate their osmotic pressure of body
fluids when water is re-absorbed from the kidney tubules by osmosis.

Factors Affecting Osmosis

 Concentration Gradient .
-Osmosis is greater in solutions that have greater differences in osmotic pressure.
-The greater the greater the concentration gradient between two points the
greater the speed of osmosis.

 Size of solute molecules

-Osmosis occurs only when solute molecules are too large to pass through a semi-
permeable membrane.
 Temperature,.
-High temperatures increase movement of water molecules hence influence
osmosis. However, very high temperatures denature proteins in cell membrane
and osmosis stops.

(iii) ACTIVE TRANSPORT

 Active transport is the process by which substances move across the cell
membrane against the concentration gradient by the use of energy.
 The energy needed comes from respiration.

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 Some of the substances moved by active transport across the cell membrane
include: glucose, amino acids, sugars and many mineral ions.
 It is believed that Carriers on the surface of the cell membranes combines with
the substances being transported moving them from one side of the
membrane to the other.

Role of Active Transport in Living Organisms

 Re-absorption of sugars and some salts by the kidney- Some of the useful
substances as glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed back into the blood
stream from the kidney tubules by active transport.
 Absorption of some mineral salts from the soil by the roots.
 Excretion of waste products from the body cells.
 Absorption of digested food from the alimentary canal of animals into the
blood stream.
 Accumulation of salts into bodies of some animals living in saline waters in
order to offset the osmotic imbalance.

Factors affecting Active Transport

 Oxygen concentration
-Energy needed for active transport is provided through respiration.
-An increase in the amount of oxygen results in a higher rate of respiration.
 Temperature
-Optimum temperature is required for respiration, hence for active transport.
-Very high temperatures denature respiratory enzymes.
-Very low temperatures inactivate enzymes too and active transport slows down.
 Glucose concentration
-Glucose is the main substrate for respiration.
-Increase in amount of glucose results in more energy production during
respiration and hence more active transport.
 Metabolic poisons
Metabolic poisons e.g. cyanide inhibit respiration and stops active transport due
to lack of energy.
The End
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