UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY

(Formerly Cagayan Colleges Tuguegarao)

Tuguegarao City, Cagayan, Philippines
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION

STATISTICAL CONCEPTS

Science, Observations, Statistics

Science is based on the empirical method for making observations - for systematically
obtaining information. It consists of methods for making observations. Observations are the basic
empirical "stuff" of science. Statistics is a set of methods and rules for organizing, summarizing
and interpreting information. Statistics is a set of concepts, rules, and procedures that help us to:
 organize numerical information in the form of tables, graphs, and charts;
 understand statistical techniques underlying decisions that affect our lives and well-
being; and
 make informed decisions.

Populations and Samples

A population is the set of all individuals of interest in a particular study. We will also
refer to populations of scores. A Sample is a set of individuals selected from a population,
usually intended to represent the population in a study. We will also refer to samples of scores.
Parameters and Statistics

A Parameter is a value, usually a numerical value that describes a Population. A

parameter may be obtained from a single measurement, or it may be derived from a set of
measurements from the population. A Statistic is a value, usually a numerical value that
describes a sample. A statistic may be obtained from a single measurement, or it may be derived
from a set of measurements from the sample.

Variable and Constant

A variable is any information that differs from one member to another in a population or sample.
A random variable (designated as X) is one whose numerical value is determined by chance. The
key elements here are that the variable assumes a number (sales volume, rate of return, test score,
etc.) and that the sample selection process generates the numbers randomly, i.e., by a “random”
selection.

A constant is an information about the population or sample that is true to all members.

Quantitative and Qualitative Variables

Quantitative variable refers to that which exists in different AMOUNTS. When it is

measured, the scores tell something about the amount or degree of the variable. At the very
least, a larger score indicates more of the variable than a smaller score does.
 UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY
(Formerly Cagayan Colleges Tuguegarao)
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan, Philippines
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION
Examples: age, class size

Qualitative variable is one that exists in different KINDS. A number may be assigned to
this variable but the scores or members are simply used as names or labels (dummy). It does not
have quantitative meaning.

Examples: religion, citizenship

Discrete and Continuous Variables

A discrete variable is obtained by counting indivisible units. It can take specific values
only as it is always a collection of whole numbers and can never be a part of a unit.

` Example: enrolment, class size

Continuous variable is one which comes in units which are divisible into an infinite
number of fractional parts. It can take any point in the number line.

Examples: distance traveled, land area

Independent and Dependent Variables

Independent variable is that which is manipulated by the researcher in a study – the

treatment variable in an experiment. It is the presumed cause of the differences in the dependent
variable.

Dependent variable is that which is measured and analyzed in an experiment. Its values
are tested to determine whether they are dependent upon values of the independent variable. It is
the presumed effect of the independent variable

Research Title: Mathematics Achievement of Grade VI Pupils Taught Under Three Methods of
Teaching

Dependent Variable: Mathematics Achievement (the variable measured after employing the
treatment)
Independent Variable: Methods of teaching (the variable that is manipulated)

Classification of Scales

1. Nominal scale - the lowest level and primitive type of measurement scale. It permits
classification of individuals into two or more categories. It likewise permits the making
of statements of equality or difference. The basic requirement is to assign an item or
individual to one and only one category and specify the criteria for placing individuals
into classes.
 UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY
(Formerly Cagayan Colleges Tuguegarao)
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan, Philippines
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION

Example: sex (you are either a male or female; never both)

2. Ordinal scale – specifies the relative position of items/individuals with respect to a given
characteristic, with no indication as to the distance between the positions. It has the same
quality with a nominal scales, plus the characteristic of greater than or less than. One
must be able to determine whether a n item has more, same or less of the attribute than
another item or individual has.

Example: socio-economic status (you are either poor or rich)

3. Interval scale – permits the making of statements of sameness or difference, greater than
or less than, and the added property that the intervals between items are equal. However,
it doe not have a true zero point. Being zero does not mean absence of something or
nothing.

Example: test score (one who scored 4 has twice more of the one who got 2, but one who
got 0 does not mean he knows nothing about the lesson discussed)

4. Ratio scale – permits the making of statements of sameness or difference, greater than or
less than, equal rations between items, and the presence of a TRUE zero point, which
means absence of the attribute being measured

Example: Distance traveled (The measurement starts from point 0 always)

Introduction to Statistical Methods

The more important notion to be got across at this early stage is how the subject of statistical
methods is organized. This diagram may help:
 UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY
(Formerly Cagayan Colleges Tuguegarao)
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan, Philippines
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION

Descriptive Statistics

Example: "The average income of the 104 families in our company is Php 18,673." In
descriptive statistics, our objective is to describe the properties of a group of scores or data that
we have "in hand," i.e., data that are accessible to us in that we can write them down on paper or
type them into a spreadsheet. In descriptive statistics we are not interested in other data that were
not gathered but might have been; that is the subject of inferential statistics.

What properties of the set of scores are we interested in? At least three: their center, their
spread, and their shape. Consider the following set of scores, which might be ages of persons in
your professional club:
28, 38, 45, 47, 51, 56, 58, 60, 63, 63, 65, 66, 66, 67, 68, 70
We could say of these ages that they range from 28 to 70 (spread), and the middle of them is
somewhere around 60 (center). Now their shape is a property of a graph that can be drawn to
depict the scores. If I marked the scores along a number line, like so
 UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY
(Formerly Cagayan Colleges Tuguegarao)
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan, Philippines
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION
then we can see that the ages tend to bunch at the older ages and trail off very gradually for the
younger ages. Later we will learn that this distribution of data is said to be negatively skewed,
because the "trailing off" is toward the negative end of the number line.

Inferential Statistics

Example: "This sample of 512 families from Barangay Macopa indicates with 95% confidence
we can conclude that the average family income in the county is between Php5,187 and
Php9,328."

In inferential statistics, our interest is in large collections of data that are so large that we cannot
have all of them "in hand." We can, however, inspect samples of these larger collections and use
what we see there to make inferences to the larger collection. How samples relate to larger
collections of data (called populations) from which they have been drawn is the subject of
inferential statistical methods. Inferential statistics are frequently used by pollsters who ask 1000
persons whom they prefer in an election and draw conclusions about how the entire municipality
or province will vote on election day. Scientists and researchers also employ inferential statistics
to make conclusions that are more general than the conclusions they could otherwise draw on the
basis of the limited number of data points they have recorded.

ACTIVITY 1:
I. State the level of measurement that is described in each of the following:

Variable Level of Measurement

1. Hemoglobin count
2. Patient’s place of residence
3. Hospital bill in pesos
4. Dengue outbreak alert level
5. Nurses’ employment rank
6. Patients’ room assignment (i.e. free ward)
7. Patient’s temperature (high, normal, low)
8. Patient’s weight
9. Doctor’s fee
10. OR Room temperature
11. Sugar level
12. Heart rate
13. Contact lens’ grade
14. IQ level
15. IQ score
 UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY
(Formerly Cagayan Colleges Tuguegarao)
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan, Philippines
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION
II. Identify in each what level of measurement is present and state the nature of the numbers
as to whether it is discrete or continuous:
Variable Level of Discrete/
Measurement continuous
1. Among the 100 patients admitted to the hospital, 25
are HIV infected
2. This month’s recorded incidence of incest in Sitio
Afusing is 5% higher than the previous month
3. A newborn baby weights 6 lbs.
4. Upon completion of a diet and exercises program
5. 2 thermometers used are locally made
6. The vehicular, accident happened when the driver is
going with a speed of 47.9 mi/hr
7. 6 children were diagnosed as underweight
8. 3 colors were perceived to add or bolster zest in life
9. Zip code 3500
10. SSS No.100-350-01234
11. Annual income of P127,345.45
12. Final course grade: 2A’s, 3B’s, 1A++
13. 10% of the Instructors are rated as superior
14. Brand X medicine expiration date: year 1998
15. 1 independent, 4 PMP and PPC candidates were
elected as senators
III. Indicate whether the given is discrete or continuous:

Variable Discrete/Continuous
1. Baby’s weight
2. Number of underweight children
3. Fluid intake
4. Capsule intake
5. Blood alcohol content
6. Incestuous count
7. Frequency of coughing
8. Extent of skin laceration
9. Extent of exercise
10. Decayed teeth

IV. Identify each of the following data sets as either a population or a sample:
1. The grade point averages (GPAs) of all students at a college.
2. The GPAs of a randomly selected group of students on a college campus.
 UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY
(Formerly Cagayan Colleges Tuguegarao)
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan, Philippines
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION
3. The ages of the nine Supreme Court Justices of the United States on January 1,
1842.
4. The gender of every second customer who enters a movie theater.
5. The lengths of Atlantic croakers caught on a fishing trip to the beach.

V. Identify the dependent and independent variables in the following research titles or
research questions:
1. Effect of Training on the Managerial Capabilities of Newly-Elected Barangay
Officials
2. Bacteria Inhibition as Influenced by Plant Part and Concentration Levels of
Bangbangsit
3. Enhancing Concept Development and Retention Through the Use of Graphic
Organizers
4. Effects of a new tooth paste (YummyTooth) on incidence of caries in 1st grade
children.
5. Do tomatoes grow fastest under fluorescent, incandescent, or natural light?

DATA STRUCTURE FOR ELECTRONIC PROCESSING

The structure of data for computer-based analysis is shown below. It is suggested that the
data be encoded in EXCEL program. If analysis will be made using a statistical package, it
would be easy to import the data set.

The letters along the first row are the columns in the Excel page.

A B C D E F G H I J
RespID Age Sex civstat rank educ Yrspost BDScore SupPrac NATperf
1 62 1 2 4 3 5 -3 94 49.22
2 42 2 2 2 2 1 -7 76 49.22
3 59 2 2 3 2 1 -6 102 72.6
4 38 1 2 2 1 1 -3 106 51.06
5 48 2 1 3 3 3 0 81 42.23
Variable labels should have 8 characters only, thus, some variables are shortened.

respID = respondent’s identification

civstat = civil status
rank = teaching rank
educ = highest educational attainment
yrspost = number of years in the position
BDScore = bradin dominance score
 UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY
(Formerly Cagayan Colleges Tuguegarao)
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan, Philippines
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION
SupPrac = supervisory practices
NATperf = performance in the National Achievement Test

The sample set uses the following codes in the converting qualitative data into dummy
variables.

Sex: 1 = Male 2= Female

Civstat: 1 = Single 2 = Married
Rank: 1 = Teacher 1 2 = Teacher 2 3 = Teacher 3 4: Mater Teacher I
Educ: 1 = BS 2 = MA 3 = Ph.D.

DATA PRESENTATION
Research data can be presented in many ways. These means are categorized as table or figure.

TABLES

A table is a presentation of data in rows and columns. It has a stub column and column
headings. Inside the table are the statistical data. At UCV Graduate School, the table has five
horizontal lines: 2 ruled lines to begin, one single line to separate the column headings from the
table data, and another 2 ruled lines to close the table. As shown in the example, there are no
vertical lines inside the table. Only the gridlines appear inside the column headings.

Single line here Double lines here

Table 10. Dominant conflict management style of school administrators based on the
overall assessment of the administrators themselves and their teachers

Administrators Teachers
Style Frequency Frequency
(n = 45) Percent (n = 225) Percent

Solution-oriented 29 64.5 27 12.00

Non-confrontational 11 24.4 114 50.67

Control 5 11.1 84 37.33

 UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY
(Formerly Cagayan Colleges Tuguegarao)
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan, Philippines
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION
The table has a table number (usually Arabic) followed by a period. Two spaces after is
the caption or table title. At CSU Graduate School, only the first letter of the first word is in
capital letters, except when there are proper nouns that follow. The carry-over of long captions
is typed single spaced just below the first letter of the title.

FIGURES

Any illustrative material that presents data is a figure. It may include graphs (pie graph,
line graph, bar graph, pictograph), maps, templates, etc.

The figure has a title written below it. The word Figure is typed followed by the figure
number (also in Arabic) then a period. Two spaces after, the figure title is written. Just like the
table caption, the carry-over of long title is typed single spaced just below the first letter of the
title.

A histogram is a graphical representation of the information in a frequency table using a

bar graph. The histogram should have the variable being measured in the data set as its
horizontal axis, and the class frequency as the vertical axis. Each data class will be represented
by a vertical bar whose height is the frequency of the class and whose width is the class width.

Example:
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5 94.5

Figure 1. Frequency distribution of scores obtained by students in Algebra.

Notice that the bar for each class is centered at the class midpoint, and the bars for successive
classes touch.

A frequency polygon is a line graph representation of the information in a frequency

table. Like a histogram, the vertical axis represents frequency and the horizontal axis represents
 UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY
(Formerly Cagayan Colleges Tuguegarao)
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan, Philippines
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION
the variable being measured in the data set. To construct the graph, a point is plotted for each
class at its midpoint and with height given by the frequency of the class. The points are then
connected by straight lines.

Example:
7

0
44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5 94.5

Figure 1. Frequency distribution of scores obtained by students in

Algebra.

A circle graph is shaped like a circle. It is divided into fractions that look like pieces of
pie, so sometimes a circle graph is called a pie graph. Many times the fractional parts are
different colors and a key explains the colors.
 UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY
(Formerly Cagayan Colleges Tuguegarao)
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan, Philippines
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION
A picture graph uses pictures or symbols to show data. One picture often stands for more
than one vote so a key is necessary to understand the symbols.

Producing Effective Tables and Figures

Producing effective tables and figures requires careful planning that begins at the manuscript
writing stage itself. Here’s how to go about it (Velany Rodrigues, 2013):
 First, check out what your target journal has to say on the issue. Some journals limit the
number of tables and figures and also have specific guidelines on the design aspects of
these display items.
 Next, decide whether to use tables and figures or text to put across key
information.(Refer to Table 1 below for help on making this decision.)
 After you’ve decided to use a display item, choose the display item that best fits your
purpose based on what you wish readers to focus on and what you want to present.(Refer
to Table 1 below for more information.)
 Finally, follow the best-practice guidelines outlined in section 3 and review the examples
presented in section 4 of this paper to ensure that your tables and figures are well-
designed.
Table 1: How to choose between tables, figures, and text to present data
 UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY
(Formerly Cagayan Colleges Tuguegarao)
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan, Philippines
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION

Best practices for presentation of tables and figures in scientific papers

General guidelines

1. Ensure that display items are self-explanatory: Some readers (and certainly reviewers and
journal editors) turn their attention to the tables and figures before they read the entire
text, so these display items should be self-contained.
2. Refer, but don’t repeat: Use the text to draw the reader’s attention to the significance and
key points of the table/figure, but don’t repeat details. So for example, you could
highlight your main finding (e.g., “We found that the treatment was effective in only 24%
of the cases, as shown in Figure 1”), but don’t repeat exact values (e.g., “As Table 2
shows, 32% of the subjects chose Option 1, 12% chose Option 2, 10% chose Option 3,
and 46% chose Option 4”). This defeats the very purpose (efficiency and clarity) of
having a table or figure.
3. Be consistent: Ensure consistency between values or details in a table (e.g.,
abbreviations, group names, treatment names) and those in the text.
4. Give clear, informative titles: Table and figure titles should not be vague but should
concisely describe the purpose or contents of the table/figure and should ideally draw the
reader’s attention to what you want him/her to notice17 (e.g., Advantages and
disadvantages of using sleep therapy with patients suffering from schizophrenia). Also
 UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY
(Formerly Cagayan Colleges Tuguegarao)
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan, Philippines
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION
ensure that column heads, axis labels, figure labels, etc., are clearly and appropriately
labelled.
5. Adhere to journal guidelines: Check what your target journal has to say about issues like
the number of tables and figures, the style of numbering, titles, image resolution, file
formats, etc., and follow these instructions carefully.

Guidelines for tables

1. Combine repetitive tables: Tables and figures that present repetitive information will
impair communication rather than enhance it. Examine the titles of all your tables and
figures and check if they talk about the same or similar things. If they do, rethink the
presentation and combine or delete the tables/graphs.
2. Divide the data: When presenting large amounts of information, divide the data into clear
and appropriate categories and present them in columns titled accurately and
descriptively.
3. Watch the extent of data in your tables: If the data you have to present is extensive and
would make the tables too cluttered or long, consider making the tables a part of the
Appendix or supplemental material.
4. De-clutter your table: Ensure that there is sufficient spacing between columns and
rows and that the layout does not make the table look too messy or crowded.

Guidelines for figures

1. Ensure image clarity: Make sure that all the parts of the figure are clear: Use standard
font; check that labels are legible against the figure background; and ensure that images
are sharp.
2. Use legends to explain the key message: Figure legends are pivotal to the effectiveness
of a figure. Use them to draw attention to the central message as well as to explain
abbreviations and symbols.
3. Label all important parts: Label the key sections and parts of schematic diagrams and
photographs, and all axes, curves, and data sets in graphs and data plots.
4. Give specifics: Include scale bars in images and maps; specify units wherever quantities
are listed; include legends in maps and schematics; and specify latitudes and longitudes
on maps.7

Examples of well-prepared tables and figures

This section presents one example each of a well-prepared table and a well-designed figure.

The table below is taken from a dietary study on chick-rearing macaroni penguins and is an
example of an effective table for the following reasons:
 UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY
(Formerly Cagayan Colleges Tuguegarao)
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan, Philippines
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION

1. The title clearly describes what the table is about.

2. The column heads are descriptive and clearly indicate the nature of the data presented.
3. The data is divided into categories for clarity.
4. It is self-contained and can be understood quite well even without reference to the entire
paper.
5. Superscript letters and notes are used to offer additional, clarifying information.
6. Sufficient spacing is present between columns and rows; the layout is clean; and the font
is legible.

Examples of an effective figure (graph)

The figure below from a paper on the efficacy of oyster reefs as natural breakwaters27, scores on
several counts:
 UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY
(Formerly Cagayan Colleges Tuguegarao)
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan, Philippines
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION

1. The informative title that immediately tells the reader what to expect in the graph.

2. The axes are labeled clearly.

3. The key clearly identifies what each element in the graph stands for.

4. A figure legend at the bottom draws the reader’s attention to the graph's key points.

5. A note at the bottom acknowledges the source.

6. The graph is 2-dimensional, with no clutter.

Reference:
http://www.editage.com/insights/tips-on-effective-use-of-tables-and-figures-in-research-papers