Newtonian Classical Relativity account for the problem of simultaneity

between these observers.

- It is assumed that Newton’s laws of
motion must be measured with respect Relativity
to (or relative to) some reference frame
- measurement of events
Inertial Reference Frame - where and when they happen, and by
how much any two events are
- A reference frame is called an inertial
separated in space and in time
frame if Newton’s laws are valid in that
frame Special Theory of Relativity

Newtonian Principle of Relativity or Galilean - published by Albert Einstein in 1905

Invariance when he was 26 years old.
- deals only with the Inertial Reference
- If Newton’s laws are valid in one
Frames , which are frames in which
reference frame, then they are also
Newton’s laws are valid.
valid in another reference frame moving
- the frames do not accelerate; they can
at a uniform velocity relative to the first
move only at constant velocities
system.
relative to one another.
Albert Einstein - Relative motion can change the rate at
which time passes.
- In 1905, he proposed a fundamental
connection between space and time. General Theory of Relativity

Luminiferous Ether or Ether - in which reference frames accelerate.

- published by Albert Einstein in 1915
- The wave nature of light suggested that - demonstrated that space and time are
there existed a propagation medium. entangled,that is, the time between two
Maxwell Theory events depends on how far apart they
occur, and vice versa.
- the speed of light, in terms of the - understanding of how gravity affects the
permeability and permittivity of free fabric of space-time.
space
Two Postulates of Relativity
Michelson-Morley experiment
The Relativity Postulate: The laws of Physics are
- was an attempt to show the existence the same for observers in all inertial reference
of ether. frames.
Albert Michelson (1852-1931) The Speed of Light Postulate: The speed of light
- was the first U.S. citizen to receive the in vacuum has the same value c in all directions
Nobel Prize for Physics (1907). and in all inertial reference frames.
- He built an extremely precise device Simultaneity
called an interferometer to measure the
minute phase difference between two - not an absolute concept but a relative
light waves traveling in mutually one, depending on the motion of the
orthogonal directions. observer.”
- Get an assistance for the repeats and Proper Time Interval or Proper Time
refinements from Edward Morley
(1893-1923), again a null result. - When two events occur at the same
location in an inertial reference frame,
Lorentz-FitzGerald Contraction the time interval between them,
- hypothesis proposed independently by measured in that frame.
both H. A. Lorentz and G. F. FitzGerald, Time Dilation
suggested that the length ℓ1, in the
direction of the motion was contracted - The amount by which a measured time
by a factor of interval is greater than the
corresponding proper time interval
Lorentz transformation equations

- preserve the constancy of the speed of

light (c) between inertial observers;and,
Albert Einstein

- Modern Physics Relativistic Kinetic Energy

- Focuses on high speeds
- the energy of an object approaches
- Speed of light
infinity as the velocity approaches the
- Micro-level
speed of light.
- Quantum Physics
- Cannot be easily observed by naked eye Relativistic Energy
- Time is relative
- not even gravity can travel faster than - the total energy of a particle as
the speed of light observed by an observer in a reference
- the Earth would not notice the absence frame in which the particle is moving at
of gravity for 8.5 minutes the time it a relativistic speed.
travels gravity to travel (at 300,000 Blackbody Radiation
km/s) from the sun to the Earth
- An ideal object which absorbs all
Isaac Newton incident electromagnetic radiations.
- Classical Physics The Ultraviolet Catastrophe
- Focuses on low speeds
- Macro-level - also called the Rayleigh–Jeans
- Can be seen by naked eye
catastrophe, is the prediction of
- Time is absolute
- assumed that gravity is felt everywhere classical electromagnetism that the
in the Universe instantaneously intensity of the radiation emitted by an
- quantified gravity in the same text in
which he formulated his three laws of ideal black body at thermal equilibrium
motion, the "Principia." goes to infinity as wavelength
Momentum decreases.

- Momentum can be defined as "mass in - The electromagnetic spectrum

motion." All objects have mass; so if an predicted by this formula agrees with
object is moving, then it has
experimental results at low frequencies
momentum - it has its mass in motion.
- Product of mass and velocity (large wavelengths) but strongly

Relativistic Momentum disagrees at high frequencies (short

wavelengths). This inconsistency
- defined in such a way that the
conservation of momentum will hold in between observations and the
all inertial frames.
predictions of classical physics is
Mass commonly known as the ultraviolet
- Newton's second law of motion states catastrophe or Rayleigh-Jeans
that “Force is equal to the rate of
catastrophe.
change of momentum. For a constant
mass, force equals mass times
Max Karl Ernest Ludwig Planck, (born April
acceleration
23, 1858, Kiel, Schleswig [Germany]—died
Mass-energy Equivalence
October 4, 1947, Göttingen, Germany),
- states that the mass of a system and its
German theoretical physicist who originated
energy are the same property in any
physical system. This means that quantum theory, which won him the Nobel
anything having mass has an equivalent Prize for Physics in 1918.
amount of energy and vice versa

Relativistic Mass Max Planck

- in the special theory of relativity, the - First suggested the Quantum

mass that is assigned to a body in
Hyphothesis in 1900, postulates that
motion.
light energy can only be emitted and
 absorbed in discrete bundles called - American chemist Gilbert Lewis later
quanta. coined the term photon for light
quanta.

Application of Compton Effect

Photoelectric Effect
- Radiotherapy, Spectroscopy and
- When light strikes a conductor’s Astronomy
surface, it can eject electrons from Schrodinger Equation
them, meaning that light (photo)
- Erwin Schrödinger was an Austrian
produces electricity.
physicist who made significant
- Electrons that are emitted in this
contributions to the field of quantum
process are called photoelectrons.
mechanics.
- It was discovered in 1887 by the
- Schrödinger is best known for
German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz.
developing the Schrödinger equation,
- The relationship between light and
which is a fundamental equation in
electricity was clarified in 1902 by
quantum mechanics that describes the
another German physicist Philipp
behavior of subatomic particles, such as
Lenard. He demonstrated that
electrons, in atoms and molecules.
electrically charged particles are
- revolutionized our understanding of the
liberated from a metal surface when it is
behavior of particles on the smallest
illuminated and that these particles are
scales and laid the foundation for much
identical to electrons, which had been
of modern physics and chemistry.
discovered by the British physicist
- His work on the Schrödinger equation
Joseph John Thomson in 1897
earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in
- In 1921, Einstein received the Nobel
1933, which he shared with Paul Dirac.
Prize in Physics for describing the
photoelectric effect. Time-Dependent Schrödinger Equation

- is the process in which EM radiation - tells us how the wave function Ψ

ejects electrons from the material. changes with time and is essential for
Compton Effect understanding the time evolution of

- also known as Compton scattering, is quantum systems.

the primary process by which radiant

Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation
energy is absorbed in matter. It causes
- used to find the allowed energy levels
the wavelength of X-rays and other
and corresponding wave functions for a
energetic electromagnetic radiations to
quantum system, such as an electron in
increase after being elastically
an atom.
scattered by electrons.
- American physicist Arthur Holly 5 Atomic Models from Classical to Modern
Compton explained (1922; published Physics
1923) the wavelength increases by
1. Atomic Model by John Dalton
considering X-rays as composed of
He proposed this theory:
discrete pulses, or quanta, of
a) Matter is made of small indivisible
electromagnetic energy.
atoms.
 b) Atoms can’t be subdivided, created or c) The electron cloud is the region of
destroyed. negative charges, which surrounds the
Atoms of the same element have the nucleus.
same property. d) Orbital: The region with a high
Atoms of different elements have probability of containing electrons.
different properties.
Quantum Numbers
c) Atoms of different elements can form
compounds. Principal Quantum Number (n)

2. Plum-pudding model by J.J. Thomson - designates the principal electron shell

a) An atom is electrically neutral. It has no - The first principal shell is also called the
charge. ground state, or lowest energy state.
b) In an atom, both positive charges and
negative charges are equal. Azimuthal or Orbital Angular Momentum

c) An atom is made out of a sphere of Quantum Number (l)

positive charges with negatively charged

- determines the shape of an orbital, and
electron embedded in it.
therefore the angular distribution.
3. Nuclear model by Ernest Rutherford
a) Atoms are mostly empty space.
Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
b) Most of the mass is concentrated in the
center of atom. This tiny, dense, - divides the subshell into orbitals and
positively charged core called a nucleus. determines their number. Each value of
c) Electrons are located outside the the magnetic quantum number
nucleus represents a specific orientation of the
4. Planetary model by Niels Bohr orbital having fixed energy and shape.
a) Electrons orbit the nucleus in orbits that
Spin Quantum Number (ms)
have specific size and energy.
b) The energy of the orbit is related to its
- describes the angular momentum of an
size. The lowest energy is found in the
electron. An electron spins around an
smallest orbit.
axis and has both angular momentum
c) Electrons reside in orbits. They move
and orbital angular momentum.
between each shell when gaining or
losing energy. Wave-Particle Duality
d) When gaining energy, electrons move to
farther orbit from the nucleus. When - states particles like electrons and

losing energy, electrons move to closer photons can exhibit both wave-like and

orbit from the nucleus. particle-like properties.

5. Quantum Mechanical Model: Erwin - The history of wave-particle duality

Schrödinger involves contributions from notable

a) Electrons don’t move around the scientists like Huygens, Young, Planck,

nucleus in orbits. Einstein, de Broglie, and Heisenberg.

b) Electrons exist in specific energy levels - refers to the fundamental property

as a cloud. of matter where, at one moment it

 appears like a wave, and yet at another The four classical light properties as a
moment it acts like a particle. wave are reflection, refraction, diffraction,
and interference.

History of Wave-Particle Duality a) Reflection - One of the properties

of light you can see every day. It occurs
 1600 - Sir Isaac Newton developed his
when light hits a surface and comes
corpuscular theory of light, proposing
back from that surface. This 'coming
that light is composed of particles
back' is the reflection, which happens at
(corpuscles).
various angles.
 1678 - Christiaan Huygens' Wave
b) Refraction - Another property
Theory of Light: Dutch scientist
of light that you come across almost
Christiaan Huygens proposed that light
every day. You can observe this when,
consists of waves, suggesting a wave-
looking into a mirror, you see an object
like nature for light.
displaced from its original position.
 1801 - Thomas Young's Double-Slit
c) Diffraction - Waves occurring on one
Experiment: British scientist Thomas
side of a tiny aperture radiate away in
Young conducted a famous double-slit
all sorts of ways on the other side, this
experiment that demonstrated the
is referred to as diffraction.
interference pattern of light waves,
d) Interference - Occurs when light meets
providing strong evidence for the wave
an obstacle that contains two tiny slits
nature of light.
separated by a distance (d). The
 1900 - Max Planck’s law and black body
wavelets emanating towards each other
radiation: Max Planck formulated what
interfere either constructively or
is known as Planck's radiation law to
destructively.
explain the spectral-energy distribution
of a blackbody's radiation. A blackbody Evidences of Light as a Wave
is a hypothetical substance, which
a) Double-Slit Experiment - Thomas Young
absorbs all radiant energy that strikes it,
demonstrated that light waves can
cools to an equilibrium temperature,
interfere with one another, just like
and re-emits the energy as rapidly as it
sound or water waves do. He did this by
receives it.
shining light through two closely spaced
 1905 - Albert Einstein's Photoelectric
holes and looking at the interference
Effect: Einstein provided an explanation
pattern that formed.
for the photoelectric effect by
b) Doppler Effect - is a shift in the
postulating the existence of photons,
frequency of waves due to relative
quanta of light energy with particulate
motion between the source and the
qualities. He also stated that electrons
observer.
could receive energy from an
c) Huygens' Principle - explains the
electromagnetic field only in discrete
behavior of light as a wave.
units (quanta or photons).
 1924 - Louis de Broglie's Matter Waves: Evidences of Light as a Particle
French physicist Louis de Broglie
a) Particle-like Behavior in the Double-Slit
proposed that particles, like electrons,
Experiment - The double-slit
can also exhibit wave-like behavior. He
experiment, initially conducted with
introduced the concept of matter
electrons by Davisson and Germer, and
waves.
later with photons by G.P. Thomson,
 1927 - Werner Heisenberg's
revealed that even when light is passed
Uncertainty Principle: Werner
through two slits, it can exhibit particle-
Heisenberg came up with the
like behavior by creating an interference
uncertainty principle, a central idea in
pattern on a screen.
quantum mechanics. According to the
b) The Photoelectric Effect - first observed
principle, you can't know the exact
by Heinrich Hertz and later explained by
position and the momentum of a
Albert Einstein, demonstrated that light
particle at the same time.
can behave as discrete particles, now
Wave-Particle Duality of Light: Wave properties
known as photons.
of light
 c) Compton Scattering - Arthur Compton - states that the product of the
performed experiments in the early uncertainty in energy and the
20th century that showed how X-rays, uncertainty in time is always greater
which are a form of high-energy light, than or equal to Planck’s constant
scattered off electrons like particles. divided by 4π.

De Broglie Wavelength

- explaining the wave-like characteristics

of matter particles, especially electrons
and atoms.
- Named after the French physicist Louis
de Broglie, this concept embodies the
idea of wave-particle duality, a
cornerstone of quantum physics.
- In 1924, the French physicist Louis de
Broglie proposed that moving objects
behave like waves; these are called
Matter Waves.
- De Broglie suggested that particles with
mass, such as electrons and protons,
could also behave like waves.
- De Broglie relation shows that the
wavelength is proportional to the
momentum of the particle
- As the speed of the electron decreases,
its wavelength increases.
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

- introduced by Werner Heisenberg in

1927
- This principle asserts that there are
inherent limits to our ability to
simultaneously measure certain pairs of
properties of particles with high
precision, particularly position and
momentum.
- His pioneering work in this area earned
him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932
- states that it's not possible to
simultaneously measure the position
and momentum of a particle with
absolute precision

HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

(ENERGY-TIME)

- relates the uncertainty in energy

measurements to the uncertainty in
time measurements.
- applies to the uncertainty in energy and
time.