DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION(DPTE) & DIPLOMA IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

TEACHER EDUCATION(DECTE)

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

SHISIA MUKHWANA

Competence Based Curriculum

Dedication
I dedicate this book with a lot of love and gratitude to my lovely wife, Martha Mukhwana and
my dearest sons, Daville Shisia and Ebenezar Olengo.
Acknowledgement
I sincerely thank Mr. Lucus Mukhala, the director International Teaching & Training
Center(ITTC) for providing me with adequate materials and Wi-Fi that enabled me to access
relevant information related to inclusive education.
Special thanks also goes to ITTC staff members who encouraged me throughout when I was
writing this book.
Above all I would wish to thank the Almighty God for enabling me to write this inclusive
education book.
Preface
This book is about inclusive education. It focuses on the various strategies educators need to
adopt in order to accommodate all learners irrespective of their ethnicity, social-economic
background, race, gender or disability. The competence based curriculum requires the teacher
trainees to acquire the required skills, knowledge, attitudes and values so as to be able to
accommodate learners with diversified needs. This book also explored on the differences of the
learners because of their differences in disability, having special gifts or talents, learning
disabilities, social maladjustments or behavioral, or live in especially difficult circumstances.
The book also deeply looks into the Howard Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences which
utilizes aspects of cognitive and developmental psychology, anthropology, and sociology to
explain the human intellect.

This book explores on the barriers that may inhibit inclusive education in the Kenyan schools
and how teacher, parents and the community at large can overcome these barriers. Acquisition of
knowledge on the development and use of special needs education resources is important
because currently, children with special needs are included into regular schools in Kenya. This
means that as long as a child benefits from the competence based curriculum used in regular
schools, he or she should not be placed in a special school. Furthermore, teachers are expected to
make for children individualized education plan (IEP) if they appear not to cope with the pace of
the majority in their inclusive class. That is why the government of Kenya, through the ministry
of education emphasises that teachers need to be equipped with information on special needs
education to enhance their knowledge and attitudes to serve children with diversified needs.
 Introduction
Inclusive Education
In Kenya inclusive schools are defined as those that are designed to respond to the diverse needs
of all learners, accommodate both different styles and rates of learning and ensure quality
education to all through appropriate curricula, organizational arrangements, teaching strategies,
resource use and partnership with communities.
The current framework has set the following strategies to address issues of inclusive education:
Designating and implementing programs that enhance inclusive education in all institutions.
Strengthening institutions that are supporting special needs education such as Kenya institute of
special education(KISE). Expanding KISE programs to offer continuous professional teacher
development on special needs education(SNE). Encouraging research in the field of special
needs education as well as inclusive education.
Adopting a flexible curriculum that is responsive to learners with special needs and developing
learning materials to support their curriculum. Strengthening the capacity of ministry of
education and the schools to ensure effective management and implementation of the curriculum
in order to meet the needs of all learners (Republic of Kenya,2005)
Inclusive education is being viewed as beneficial in the sense that, if it is carefully implemented,
it has the capacity to: Extend appropriate education to all learners and promote social
development through interaction of learners with and without special needs, such interaction
enables all learners to develop virtues, such as accommodation, acceptance, cooperation,
patience, humbleness and the need to be supportive. All learners would be able to share the
already available resources.

The Concept of Inclusive Education

Inclusive education is the process of strengthening the capacity of education system to reach out
to all learners as a strategy to achieve education for all. The world Declaration on Education for
All adopted in Jomtien Thailand (1990), set out as an overall vision: Universalizing access to
education for all children, youth, adults and promoting equality. This means being proactive in
identifying the barriers that may be countered in accessing educational opportunities and
identifying the resources needed to overcome these barriers.
Inclusive moves emphasis away from pupils for whom curriculum is modified toward the
process of responding to all pupils, acknowledging that any child could have additional support
needs at any given time. More impetus for inclusive education was given at the world conference
on Special needs education (SNE) on access and quality held in Salamanca, Spain June 1994.
More than 300 participants representing 92 governments and 25 international organizations
considered the fundamental policy shifts required to promote the approach of inclusive
education, thereby enabling schools to serve all children, particularly those with special
education needs. Each child should be included in the main stream schooling without any
exclusion due to perceived differences or support needs.

An inclusive education system can only be created if ordinary schools become more inclusive,
that is, if they become better at educating all children in their communities. The Salamanca
conference proclaimed that regular schools with an inclusion orientation are the most effective
means of combating discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building an
inclusive society and achieving education for all. Brooth (1998) views inclusive education as a
process of increasing the participation of learners in the culture and curricula of mainstream
school and communities‟. Bailey (1998) talks of inclusion as “being in an ordinary school with
other learners, following the same curriculum at the same time, in the same classroom, with the
full acceptance of all, and in a way which makes the learners feel no different from other
learners.
Inclusive education looks at both the rights of learner and how education systems can be
transformed to respond to the diverse groups of learners. Studies by Pijl et al (1997) show that
attitude of teachers towards educating learners with special needs is very important if a school is
to be inclusive. If main stream teachers do not take responsibility for the learning needs of those
with special needs as an integral part of their job, they will cause segregation in learning to occur
in schools thus fostering stereotypes. Inclusion is about the child’s right to participate as fully as
possible in school activities and the school’s duty to accept and accommodate the child’s right
(Thomas and Vaughan, 2005).
 Chapter 1

Overview of Inclusive Education

Background to Inclusive Education
Many children around the world live with disabilities. Like all children, children with disabilities
have ambitions and dreams for their futures. Like all children, they need quality education to
develop their skills and realize their full potential.
All children need care and protection by virtue of their age and developmental needs. They
require proper nutrition, clothing, shelter, training in life skills, education, time, space and
equipment for play. They also require a place for rest and sleep and need protection from all
types of adversaries. If not cared for, children are vulnerable to serious suffering, developmental
deficits and even death. This is because they lack knowledge, skills, resources and even physical
strength to take care of, and protect themselves.

Yet, children with disabilities are often overlooked in policymaking, limiting their access to
education and their ability to participate in social, economic and political life. Worldwide, these
children are among the most likely to be out of school. They face persistent barriers to education
stemming from discrimination, stigma and the routine failure of decision makers to incorporate
disability in school services

Terms Used in Inclusive Education

Children with Special Needs

Children with special needs are those who significantly deviate from the average or normal
children in mental, physical, social and emotional characteristics. They are children who require
a modification of school practices or educational of services in order to develop their capacities
to the maximum.

Special Needs
Special needs in children describes important requirements, necessities or wants. It therefore
refers to the requirements that should be provided if the children have to realize their
developmental potential.

Impairment
This is a general term indicating injury, deficiency or lessening of function. Any loss or damage
to a part of the body either through accident, disease, genetics or other factors is therefore an
impairment. A hearing impaired child, for example, may have acquired the condition due to
injury in an accident, or may have been born with a deformed ear, or may have the auditory canal
blocked by wax.

Handicap
A handicap is a problem that a person with a disability or impairment encounters in interacting
with the environment or from society’s attitude towards a disability. A child who is deaf for
example, cannot detect dangers posed by animals such as dogs by hearing them bark. Such a
child may not participate in games that involves the use of sounds. Handicaps prevent the
fulfillment of roles and participation in activities that are appropriate to the age, gender, society
and culture of the individual.

Disability
Disability refers to functional limitations that hamper typical development as a result of a
physical impairment, difficulty in learning or social adjustment. The term describes any problem
that limits a person’s ability to perform certain tasks that most people can do. Deafness,
blindness, being crippled and mental retardation are examples of disability.

Identification
This term describes the process of gathering relevant information to determine if a child has
special needs and if therefore he or she is eligible for special services.

Screening
Screening is a procedure in which groups of children are examine and or tested in an effort to
identify children who are most likely to have a disability. Identified children are then referred to
more intensive examination and assessment.

Assessment
The term assessment refers to gathering, sifting and weighing information for the purpose of
making changes in the curriculum provision or the learning environment.

Integration
The term assessment refers to participation of learners with disabilities in regular schools with
their non-disabled peers, without necessarily making changes in the curriculum provision or the
learning environment.
Importance of Studying Inclusive Education as A Component of Teacher Education
Inclusive education has many benefits all learners in an inclusive environmental setting. Some of
these benefits include:
a. It increases community awareness of special need education and eliminate the stigma
often attached to learners with special needs.
b. It extends appropriate education to all.
c. Inclusive education ensures that learners with disabilities are educated in the least
restrictive environment(LRE)
d. Inclusive education helps in the development of positive attitudes in parents, peers and
the community at large.
e. It promotes social development through interaction of learners with or without special
needs. Such interaction enables all learners to develop virtues, such as accommodation,
acceptance
f. Trace the development of inclusive education as a practice of promoting education for all.

Characteristics of Inclusive Education as an Approach in The Provision of Education for

All
i. Learners with disabilities attend their neighborhood schools or the schools they would
attend if they were not disabled.

ii. Each learner is in an age-appropriate general education classroom.

iii. Every learner is accepted and regarded as a full and valued member of the class and the
school community.

iv. Special education supports are provided to each learner with a disability within the
context of the general education classroom.

v. All learners receive an education that addresses their individual needs.

vi. No learner is excluded based on type or degree of disability.

vii. All members of the school (e.g., administration, staff, learners, and parents) promote
cooperative/collaborative teaching arrangements.

viii. There is school-based planning, problem-solving, and ownership of all learners and
programs.

What Should Be Done to Achieve Inclusive Education

Establishment of classroom routine that is sensitive to individual needs and cultural norms of
learners.
b) Ensuring that classroom responsibilities are inclusive and not stereotyped.
c) Provision of instructional resources that reflect diversity of learners.

d) Ensuring that all learners feel accepted and gain a sense of belonging.
e) Provision to each learner a balance of challenge and support to scaffold new learning.
f) Emphasis and modeling values of fairness acceptance, kindness, respect and responsibility to
and for all people.
g) Making education relevant to learners‟ needs and interests. h) Teaching and modeling
independent learning skills.

i) Recognition and value for learner improvement and acknowledging success of each individual
learner.
j) Use of evaluation methods that are equitable and take into account the diversity of learner’s
life experiences and learning needs for example refugee experience.
k) Use of flexible approaches to eliminate barriers and transform learning experiences.
N/B Teachers should provide differentiated instruction by acknowledging that learners learn at
different rates and in different ways.

Inclusion does not mean…

i. Placing learners with disabilities into general education classrooms without careful
planning and adequate support.

ii. Reducing services or funding for special education services.

iii. Placing all learners who have disabilities or who are at risk in one or a few designated
classrooms.

iv. Teachers spending a disproportionate amount of time teaching or adapting the curriculum
for learners with disabilities.

v. Isolating learners with disabilities socially, physically, or academically within the general
education school or classroom.

vi. Jeopardizing the achievement of general education learners through slower instruction or
a less challenging curriculum.

vii. Relegating special education teachers to the role of assistants in the general education
classroom.

viii. Requiring general and special education teachers to team together without careful
planning and well-defined responsibilities.
The Strategies Involved in Achieving Inclusive Education

Inclusive education can be achieved by practicing multicultural education. Multicultural

education is defined as one that allows full development of the potential and critical abilities of
all children regardless of their differences (racial, ethnic, gender, class stratification, disabilities,
and sexual orientations).

Multicultural approach emphasizes that:

Every learner must have an equal opportunity to achieve to her or his full potential.

Every learner must be prepared to competently participate in an increasingly intercultural

society.

Teachers must be prepared to effectively facilitate learning for every individual learner, no
matter how culturally similar or different from her- or himself.

Schools must be active participants in ending oppression of all types, first by ending oppression
within their own walls, then by producing socially and critically active and aware learners.

Education must become more fully learner-centered and inclusive of the voices and experiences
of the learners.

Educators, activists, and others must take a more active role in reexamining all educational
practices and how they affect the learning of all learners: testing methods, teaching approaches,
evaluation and assessment, school psychology and counseling, educational materials and
textbooks, among others.

Approaches to The selection of subject matter content should be culturally inclusive, based on
up-to-date scholarship. This inclusivity should incorporate opposing opinions and divergent
interpretations.

The subject matter content selected for inclusion should represent diversity and unity within and
across groups.

The subject matter selected for inclusion should be set within the context of its time and place.

The subject matter selected for inclusion should give priority to depth over breadth.

The subject matter content should be treated as socially constructed and therefore tentative as is
all knowledge.

The teaching of all subjects should draw and build on the experience and knowledge that the
learners bring to the classroom.

Pedagogy should incorporate a range of interactive modes of teaching and learning in order to
foster understanding (rather than rote learning), examination of controversy, and mutual learning.
Principles of Inclusive Education

Inclusive education makes children living with disabilities to have a positive self-esteem.

Introduction

For learners and teachers, classrooms and communities, research shows that inclusive education
works. Small changes can lead to larger transformations, and these can ripple across the
classroom and school system.

However, different understandings of inclusion mean that some educators can struggle to
implement initiatives. The most key principles of what defines an inclusive education include:

Principle 1: Diversity in The Classroom Enriches and Strengthens Education

Every learner is unique and every group of learners is different. Diversity in schools is a given.
Learners have different experiences, cultures, beliefs and values.

This diversity is something all teachers come across. It can present challenges for teachers,
learners and their parents. It also creates opportunities for growth and better connection in
personal, social and academic achievement.
Inclusive educators are those who draw on the knowledge and experiences of their learners. They
question their own beliefs about learner learning. They are flexible and ready for a challenge.
And most of all, they embrace diversity in their classroom

Principle 2: A Strength-Based and Personalised Curriculum

Strength-based approaches are a key principle of inclusive education. They recognise each
learner has inherent strengths and talents.

These strengths, as well as a learner’s specific needs, should be placed at the centre of
curriculum planning and implementation. This optimises opportunities for both teachers and
learner learning.

A strength-based and personalised curriculum improves:

a) Learner engagement
b) Motivation
c) Academic outcomes for all learners.

This approach celebrates diversity and difference, and facilitates opportunities for personalised
learning.

Principle 3: Learner Engagement, Urgency and Voice

Seeking the perspectives of learner ensures they make a meaningful contribution to their
schooling and educational experience. The ability to have a voice influences both learner
participation and agency.

Learner roles are often consultative, rather than active, even when matters directly affect them.
The key to listening well is to have a belief in learners’ capabilities, and to develop relationships
of trust and respect. It’s not one-sided: learners need to trust their teacher too.

When learners are given a platform to share their voice, schools gain insider knowledge and
better understand the learner experience. It sends a clear message that learner engagement is
important.
But how do you make this authentic?

 Facilitate multiple different ways for young people to be heard, regardless of their ability.
 Consider tools such as drawing, writing, talking, paintings, photographs, and videos to
express agency.
 Ask learners, as critical stakeholders, to identify indicators of what an inclusive school
looks like and measure the school against them.

Principle 4: Engaging with All Critical Stakeholders

An inclusive education is one where all learners of all capabilities have the opportunity to grow
and learn.

This means providing each learner and parent with access to accurate information on their
learning through ongoing formative and summative assessment of each learner’s progress.

Schools can also model positive behaviour and feedback, while still offering areas of
improvement. For example, low reading confidence can be turned around with sharing positive
stories of school success where learners have improved or progressed.

Over time, this approach creates a positive community perception of the school and raises
awareness about a positive school culture.

Principle Five: Inclusive Teachers Need Commitment, Knowledge And Practical Skills

Good teaching is good teaching for all not just for some. Teaching in inclusive classrooms
requires teachers to have the 3Hs: the heart (commitment), the head (critical knowledge) and
hands (practical strategies).

Teachers must be fully committed to include all learners. They need to understand inclusive
practices benefit all learners, regardless if they have additional needs.

Inclusive education also benefits teachers. Strategies are used that make classrooms more
engaging, and it can lead to improved professional satisfaction.

Inclusion requires teachers to acquire critical knowledge and skills to teach learners who differ
in their abilities and their learning styles.

It does not require teachers to become superhuman but it does require them to know about some
of the most powerful evidence-based teaching strategies that engage learners across the board:

a) Assessment for learning

 b) Peer tutoring
c) Co-operative learning.

A teacher with the heart, head and hands of an inclusive teacher will be effective for all learners,
not just for those who need additional support. A teacher with all 3Hs need to be adequately
supported by the school leadership team to use and sustain inclusive practices.

Task

1. How can schools and teachers create welcoming and focused environments that include,
motivate and challenge all learners?
2. Do teachers have high expectations of learning, effort and engagement for all their
learners?
3. What has the government of Kenya done to promote inclusive education?
Legal Framework
The International, Regional and National Legal Instruments That Support Implementation
of Inclusive Education
Introduction
Globally agreed on rights and freedoms of children are enraved in covenants and conventions
also termed as international instruments on child rights and child protection.

These Instruments Include:

i) The Declaration On the Rights of a Child (Declaration of Geneva)-1924
A declaration in this context refers to a statement that urges one to follow the principles it
contains. It is a widely accepted guidelines but has no binding status. The league of nations’
declaration on the rights of a child declare that:


 Mankind owes to the child the best it has to give.
 All men and women of the world have a duty to give the child means and necessities for
development.

This is a non-binding declaration reflecting on the norms and values, which all nations should
aspire for in relation to the rights of a child.

Although its principles are broad and non-specific, they have been interpreted to mean that the
child:

 Must be given means needed for its normal development both materially and spiritually.
 Should be fed if hungry, treated if sick, rehabilitated if delinquent and sheltered and cared
for if homeless or orphan.
 Must be first to receive relief in times of distress.
 Must be put in a position to gain a livelihood and must be protected against every form of
exploitation.
 Must be made consciousness that, his or her best qualities are to be used in the service of
fellow men.

ii) The universal declaration of human rights-1948

This legal instrument was intended to be a standard for countries rather than a binding
instrument. In its 30 articles, the instrument embodied children’s rights among human rights.
This included children’s entitlement to education and to special care and assistance. It however,
did not specifically address the issues of child rights and child protection.
iii) The declaration on the rights of the child-1959
This was the first international document to reflect clearly on the rights of a child. It introduced
the principle of the “best interest of the child” to guide all those who would be involved in
making decisions that affect children. This principle was later incorporated into the united
nations conventions on the right of the child(UNCRC) in 1989 and the African charter in 1990.
The Geneva declaration incorporated into the principles of the 1924 declaration, but added the
following:
The child must be protected beyond and above all considerations of race, nationality or greed.

The child must be cared for with due respect by the family as an entity.
The child that is physically challenged must be provided for and the maladjusted child re-
educated.

The child must enjoy full benefits provided by social welfare and social security.
These declarations brought out the aspect of care and protection more specifically than the
previous one. In addition, it singled out children with special needs as a unique group that needed
particular attention, it therefore provided the framework and the context for further development
and refinement of children’s rights.

iv) The international covenant on civil and political rights (the political covenant)-1966
An international covenant is a binding legal agreement between states. The political covenant
provides for the rights and freedom of individuals, adults and children alike, without
discrimination based on race, colour, ethnicity, religion. Sex. Political or other opinion, social,
origin, poverty, birth or other status.
These rights include the right to life, liberty, peaceful assembly and expression. Special emphasis
is laid on the child’s right to protection of marriage.
It also recognizes the need to have a child registered immediately after birth, have a name and
the right to have a nationality.

v) International Covenant On Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Social Covenant)-1966

This covenant requires that the government take special measures to protect children from
economic and social exploitation.

Article 13
1. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to education. They
agree that education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and the
sense of its dignity, and shall strengthen the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
They further agree that education shall enable all persons to participate effectively in a free
society, promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations and all racial, ethnic
or religious groups, and further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
2. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize that, with a view to achieving the full
realization of this right:
(a) Primary education shall be compulsory and available free to all;
(b) Secondary education in its different forms, including technical and vocational secondary
education, shall be made generally available and accessible to all by every appropriate means,
and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education;
(c) Higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every
appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education;
(d) Fundamental education shall be encouraged or intensified as far as possible for those persons
who have not received or completed the whole period of their primary education;
(e) The development of a system of schools at all levels shall be actively pursued, an adequate
fellowship system shall be established, and the material conditions of teaching staff shall be
continuously improved.
3. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to have respect for the liberty of parents
and, when applicable, legal guardians to choose for their children schools, other than those
established by the public authorities, which conform to such minimum educational standards as
may be laid down or approved by the State and to ensure the religious and moral education of
their children in conformity with their own convictions.
4. No part of this article shall be construed so as to interfere with the liberty of individuals and
bodies to establish and direct educational institutions, subject always to the observance of the
principles set forth in paragraph I of this article and to the requirement that the education given
in such institutions shall conform to such minimum standards as may be laid down by the State.
iv) United Nations Convention On the Rights of the Child(UNCRC)-1989
THE UNCRC was adopted by the united nations general assembly in 1989. This is the most
widely accepted convention in the world and therefore services as a major point of reference in
many issues relating to children.

The Convention on the Rights of the Child is a universally agreed set of non-negotiable
standards and obligations. These basic standards — also called human rights — set minimum
entitlements and freedoms that should be respected by governments. They are founded on respect
for the dignity and worth of each individual, regardless of race, colour, gender, language,
religion, opinions, origins, wealth, birth status or ability and therefore apply to every human
being, everywhere.

The four core principles of the Convention are:

 Non-discrimination
 Devotion to the best interests of the child
 The right to life, survival and development
 Respect for the views of the child.

The Convention protects children's rights by setting standards in health care, education, and
legal, civil and social services.

v) The African Charter On the Rights and Welfare of the Child-1990

The idea to develop the African charter on the rights and welfare of the child emanated from a
conference in 1987 organized by the African network for the prevention and protection against
child abuse and neglect(ANPPCAN). The charter recognizes the virtues of African heritage and
values of African civilization which should inspire and characterize the content of the rights of
the African child.

Article 1: Obligation of States Parties

1. Member States of the Organization of African Unity Parties to the present Charter shall
recognize the rights, freedoms and duties enshrined in this Charter and shall undertake to
the necessary steps, in accordance with their Constitutional processes and with the
provisions of the present Charter, to adopt such legislative or other measures as may be
necessary to give effect to the provisions of this Charter.

2. Nothing in this Charter shall affect any provisions that are more conductive to the
realization of the rights and welfare of the child contained in the law of a State Party or in
any other international Convention or agreement in force in that State.

3. Any custom, tradition, cultural or religious practice that is inconsistent with the rights,
duties and obligations contained in the present Charter shall to the extent of such
inconsistency be discouraged.

Article 2: Definition of a Child

For tile purposes of this Charter. a child means every human being below the age of 18
years.
Article 3: Non-Discrimination

Every child shall be entitled to the enjoyment of the rights and freedoms recognized and
guaranteed in this Charter irrespective of the child's or his/her parents' or legal guardians'
race, ethnic group, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national and
social origin, fortune, birth or other status.

Article 4: Best Interests of the Child

1. In all actions concerning the child undertaken by any person or authority the best
interests of the child shall be the primary consideration.

2. In all judicial or administrative proceedings affecting a child who is capable of

communicating his/her own views, and opportunity shall be provided for the views of the
child to be heard either directly or through an impartial representative as a party to the
proceedings. and those views shall be taken into consideration by the relevant authority in
accordance with the provisions of appropriate law.

Article 5: Survival and Development

1. Every child has an inherent right to life. This right shall be protected by law.

2. States Parties to the present Charter shall ensure, to the maximum extent possible, the
survival, protection and development of the child.

3. Death sentence shall not be pronounced for crimes committed by children.

Article 6: Name and Nationality

1. Every child shall have the right from his birth no a name.

2. Every child shall be registered immediately after birth.

3. Every child has the right to acquire a nationality.

4. States Parties to the present Charter shall undertake to ensure that their Constitutional
legislation recognize the principles according to which a child shall acquire the
nationality of the State in the territory of which he has been born if, at the time of the
child's birth. he is not granted nationality by any other State in accordance with its laws.

Article 7: Freedom of Expression

 Every child who is capable of communicating his or her own views shall be assured the
rights to express his opinions freely in all matters and to disseminate his opinions subject
to such restrictions as are prescribed by laws.

Article 8: Freedom of Association

Every child shall have the right to free association and freedom of peaceful assembly in
conformity with the law.

Article 9: Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion

1. Every child shall have the right to freedom of thought conscience and religion.

2. Parents. and where applicable, legal guardians shall have a duty to provide guidance
and direction in the exercise of these rights having regard to the evolving capacities, and
best interests of the child.

3. States Parties shall respect the duty of parents and where applicable, legal guardians to
provide guidance and direction in the enjoyment of these rights subject to the national
laws and policies.

Article 10: Protection of Privacy

No child shall be subject to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his privacy, family
home or correspondence, or to the attacks upon his honour or reputation, provided that
parents or legal guardians shall have the right to exercise reasonable supervision over the
conduct of their children. The child has the right to the protection of the law against such
interference or attacks.

Article 11: Education

1. Every child shall have the right to an education.

2. The education of the child shall be directed to:

(a) the promotion and development of the child's personality, talents and mental
and physical abilities to their fullest potential;

(b) fostering respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms with particular
reference to those set out in the provisions of various African instruments on
human and peoples' rights and international human rights declarations and
conventions;
 (c) the preservation and strengthening of positive African morals, traditional
values and cultures;

(d) the preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society, in the spirit of
understanding tolerance, dialogue, mutual respect and friendship among all
peoples ethnic, tribal and religious groups;

(e) the preservation of national independence and territorial integrity;

(f) the promotion and achievements of African Unity and Solidarity;

(g) the development of respect for the environment and natural resources;

(h) the promotion of the child's understanding of primary health care.

3. States Parties to the present Charter shall take all appropriate measures with a view to
achieving the full realization of this right and shall in particular:

(a) provide free and compulsory basic education:

(b) encourage the development of secondary education in its different forms and
to progressively make it free and accessible to all;

(c) make the higher education accessible to all on the basis of capacity and ability
by every appropriate means;

(d) take measures to encourage regular attendance at schools and the reduction of
drop-out rates;

(e) take special measures in respect of female, gifted and disadvantaged children,
to ensure equal access to education for all sections of the community.

4. States Parties to the present Charter shall respect the rights and duties of parents, and
where applicable, of legal guardians to choose for their children's schools, other than
those established by public authorities, which conform to such minimum standards may
be approved by the State, to ensure the religious and moral education of the child in a
manner with the evolving capacities of the child.

5. States Parties to the present Charter shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that a
child who is subjected to schools or parental discipline shall be treated with humanity and
with respect for the inherent dignity of the child and in conformity with the present
Charter.
 6. States Parties to the present Charter shall have all appropriate measures to ensure that
children who become pregnant before completing their education shall have an
opportunity to continue with their education on the basis of their individual ability.

7. No part of this Article shall be construed as to interfere with the liberty of individuals
and bodies to establish and direct educational institutions subject to the observance of the
principles set out in paragraph I of this Article and the requirement teal the education
given in such institutions shall conform to such minimum standards as may be laid down
by the States.

vi) The Salamanca Conference 1994

This was a world conference on special needs education held in Spain between 7th and 10th June,
1994. Representatives of 92 governments and 25 international organization attended the
conference. Its main objective was to further the theme “education for all”
Although the immediate focus of the Salamanca conference was on what was termed special
needs education, its conclusion was that: “Special needs education – an issue of equal concern to
countries of the North and of the South – cannot advance in isolation. It has to form part of an
overall educational strategy and, indeed, of new social and economic policies. It calls for major
reform of the ordinary school.”
The aim is to reform education system. It is argued that this can only happen if mainstream
schools become capable of educating all children in their local communities. The Salamanca
Statement concluded that: “Regular schools with an inclusive orientation are the most effective
means of combating discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building
an inclusive society and achieving education for all; moreover, they provide an effective
education to the majority of children and improve the efficiency and ultimately the cost-
effectiveness of the entire education system.”
This suggests that moves towards inclusive schools can be justified on a number of grounds:

 An educational justification: the requirement for schools to educate all children together
means that they have to develop ways of teaching that respond to individual differences and
that therefore benefit all children;
 A social justification: inclusive are intended to change attitudes to difference by educating
all children together, and form the basis for a just and non-discriminatory society; and
 An economic justification: it is likely to be less costly to establish and maintain schools
which educate all children together than to set up a complex system of different types of
school specializing in particular groups of children.
The publication of the Salamanca Statement proposed a major change in policy direction, not
least for the education of learners with disabilities. At that time such learners were not
considered by national education departments in some countries. Rather, they were the
responsibility of health or social care ministries in a way that implied that these young people
did not have their right to education fulfilled. There are parts of the world where this is still the
case.
vii) The Dakar Conferemce-2000
This was a world education forum held in Dakar, Senegal between 26th and 28th April, 2000
sponsored by UNESCO. the forum was a response to the education for all(EFA) 2000. The
conference committed the world community to achieving education for every citizen in every
society.

The Dakar conference members committed themselves to:

 Expand and improve comprehensive early childhood care and education especially for
the vulnerably and disadvantaged children.
 Ensure that by the year 2015 all children especially girls in difficult circumstances and
those of minority groups have access to free and compulsory primary education of good
quality.
 Achieve 50% improvement of levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women and
equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults.
 Eliminate gender disparities in primary schools and secondary schools by 2005 and
achieve gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on granting girls full and
equal access tp and achievement in basic education of good quality.
 Ensure that persons with persons with special needs have access to regular schools which
should accommodate them within child centered pedagogy capable of meeting their
needs.
 Ensure and improve all aspects of the quality of education and ensure the excellences of
all, so that recognized and measurable learning out comes are achieved by all, especially
in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills.

viii) The Children’s Act-2001

The children act No. 8 of 2001 creates a Kenyan law that provides for similar provisions as the
united nations convention on the rights of the child(UNCRC). THE act constitutes into one law
the children and young person’s act, the guardianship of infants’ act, and the adoption act.

Part I
It deals with definition of terms and phrases relating to the children’s law.
Some of the concepts described include:

“Adoption Committee” means the Committee established under section 155.

“adoption order” means an adoption order under vesting the parental rights and duties relating
to a child in the adopter;
“adoption society” means a society approved by the Adoption Committee under
“age” where actual age is not known means apparent age;

Part II – Safeguards for The Rights and Welfare of the Child

a) Realization of the rights of the child
The Government shall take steps to the maximum of its available resources with a view to
achieving progressively the full realization of the rights of the child set out in this Part.
b) Survival and best interests of the child
(1) Every child shall have an inherent right to life and it shall be the responsibility of the
Government and the family to ensure the survival and development of the child.
(2) In all actions concerning children, whether undertaken by public or private social welfare
institutions, courts of law, administrative authorities or legislative bodies, the best interests of
the child shall be a primary consideration.
(3) All judicial and administrative institutions, and all persons acting in the name of these
institutions, where they are exercising any powers conferred by this Act shall treat the interests
of the child as the first and paramount consideration to the extent that this is consistent with
adopting a course of action calculated to
(a) safeguard and promote the rights and welfare of the child;
(b) conserve and promote the welfare of the child;
(c) secure for the child such guidance and correction as is necessary for the welfare of the child
and in the public interest.

(4) In any matters of procedure affecting a child, the child shall be accorded an opportunity to
express his opinion, and that opinion shall be taken into account as may be appropriate taking
into account the child’s age and the degree of maturity.
5.Non-discrimination
No child shall be subjected to discrimination on the ground of origin, sex, religion, creed,
custom, language, opinion, conscience, colour, birth, social, political, economic or other status,
race, disability, tribe, residence or local connection.
6.Right to parental care
(1) A child shall have a right to live with and to be cared for by his parents.
(2) Subject to subsection (1), where the court or the Director determines in accordance with the
law that it is in the best interests of the child to separate him from his parent, the best alternative
care available shall be provided for the child.
(3) Where a child is separated from his family without the leave of the court, the Government
shall provide assistance for reunification of the child with his family.
7. Right to education
(1) Every child shall be entitled to education the provision of which shall be the responsibility of
the Government and the parents.
(2) Every child shall be entitled to free basic education which shall be compulsory in
accordance with Article 28 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.
8. Right to religious education
(1) Every child shall have a right to religious education subject to appropriate parental guidance.
(2) The Minister shall make regulations giving effect to the rights of children from minority
communities to give fulfillment to their culture and to practice their own language or religion.
9. Right to health care
Every child shall have a right to health and medical care the provision of which shall be the
responsibility of the parents and the Government.
10. Protection from child labour and armed conflict
(1) Every child shall be protected from economic exploitation and any work that is likely to be
hazardous or to interfere with the child’s education, or to be harmful to the child’s health or
physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development.
(2) No child shall take part in hostilities or be recruited in armed conflicts, and where armed
conflict occurs, respect for and protection and care of children shall be maintained in accordance
with the law.
(3) It shall be the responsibility of the Government to provide protection, rehabilitation care,
recovery and re-integration into normal social life for any child who may become a victim of
armed conflict or natural disaster.
(4) The Minister shall make regulations in respect of periods of work and legitimate
establishments for such work by children above the age of sixteen years.
(5) In this Act child labour refers to any situation where a child provides labour in exchange
for payment and includes—
(a) any situation where a child provides labour as an assistant to another person and his labour is
deemed to be the labour of that other person for the purposes of payment;
(b) any situation where a child’s labour is used for gain by any individual or institution whether
or not the child benefits directly or indirectly; and
(c) any situation where there is in existence a contract for services where the party providing the
services is a child whether the person using the services does so directly or by agent.

11. Name and nationality

Every child shall have a right to a name and nationality and where a child is deprived of his
identity the Government shall provide appropriate assistance and protection, with a view to
establishing his identity.
12.Disabled child
A disabled child shall have the right to be treated with dignity, and to be accorded appropriate
medical treatment, special care, education and training free of charge or at a reduced cost
whenever possible.
13.Protection from abuse, e.t.c
(1) A child shall be entitled to protection from physical and psychological abuse, neglect and
any other form of exploitation including sale, trafficking or abduction by any person.
(2) Any child who becomes the victim of abuse, in the terms of subsection (1), shall be
accorded appropriate treatment and rehabilitation in accordance with such regulations as the
Minister may make.
14. Protection from harmful cultural rites, etc
No person shall subject a child to female circumcision, early marriage or other cultural rites,
customs or traditional practices that are likely to negatively affect the child’s life, health, social
welfare, dignity or physical or psychological development.
15. Protection from sexual exploitation
A child shall be protected from sexual exploitation and use in prostitution, inducement or
coercion to engage in any sexual activity, and exposure to obscene materials.
16. Protection from drugs
Every child shall be entitled to protection from the use of hallucinogens, narcotics, alcohol,
tobacco products or psychotropic drugs and any other drugs that may be declared harmful by the
Minister responsible for health and from being involved in their production, trafficking or
distribution.
17. Leisure and recreation
A child shall be entitled to leisure, play and participation in cultural and artistic activities.
18. Torture and deprivation of liberty
(1) No child shall be subjected to torture, cruel treatment or punishment, unlawful arrest or
deprivation of liberty.
(2) Notwithstanding the provisions of any other law, no child shall be subjected to capital
punishment or to life imprisonment.
(3) A child offender shall be separated from adults in custody.
(4) A child who is arrested and detained shall be accorded legal and other assistance by the
Government as well as contact with his family.
19. Right to privacy
Every child shall have the right to privacy subject to parental guidance.

Duties and Responsibilities of a Child

In the application of the provisions of this Act, and in any matter before a court of law
concerning any child, due regard shall be had to the duties and responsibilities of a child to—
(a) Work for the cohesion of the family;
(b Respect his parents, superiors and elders at all times and assist them in case of need;
(c) Serve his national community by placing his physical and intellectual abilities at its service;
(d) Preserve and strengthen social and national solidarity; and
(e) Preserve and strengthen the positive cultural values of his community in his relations with
other members of that community:
Provided that in reckoning the requisite duty and responsibility of any individual child, due
regard shall also be had to the age and ability of such child and to such limitations as are
contained in this Act.
Part III – Parental Responsibility

(1) In this Act, “parental responsibility” means all the duties, rights, powers, responsibilities
and authority which by law a parent of a child has in relation to the child and the child’s property
in a manner consistent with the evolving capacities of the child.
(2) The duties referred to in subsection (1) include in particular—
(a) The duty to maintain the child and in particular to provide him with—
(i) Adequate diet;
(ii) Shelter;
(iii) Clothing;

(iv) Medical care including immunization; and

(v) Education and guidance;

(b) The duty to protect the child from neglect, discrimination and abuse;
(c) The right to—
(i) Give parental guidance in religious, moral, social, cultural and other values;

(ii) Determine the name of the child;

(iii) Appoint a guardian in respect of the child;
(iv) Receive, recover, administer and otherwise deal with the property of the child for the
benefit and in the best interests of the child;

(v) Arrange or restrict the emigration of the child from Kenya;

(vi) Upon the death of the child, to arrange for the burial or cremation of the child.

Task
1. Briefly describe any five instruments for the rights of the child.
2. Discuss the differences between the UNCRC and the African charter.
3. You are an educationist in your area, the area chief has invited you to address the local
community on the relevance or importance of the children’s act of 2001.Describe the
important issues you will highlight?

The Extent to Which the Provision of the Legal Instruments Have Been Implemented in
Different Learning Settings
The Kenyan government has adopted the various legal instruments to protect the rights of
children. The ministry of education works hand in hand with the ministry of health to promote
the rights of children especially health and education respectively. All these factors aim at
promoting inclusive education. Promoting inclusion means encouraging positive attitudes and
improving educational and social frameworks to cope with the new demands in educational
structures and governance. It also involves improving inputs, processes and environment to
foster learning, both at the level of the learner in his/her learning environment and at the system
level to support the entire learning experience (UNESCO, 2007). The government of Kenya has
taken the following stems in the promotion of inclusive education in Kenya. They include:
a) Conducting a local situation analysis on the scope of the issue, available resources and their
utilization to support inclusion and inclusive education.
b) Mobilization of opinion on the right of education for everybody.
c) Building of consensus around the concepts of inclusive and quality education.
d) Making legislation reforms to support inclusive education in line with international
conventions, declarations and recommendations.

e) Supporting local capacity building to promote development towards inclusive education.

f) Developing ways of assessing the impact of inclusive and quality education.
g) Developing school and community based mechanisms to identify children not in school and
find ways to help them enter school and remain there.
 h) Helping teachers to understand their role in inclusive education and that inclusion of diversity
in education is an opportunity and not a problem.

i) Eliminating legislative or constitutional barriers to disabled people being included in the

mainstream education system.
j) Ensuring that education policies and strategies promote inclusive learning environments.

k) Initiating and facilitating national consultative processes, informed by international research,

experience and standards, to develop national standards for inclusive education and for
enhancing the quality of learning outcomes

Effective strategies to promote inclusive education

Effective strategies to promote positive attitudes include:
a) Ensuring all teachers are trained and feel able to assume responsibility for all learners,
whatever their individual needs.
b) Supporting the participation of learners and their parents in educational decision-making. This
includes involving learner’s indecisions about their own learning and supporting parents to make
informed choices for their (younger) children. At the level of an individual learner’s educational
career, the following aspects appear to make a significant contribution to achieving the goal of
widening participation.

c) A view of learning as process – not content based – and a main goal for all learners being the
development of learning to learn skills, not just subject knowledge.

d) Developing personalized learning approaches for all learners, where the learner sets, records
and reviews their own learning goals in collaboration with their teachers and families and is
helped to develop a structured way of learning independently in order to take control of their
own learning.
e) The development of an Individual Education Plan (IEP) or similar individualized teaching
programme, for some learners (possibly with more complex learning needs) who may require a
more focused approach for their learning. IEPs should be developed to maximize learners‟
independence and involvement in goal setting and also collaboration with parents and families.
f) An approach to learning that aims to meet the diverse needs of all learners without
labeling/categorizing is consistent with inclusive principles and requires the implementation of
educational strategies and approaches that will be beneficial to all learners.
g) Co-operative teaching where teachers take a team approach involving learners themselves,
parents, peers, other school teachers and support staff, as well as multi-disciplinary team
members as appropriate.
 h) Co-operative learning where learners help each other in different ways – including peer
tutoring within flexible and well-thought out learner groupings.

i) Collaborative problem solving involving systematic approaches to positive classroom

management.
j) Heterogeneous grouping of learners and a differentiated approach to dealing with a diversity
of learners‟ needs in the classroom. Such an approach involves structured goal setting, reviewing
and recording, alternative routes for learning, flexible instruction and different ways of grouping
for all learners.

k) Effective teaching approaches based on targeted goals, alternative routes for learning, flexible
instruction and the use of clear feedback to learners.
l) Teacher assessment that supports learning and does not label or lead to negative consequences
for learners. Assessment should take a holistic/ecological view that considers academic,
behavioral, social and emotional aspects of learning and clearly informs next steps in the
learning process.
 Chapter 2
Categories of Learners in an inclusive setting

Learners Who Are Gifted and Talented

Fig 2: Learner responding differently in a classroom setting

The Characteristics of the Learners Who Are Gifted and Talented

The term “gifted” has been thrown around in public education circles for decades – often
misused, misdiagnosed and misunderstood. The gifted and talented children are those, by virtue
of outstanding abilities are capable of high performance and require special educational
programmes and services in order to realize their potential.

The difference between the gifted and talented children

The gifted children are those that may be good in one area like language, mathematics or science
or may excel in all academic areas. They are also widely informed about many things. They
exhibit a good academic and social-emotional characteristics.
The talented children on the other side are those who do exceptionally well in music, fine arts,
mechanics, dancing, singing, athletics or sports. These skills may not be necessarily matched by
academic achievement.
Gifted children may present in various ways; some are positive characteristics and some, are not
as desirable. When determining giftedness in a learner, it is essential to take a number of factors
into consideration, since not all gifted children will exhibit the same characteristics at the same
time. The following features may help an educationists and other stakeholders to identify the
learners who are gifted and talented:
 Gifted children may be good in one area like language, mathematics or science or may
excel in all academic areas.
 They are widely informed about many things. These children may fall under two main
categories i.e. academic or learning characteristics or social and emotional characteristics.
 Those that are academic oriented are likely to enjoy learning and acquire a lot of
information more rapidly unlike their peers. Those with emotional characteristics are
always confident and exhibit qualities of leadership. They relate well with older
classmates.
 The talented children are those who do exceptionally well in music, fine arts, mechanics,
dancing, singing, athletics or sports. These skills may not be necessarily matched by
academic achievement.
 The highly motivated children are those that have “task commitment” such children have
high levels of interest, enthusiasm, hard work and determination in particular areas. They
have self-confidence and drive to set and achieve high standards for work.
 The creative children are those who have a high degree of creative and productive
thinking. Creative children have high level of originality and the ability to restructure the
world in unusual forms. They may, for example, modify an original design, art work or
pattern to come up with something very different.
 They also come up with unusual ideas and questions or give unexpected and
unconventional solutions to problems. Some creative children demonstrate fluency,
flexibility and originality of thought and open to new experiences and ideas.
Generally, the gifted and talented children have the following characteristics:
Verbal Ability

Gifted children often begin communicating verbally at an early age, and they use vocabulary far
beyond their age. These children are often referred to as “precocious” because of their language
usage. These children often choose their words carefully, but tend to use a lot of them. They can
also get frustrated with children in the same age group who are unable to understand them and
often turn to older children or adults for conversation.

Information Processing
The gifted children often have an “unusual capacity for processing information” and are often
able to process that information more quickly and accurately than their peers. These children
typically master subjects like reading and math much more quickly than their peers, which can
make it difficult to keep them challenged in a regular school setting. Some gifted children
become disruptive in classrooms often because they are bored with the material that is taught
over and over again.

High Curiosity Level

Gifted children often have a high curiosity level and dive into subjects with a passion not seen in
most children their age. It is not unusual for a gifted child to learn the names of all the dinosaurs
or the stats for every player on a baseball team at a very young age. This characterizes children
“deep absorption in activities that interest them,” and parents of gifted children learn quickly just
how saturated that absorption can go, when they have to take a child to the library or help them
find facts on the Internet over and over again.
Memory Retention
Gifted children are often able to retain information faster and for longer periods of time than
average children of the same age. Their rapid learning ability allows them to process facts
quickly and retain them for efficient recall later on. High memory retention combined with fast
information processing often means these children learn subjects at a rapid-fire rate that can
make it challenging for parents and teachers to present information to gifted children as fast as
they like.
Intensity and Persistence
Many gifted children are intense in the way they learn, which is often why they pick up large
amounts of information so quickly. They can also be intense socially, with acute sensitivity to
the needs and feelings of others, according to Education.com. These children are able to show
compassion to others at a much deeper level than other children their age. However, the intensity
and persistence can also work against a gifted child on occasion, when the child encounters a
problem he cannot easily solve or a topic he cannot seem to master as quickly.
Sense of Humor
Gifted children are enjoyable to be around because many exhibit a sense of humor that goes well
beyond their years. These children often have a special appreciation for subtler types of humor
like satire. They also enjoy plays on words, such as puns, and are particularly adept at using
these comic techniques themselves. Whether their sense of humor comes out in their
conversation or their writing, these learners can be a joy to converse with.
Sense of Justice
Gifted children often have an acute sense of justice, which can translate to high expectations of
themselves and others. While their strong moral compass can make them effective leaders, and
ensure good choices in many situations, this characteristic can also make it difficult for them to
forge long-lasting relationships with others. These children often become interested in justice
and fairness at a very early age, which continues throughout their lives.
 Strong Imagination
Gifted children often exhibit a strong imagination, with an ability to spin tales that parents and
teachers do not necessarily expect. Education.com says these children often show originality in
their oral, written or artistic expression and are viewed as highly creative. Gifted children may
spend time fantasizing, and are often categorized as independent thinkers.
Keen Observation
Children who fall into this group may have the ability to pick on details much more acutely than
other children in the same age bracket. Whether reading a book, watching a movie, gifted
learners often notice seemingly nonessential pieces of information that others might miss. Their
attention to detail often results in long, drawn out renditions of situations or conflicts – a frequent
source of frustration for parents and teachers at times.
Problem Solving Capabilities
Often perceived as effective problem solvers, gifted children typically relish nothing more than
breaking down a complex issue and finding a solution that no one else has every thought of.
These children, according to Education.com, have an “advanced cognitive and affective capacity
for conceptualizing societal problems” – the potential leaders of the future.
Labeling a child as “gifted” is a somewhat complex process that involves careful observation and
objective testing in most cases. While this list is not an exhaustive one, it does provide insight
into some of the most common characteristics of gifted to help teachers and parents know
whether further assessments are warranted.

The Specific Features That a Teacher Can Observe in The Gifted and Talented Child

 Keen powers of observation.

 Learned or read very early, often before school age.
 Reads widely and rapidly.
 Well-developed vocabulary - takes delight in using unusual and new words.
 Has great intellectual curiosity.
 Absorbs information rapidly - often called sponges.
 Very good memory - can recall information in different circumstances.
 Have to ability to concentrate deeply for prolonged periods.
 Very good powers of reasoning and problem solving.
 Have intense interests.
 Possess unusual imagination.
 Have a great interest in "big" questions, e.g. the nature of the universe, the problem of
suffering in the world, environmental issues.
 Very sensitive - perhaps getting upset easily.
 Very concerned about rights and wrongs, concerned about injustices
The Instructional Strategies for Facilitating Learning to Learners Who Are Gifted and
Talented
Teachers need to adopt the various strategies that will enable them competently handle the gifted
and talented learners successfully. Some of these strategies include:

a) The Teacher Should Learn How Gifted Learners Think

If you want to support gifted learners in your classroom, it's important that you make an effort to
learn how they think and learn about the different struggles they face. Understanding that gifted
learners have special needs, requirements, and trends in behavior will help you meet their needs
and better support them in the classroom.

b) Created tiered assignments for learners

Tiered assignments can help you meet the needs of all learners. Choose the basic standard
objective and design an assignment on that standard to make the middle tier. Once the middle
tier is finished, you make the other tiers by adding support for at-risk children and adding
challenge for gifted learners. Here are two simple ways you can add challenge to assignments:

 Give gifted learners more complex numbers in a math assignment or a more difficult text
to read.
 Add a second component to assignments, such as having them apply the skill they've
learned to a real-world situation or asking them to write an explanation of their thinking.

c) Include a variety of levels in your classroom library

Make sure your classroom library has a variety of texts to support the reading ability and
interests of gifted learners. You can also encourage learners to bring reading materials from
home, but make sure the materials they bring challenge them to learn new words and increase
their reading skills.

d) Utilize their talents and interests

Gifted learners are often asked to do busy work when they finish assignments ahead of others.
Instead of taking that approach, try utilizing gifted learners' talents and interests to further
explore a skill. For example, learners could write or draw something related to the
assignment/skill or they could act out solutions to the problem or project.
e) Explore real-word application

Gifted learners understand math algorithms, science concepts, and grammar rules very quickly.
You can encourage them to move beyond the skill they're learning by applying it in the real
world. For example, they can explore how area and perimeter affect an architect's design or how
scientists use animal classification to understand animal life and how it functions.

Ways of Working with The Gifted and Talented Children

1. Offer the Most Difficult First

Learners who successfully complete the five problems are excused from that night's homework.
If classwork is involved, the teacher simply needs to have a few extension activities on hand—
tasks that carry the concept to the next level—for learners to work on quietly while others
complete the regular assignment.

"Most Difficult First" is one manageable way for teachers to compact the curriculum for their
high-ability learners. With compacting, learners get to "throw away" the part of the curriculum
that they already know, while receiving full credit for those competencies. This frees up learners
to work on more challenging content.

2. Pre-test for volunteers

Let's say a teacher is teaching two-digit multiplication. He might do some direct instruction for
10 minutes, then offer learners the end-of-chapter test, saying, "If you get 90 percent or higher,
you won't have to do the homework or practice work. You'll have different work to do." Some
gifted learners will take this option, whereas others may decide, "I don't know this; I need the
practice work." Again, as in Most Difficult First, this strategy requires having extension work for
learners who test out of the material.

3. Prepare to Take It Up

For example, when the class is working on the distributive property in math, those "piles" might
include differentiated worksheets, word problems, and task cards. Depending on how learners
grasp the concept, Flores can either reteach, offer practice, or enrich.

Learners should be provided with a variety of learning experiences so that they choose what they
can do best based on their interest. Optional challenge should be available to anyone who wants
to try it. The learners will always make choices they are gifted in.

4. Speak to Learner Interests

Learners can work together in teams to create a house with building blocks. Learners choose the
level of complexity. Overexcitabilities will often appear as quirks, such as compulsive talking or
organizing, heightened sensitivity to smells or tastes, insatiable curiosity, or daydreaming.
Knowing a learners overexcitabilities can help teachers shape engaging—and personalized—
learning experiences. An imaginational learner will benefit from an assignment that he's free to
complete in a unique way. An intellectual learner will prefer to investigate why certain areas of
the world struggle with starvation rather than simply listing those areas. Although we tend to see
overexcitabilities negatively, they are often accompanied by great creativity, imagination, and
drive.

5. Enable Gifted Learners to Work Together

Research shows that enabling gifted learners to work together in groups boosts their academic
achievement and benefits other learners in the classroom, as well. When gifted learners work
together, they challenge themselves in unexpected ways. They bounce ideas off one another and
take a peer's idea to a new place. They also learn that as smart as they are, they, too, must exert
effort with challenging content—and that they'll sometimes fail along the way.

Gifted kids need to work both in and out of their group. Teachers can provide multiple
opportunities for heterogeneous groupings through Think-Pair-Shares, and Season Teams.

6. Plan for Tiered Learning

This approach relies on planning lessons or units at different tiers of difficulty. But does this
require teachers to add to their already full plates?

Teachers have to plan for their lessons, so why not develop deep and complex activities for high-
ability learners at the same time? This one way of planning—providing work at the entry,
advanced, and extension levels or at varying Depth of Knowledge Levels—offers a multiplicity
of ways to learn. It may take more time in the planning stage, but it is ultimately more efficient
because bored learners aren't acting out or zoning out in class—they've got challenging work to
do and struggling learners are getting support. Once teachers create these tiered resources, they
can use them again and again.

Teachers should provide challenging tasks for high-end learners and then differentiating for other
learners by providing supports that enable them to access that more sophisticated learning
opportunity." It replaces "the more common practice of planning for mid-range performers, then
extending that lesson for advanced learners and watering it down for others.

Identification of The Gifted and Talented Children

Gifted children have exceptionally high cognitive abilities. Their academic performance is two
standard deviations higher than normal or average children. The talented children on other hand
are one standard deviation higher than average normal children in creative or productive
thinking, for example, in art, craft and drama. Some are kinetically talented i.e. they can become
good athletes, they are good in areas involving body movements such as sports, and dance.
Others have superior psychological abilities such as oratory and leadership skills.

Plan for intervention to support learners who are gifted and talented to progress in an inclusive
setting.

Learners with Visual Impairment

A learner without sight may find it hard to make proper association, they may know that the sky
is blue or trees are green without really conceptualizing what green and blue mean, apart from
learning colors, it is difficult for such learners to conceptualize other visual perceptions like size
and shape. The visually impaired learners therefore need adjustment to their learning situation.
Blindness may be caused by conditions such as short or long sightedness which come as a result
of errors in refractions, accidents to the eye or head, infections of the eye disease like trachoma
among others.

Characteristics of Learners with Visual Impairment from Low Vision to Those with Blindness
It is easy to identify total blindness among learners in schools. Blind children cannot see objects
at all. It is difficult to identify children with partial blindness. The following characteristics in a
child can help a teacher to identify one who has partial visual difficulties. The characteristics
include:
i. Complaining of inability to see.
ii. Complaining of headaches
iii. General lack of concentration
iv. Missing up details for example in maps or diagrams.
v. Poor handwriting.
vi. Errors in reading.
vii. Bringing the book too close to the eyes when reading.
viii. Displaying sensitivity to light.
ix. Tilting head to focus on objects.
x. Red eyes.
xi. Excessive frowning, squinting or blinking.
xii. Skipping letters, words or lines in copying.
xiii. General lack of concentration on visual tasks.
Unique Skills Necessary for Learners with Visual Impairment to Function in Inclusive
Setting
Learners with visual impairment need to possess unique skill in order to adapt to an inclusive
learning environment. These unique skills include:

 Sitting away from direct glare of light.

 Using big and clear writing and diagrams both on the chalkboard and other teaching and
learning resources like charts.
 Sitting properly in class for example those with short sight can sit near the chalkboard.
 Reading large print.
 Enhancing on mobility in the surrounding environment i.e. they need to know position of
their classroom, their seat, important areas in the classroom and important features of the
school.
 Maximizing the use of their other senses like hearing, smelling, tasting etc.
 The intervention measures to learners with visual impairdness.
Depending on the level of visual impairment, the teacher can take various measures to help the
learner;
The totally blind or those with poor sight can be referred to assessment centers. The totally blind
may be referred to special schools. The partially blind may be referred to appropriate doctor for
treatment, for example, use of spectacles.
For the children with mild impairment and who remain in an inclusive learning environment,
there is still a lot a teacher can do to enhance their learning.
The following are some of the measures the teacher need to take;
i. Seat them appropriately in class for example, those with short sight can sit near the
chalkboard.
ii. Use big and clear writing and diagrams both on the chalkboard and other
teaching/learning resources like charts.
iii. Let the child sit away from direct glare of light.
iv. Provide large print if possible.
v. Check the child’s work including notes to ensure correct spellings and entries. In case a
teacher has a totally blind child in the regular class, the following measures may be taken;
vi. Help the child in mobility. This means helping the child in exploring the environment, for
example, they need to know position of their classroom, and the important features of
their school.
vii. Help them to make maximum use of their senses.
viii. As much as possible, provide real or concrete teaching/learning resources which can be
touched, smelled, heard or tasted.

Learners with Physical Impairments

The physically challenged are those children who due to various reasons are crippled, deformed
or have lost use of limbs. As a result of the limitations arising from the challenges the individual
could also develop psychological problems. Physical problems may be caused by caused by
conditions such as spina-bifida, poliomyelitis, faulty foetal development of the spinal cord or
physical accidents.

Characteristics of The Different Categories of Learners with Physical Impairment

Identification of the physically challenged is very easy as the problems can be physically be
seen. The main features are:

 Disfigurement as in club foot.

 Missing limbs.
 Crippled limbs.
 Some body parts are not functional as in parelysis.
 Examine the unique skills necessary for learners with physical impairment
 The physically impaired learners should be able to effectively use crutches.
 They should be able to move along the rumps.
 Make maximum use of the other health parts of the body.
 Explore the instructional strategies and resources to be used by learners with physical
impairment
 The teacher should make the physically impaired learners to accept themselves since they
are likely to suffer from the psychological problems.
The teacher needs to provide as near normal experiences as possible within the learners’
limitation. For example, if the child is too crippled to do physical education, the learner can
participate by holding the rope for runners or keeping record of winners.
The teacher and other learners should assist the challenged when it is absolutely necessary the
challenged learners should be given opportunity to do what they are able to do in order to build
their confidence and self-esteem.

Learners with Hearing Impairments

The term hearing impaired describes a wide continuum of loss of the sense of hearing, ranging
from minimal hearing loss i.e difficulty hearing spoken language at a distance or in the presence
of noise at the background, to deafness i.e. total non-functional sense of hearing.
Such people are usually dumb unless they learn to speak through very specialized conditions.
The deafened person is one who was born with normal hearing, learned how to speak and then
lost the power of hearing.

Hearing impairment may be caused by diseases, rhesus factor, accidents, premature birth or due
to infections inside the ear.
The four types of hearing impairment depending on the degree of hearing loss include;

- Mild hearing loss.

- Moderate hearing loss.
- Severe hearing loss.
- Profound hearing loss.

Characteristics of Learners with Hearing Impairment

The following can help a teacher identify a child with hearing problems;

a) They frequently ask for repetition of what has been said.

b) They have frequent ear infections.
c) They have poor articulation of sounds, particularly the omission of consonant sounds.
d) They have difficulty participating in group discussions, especially in noisy surroundings.
e) They have difficulties in hearing and sayong high frequency speech sounds such as the
sounds for letters s,sh,t,k and ch.
f) They misunderstand others since they cannot comprehend all that is said.
g) They are not able to monitor their voice and, hence, speak either too loudy or softly.
h) They avoid participating in oral activities.
i) They cup the ears in the direction of the sound.
j) They stare at the speaker’s face.
k) They appear confused or do not respond to instructions.
l) They have poor vocabulary for their age.
m) They withdraw from others.
n) They are unable to respond to calls.
The Instructional Strategies for Facilitating Learning to Learners with Hearing Impairment
In an inclusive class situation, the teacher can assist the hard of hearing as follows;

Seat the child near the source of oral information, for example the radio or the teacher.
The teacher should speak clearly and loudly enough. He or she should always ensure the child
has followed instructions. The teacher should also repeat the information if necessary.

The teacher need to combine oral language with gestures to demonstrate the learning activities.
The educator should encourage the child to look at the person speaking because lip movement
helps the hard of hearing interpret the words being said. Teach the child lip reading.
The teacher need to pay particular attention to pronunciations to ensure the child can pronounce
words correctly.

The teacher should encourage continuous use of hearing aids for those who may have them.
The teacher need to provide remedial programmes especially in language activities since such
children usually lag behind.

Use basic sign language skills to support learners with hearing impairment

Learners Who Are Deaf-Blind

Deaf-blindness can be described as a combination of both auditory and visual disabilities that
causes severe communication and other development and learning needs.
Consequently, a deaf-blind child may not be appropriately educated in special education
programmes solely for children with hearing impairments, visual impairments or severe
disabilities. Such a child needs supplementary assistance to meet his or her educational needs.
The Characteristics of the Learners Who Are Deaf-Blind
Majority of the children who have both visual and hearing impairments at birth experience major
difficulties in acquiring communication skills and appropriate social behavior.
These children do not receive clear and consistent information from either sense and they may
therefore appear to be passive, non-responsive and or non-compliant.

Such children with the disability may fail to respond or initiate appropriate interactions with
others in their environment.

Learners with Autism

Autism is a neuro-behavioral syndrome marked by qualitative impairment, social interaction and
communication. People with such impairment may have problems having a conservation and
may not establish eye contact with the person they are talking too.
Autistic children may also have repetitive and sometimes stereotype patterns of behavior, or say
sentences several times. Their way of expressing pleasure or joy sometimes consists of flapping
their arms while hurting themselves may be a way of showing unhappiness.

Characteristics of Learners with Autism for Identification

Some of the features of autism include;

Early onset which is probably identified as early as at birth

It distinguishes it from other severe disorders.
Defiant social development which makes children seem unable to form normal social
relationships or to respond appropriately to social cues. They live in a world of their own

They do not make eye contact, seek other people for comfort, participate in secure attachment
relationships or make friends.
They also have difficulty reading others emotions or responding with empathy when others are
distressed.
Deviant language and communication skills. Many autistic children are mute. Others acquire
limited language skills, but cannot really converse with their companions.

Repetitive, stereotyped behavior, these children have an obsession for repetition and sameness
and can become terribly upset by change. They engage in stereotyped behaviors such as rocking
and lapping their hands infront of their faces.

The Instructional Strategies for Facilitating Learning to Learners with Autism

The classroom teacher can use the following tips to benefit learners with autism:

1. Create a classroom routine

Learners with autism appreciate routine. Non-autistic learners appreciate routine, too, so this is
helpful to the class at large. If you are setting up classroom systems geared toward learners with
autism, chances are all learners will benefit.

Try this: establish a pattern which includes a classroom greeting, a special starter activity, then
similar transition cues and wrap-ups. Close the activity or day the same way, setting up structure,
clear expectations, and routine. If you change the routine, be sure to use plenty of advance-notice
verbal cues.

2. Use preparatory commands and commands of execution to cue transitions

Learners with autism often struggle with transitions. Using preparatory commands–commands
that cue in on the forthcoming action words–help these transitions. Again, this structure is
helpful for all learners. Using the preparatory command, “When I say move we will.” followed
by command of execution, “move,” sets up clear expectations.

3. Give Fewer Choices

Learners with autism can get overwhelmed when given list-style selections. Try using just two
choices. This helps declutter the landscape and yet still allows learners to make a decision.
4. Use Appropriate Technology

There is so much helpful technology for learners with autism. The can use video games to
provide therapy for children with autism.

5. Treat Them Like Any Other Kid as Much as Possible

Learners with autism have specific needs, but so does every kid. Make sure learners with autism
get the “kid” experience, not the “autistic kid” experience, or the “special needs” treatment. This
makes a difference.

The teacher should never underestimate the impact he/she can have on the learner with autism.
The teacher should dispel the myths because this makes a critical difference.

Learners with Cerebral Palsy

Cerebral palsy is a condition caused by malformation or damage to the developing brain that
occurs either before, during or shortly after birth. It involves non-progressive disorders of
movement or posture. People with this disorder have abnormal, involuntary and uncoordinated
body movements, whose severity varies from mild to severe. Severe cases experience such
difficulties as inability to walk, sit without support, feed themselves, chew food, pick up objects
or talk.

Characteristics of The Different Categories of Learners with Cerebral Palsy

Some children appear to be handicapped from the time of birth accompanied by vomiting,
irritability and difficulty nursing.

In many cases the disease is noted when the child is six months old as it shows a delay in the
sitting up, crawling and standing. Many children with this condition, however, creates weakness
of certain muscles mostly in the legs combined with stiffness and awkward jerking movements.

Children with cerebral palsy may experience many convulsions, impaired speech, and a degree
of mental deficiency, but in many cases mental ability remains quite normal. Cerebral palsy is
classified according to the limbs involved i.e.

Monoplegia- one limb is affected, this may be as a result of polio

Hemiplegia- the upper and lower limbs on the same side is deformed.
Paraplegia-the lower are involved.
Diplegia-the legs are more affected than the arms.
Triplegia-the three limbs are involved-usually one upper and two lower limbs.
Quadriplegia. This is also known as tetraplegia. In includes major involvement of all four limbs.

Double hemiplegia-upper limbs are more involved than the lower limbs.

The Unique Skills Necessary for Learners with Cerebral Palsy

• Sitting without support.
• Picking up objects.
• Talking.
• Chewing food.
• Walking without support.
• Feeding themselves.

Instructional Strategies and Resources to Be Used by Learners with Cerebral Palsy

In order for the teachers and caregivers to help them they need to do the following;
They should the learners in speech training.

They should conduct muscle re-education.

They should offer special tutoring to such learners in school.
Teachers should also conduct guidance and counseling.

Learners with Learning Disabilities

Learning disability is a disorder or delayed development in one or more of the basic
psychological processes involved in understanding or in using spoken or written language. The
disability is manifested in significant difficulties in acquisition of speech, listening, reading,
spelling, writing and arithmetic. The condition may result from brain injury, cerebral
dysfunction, dyslexia and emotional disturbances.
This condition may be acquired through trauma or it may be inherited from the parents.

Characteristics of The Different Categories of Learners with Learning Disabilities

Learners with learning difficulties experience specific academic problem
In school, children with learning difficulties have specific academic problems in one or more of
the following;

Basic reading skills, basic writing skills, spelling skills and speaking or oral expression
They are unable to sit still, appear distracted most of the time and continually move around.
They may even be hyperactive
Some may change their moods frequently.

They may also have motor dysfunction and eye-hand coordination difficulties.
They are sometimes unable to perform with their hands or legs, movements like kicking a ball,
cutting with scissors, or coloring a picture within lines.

Further, children with learning difficulties may have speech and hearing problems that are
unrelated to the ear problems, memory and thinking problems and inability to cope with
abstracts.

The Challenges Facing Learners with Learning Disabilities

• Disorders of attention
• Reading difficulties
• Poor motor abilities
• Written language difficulties
• Oral language difficulties

• Social skills deficits

• Psychological process deficits
• Quantitative disorders

• Information processing problems

Explore the instructional strategies and resources to be used by learners with learning
disabilities
Design intervention for learners with learning disability to alleviate their unique characteristics.

Learners with Multiple Disabilities

Children with multiple disabilities have different combinations of disabilities. Such children have
several impairments whose needs therefore cannot be met in a special education programme
designed for one of the impairments. These conditions may be caused by chromosomal
disorders, infections or intoxications. It may also be caused by the genetic disorders.

Characteristics of The Different Categories of Learners with Multiple Disabilities

The characteristics of learners with multiple disabilities may take the following form;
a) Little or no communication

This means that they have limited ability to express themselves or understand other. Many
multiple handicapped children also have limited ability to use gestures meaningfully to pass
messages, interpret information they receive through senses, and understand themselves and their
relationships to others in their environment.
b) Delayed physical and motor development
The multiple handicapped children have impaired physical and motor development that limits
their ability to move about independently. They are unable to sit up or support themselves. They
also have deformities of limbs and body posture and often lack bowl and bladder control. Many
are often in poor health and remain in bed or home bound most of their lives. They are also
unable to handle even pre-requisite skills for academic subjects.
c) Frequent inappropriate behavior
Multiple handicapped children often acquire behaviors which have no useful purpose. Such
behaviors are like rocking back and forth, self-stimulation and self-injuring, for example,
banking their heads.
d) Lack of self-help skills

Multiple handicapped children depend almost entirely on other people in self-help activities such
as dressing, wiping their noses, keeping themselves groomed, eating and attending to their toilet
needs. They also experience difficulty in generalizing and maintaining newly learned skills.
Despite their intense challenges, however, children with several disabilities often exhibit many
positive characteristics including warmth, humor, sociability and persistence. Many of them are
able to learn.

The Unique Skills Necessary for Learners with Multiple Disabilities

• Reading skills.
• Dressing skills.
• Wiping noses.
• Attending to the toilet needs.
• Good grooming skills.
• Eating skills.
• Communication skills.
Learners with Emotional and Behavior Disorders
These are children who suffer from anxiety, worry or generalized fear to such an extent that they
are not able to positively benefit from the regular class teaching or learning situation. The
children suffer from behavioral and emotional problems.
The emotional and behavioral problems may be caused by traumatic experience, neglect by the
parents or psychological factors.

Characteristics of Learners with Emotional and Behavior Disorder for Identification

In order to identify children with emotional and behavioral problems correctly, teachers need to
be well informed about normal behavior of children at various stages of their development.
For example, an adolescent child who displays some moody behavior at time may just be
displaying behavior expected of children at that stage. A teacher can also expect a child of five
years to display tantrums. That behavior would not be expected in a child of 13 years. With this
in mind, the teacher can use the following as indicators of children with emotional and
behavioral problems:
 Children with emotional and behavioral problems have the inability to develop positive
relationship with others because of withdrawal or hostility.
 They display a sense of insecurity which is often seen in fearful or aggressive behavior.
 Such children continually look depressed and unhappy.
 The show regression to early forms of behavior like crying,wetttting self and thumb
sucking.
 They have inability to learn without any obvious causes.
 They exhibit behavioral disorders like aggression, cruelty, tempers and tantrums.
 They display emotional disorders like timidity and anxiety.
 They possess habitual disorders such as pulling hair, nail biting, chewing on their cloths
etc.
 Hurting self for example, scratching or biting or even throwing self-down.
 Isolating self completely from others.
 They have severe anxiety and mood disorders experienced by some children however not
only hinder their learning but also threaten their own existence abuse, starvation and
suicidal behavior.
N/B the above type of behavior should be of concern to a teacher if it is persistent and the learner
does not respond to corrective measures.

The Effects of Emotional and Behavior Disorders On Learning

This disorder may cause hyperactivity in children. This is where there is a high level of activity
exhibited at inappropriate times. It cannot be stopped upon command which may make learning
to be difficult amongst such learners in schools.
It may cause aggression in children. This is portrayed towards objects, self or others. Any use of
punishment to stop the aggression behavior of the child usually increases the aggression, this
makes it hard for the teacher to discipline such children in school.
It may also result to delinquency amongst learners. Delinquency describes an illegal act
committed by the juvenile or child. It may include theft or truancy. This may make the child to
be imprisoned and thereby being denied the right to education.
This disorder may also cause depression which is manifested in the form of quilty feelings, self-
blame, rejection, low self-esteem and anxiety. This may make such children to lack interest in
the school activities.
Learners with emotional and behavioral difficulties may also cause withdrawal. This may make
children to show a low level of interaction, low self-concept and learning disabilities. They are
unwilling to put in effort and give up easily.

Children with emotional and behavioral difficulties are affected in their performance.
These effects include:
Such children have inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health
factors.
They have an inability to build and maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers
and teachers.
They have inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.

They have a general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.

They have a tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school
problems.
These children have emotional disturbances of anxiety, worries.
They have generalized fear which make them behave in a maladjusted manner.
Their behavior are socially unacceptable and therefore retards their social-emotional and
education growth.
Some of these children have self-destructive behavior that can also be harmful to those around
them.

The Intervention Measures To Manage Emotional Learners In An Inclusive Setting

The following are intervention measures to behavioral and emotional problems in children;
The class rules should be made flexible so that they allow some tolerance for such children. For
example, a child who always comes late to class because of fear of others can be ignored.
Class organization can sometimes help. Regrouping for example, may help if an aggressive child
is moved from a group of weak fearful children to one of more confident children.

The teacher should give the children opportunities to express themselves. This can be through
compositions, drama and dance, art and music. This helps teachers and others to know and
understand the children better.

Positive behavior should be rewarded while the negative one should be corrected appropriately.
Children need to be corrected in love and understanding rather than in anger.
The teacher need to know when to ignore or respond to behavior. Some negative behavior that is
not too disruptive especially where the child is seeking attention can be ignored.
The classroom need to have a warm atmosphere. Children should not feel threatened.
Communication with the child is of great importance both in and out of the classroom. This
communication can be verbal, facial expression or gestures. Reaching out through such
communication makes the child feel a person of worth and value.
The teacher needs to develop special relationship with the child such children need to be shown a
lot of understanding the children need to know that the teacher is their friend who cares and
understands.
There must be home-school cooperation. Parents need to work with the teacher to find out the
cause of the problem. The child can then be referred to medical or counselling services.

Task
1. Examine the unique skills necessary for learners for learners with hearing impairment to
function in an inclusive setting
2. Explore the instructional strategies for learners who are deaf-blind
3. Identify the resources used by learners who are deaf-blind.
4. Explore the instructional strategies and resources to be used by learners with multiple
disabilities
5. Explore the adaptive skills for learners who are deaf-blind.
6. Examine the adaptive skills necessary for learners with autism to function in an inclusive
setting
Learners Living Under Difficult Circumstances
Categories of learners living under difficult circumstances

Homeless children
Homelessness is not a condition unknown to children in Kenya. Migration to cities in search of
livelihood and dreams of a better life is one of the major causes of homelessness, which is more
of an urban phenomenon. Pressures of infrastructure development like construction of high rise
buildings, or SEZs (special economic zones) or even dams and highways have taken away the
lands of farmers, and shanties and hutments of urban slum dwellers. Situations like natural
disasters and conflicts render many homeless or force them to live in unsafe housing conditions.
Living on the streets or in urban slum dwellings, lack of basic facilities and unhygienic living
conditions become a way of life. The UNCRC has recognized right to adequate housing as a
right of every child.

Orphaned and abandoned child

Death of biological parents or abandonment by them leads to a child becoming an orphan. Death
could be due to natural reasons like illness or due to accidents or natural calamity. Abandonment
could be due to poverty, illness of parents, gender of the child, being an unwed mother, being an
unattractive child or even disability in the child. With caring practices moving more towards
non-institutional services, adoption of the orphaned or abandoned child provides to the child a
family and to the parents a child. There are far more number of children who are orphaned,
abandoned and destitute and far few who have been given a home through adoption.

Migrant Children
Large-scale migration of families from rural to urban areas has resulted in severe overcrowding,
degrading work conditions, homelessness, deprivation of basic services and appalling living
conditions in the city. Yet, to return to the village means starvation: to remain in the city means
possible survival at least physically.
The major reason for migration to the cities is that the traditional occupations in villages do not
provide sufficient income. So, the basic need for survival pushes the migration from rural to
urban areas. The influx of people creates housing problems, sanitation and hygiene issues along
with creating an alienation and marginalization of people. The migrants are faceless, mostly both
parents are working, leaving children at home with no adult supervision, low self-esteem and no
sense of belongingness. This puts the migrant child at great risk of becoming vagrant, taking to
loitering on streets or being exposed to anti-social elements.

Child labour
Many children are engaged in occupations and processes classified as ‘hazardous labour’, i.e.
harmful to the physical, emotional or moral well-being of children. The factors that contribute to
child taking to labour force, and hazardous child labour in particular, include parental poverty
and illiteracy; social and economic circumstances; lack of awareness; lack of access to basic and
meaningful quality education and skills; high rates of adult unemployment and under-
employment and cultural values of the family and society.
Working children are exploited economically and often physically, including sexually. They are
forced to do heavy work, work overtime, are often deprived of food, schooling, play and rest,
and work in unhealthy and unsafe conditions. Crucial early years when the child should be
attending school and acquiring skills for a productive and fruitful adult life are lost in the toil of
earning, often in most unconducive conditions, to feed their own mouths and those of their
family. A child labour also throws out the adult from productive employment.

Problems Resulting from Child Labour

i. Children suffer significant growth deficiencies. They grow up shorter and lighter, and
their body size continuous to be smaller in adulthood.
ii. They get injuries and illness, sometimes leading to amputations and loss of body parts.
iii. Children suffer from muscle, chest, abdominal pains, headaches, dizziness, respiratory
infections, diarrhea and worm infections due to poor working conditions.
iv. They may be exposed to substances with long latency periods like asbestos which
increases the risk of contracting chronic diseases such as asbestosis or lung cancer in
young adults.
v. In rural areas, they are more exposed to pesticides than from most common childhood
diseases put together.
vi. Those who are exposed to solvents and glues may suffer from neurotoxicity.
vii. Children who work in construction sites, glassworks and repair of automobile radiators
may be exposed to many metals that contain lead and mercury, and therefore at a high
health risk.
viii. Children working in garages are exposed to benzene and are therefore of high health risk.
Exposure to benzene can lead to blood disorders ranging from anaemia to leukemia.
ix. Children undertaking heavy work, carrying heavy loads and maintaining awkward body
positions for long time can develop deformations of the spinal column and sometimes the
pelvis.

Domestic Child Worker

Domestic child workers are commonly seen in cities. A systematic exploitation is found, wherein
the children are made to work for long hours, with meagre food, meagre wages and at times
physical and sexual torture.

Till recently, domestic child labour was not one of the prohibited occupations in the Child
Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act. But recently it has been notified by the Ministry of
labour, prohibiting employment of children below 14 years as domestic servants or i, tea stalls
and restaurants. This is a much needed amendment but, as a result of this notification, there is a
likelihood of a large number of children being laid off, especially in metropolitan cities and big
towns. Therefore, there is a need to address the rehabilitation of these children including shelter,
education, food, health and other needs and to restore them to their families. It is possible that the
families of these children are not in position to take care of them. In such a scenario, an
alternative action plan will need to be in place; otherwise, these children are likely to be recycled
as child labors.

Street children
Street children or children living and working on the streets are a common phenomenon in urban
Kenya. Often treated as an eyesore and nuisance, their presence in everyday urban life is difficult
to ignore. In spite of the relative high visibility of street children, there is very little information
available on their exact numbers.
Street children have to fight for survival day after day. From finding food, looking for a safe
place to spend the night to protecting themselves against the violence that constantly threatens
them, life is a constant struggle. Victims of discrimination and revulsion stemming from societal
apathy, their needs are seldom considered, forget being met. They are the most marginalized of
all categories of children in especially difficult circumstances. They live on the fringes of the
society, sometimes with their families and sometimes without.
They are exposed to harsh life on the streets fighting for their subsistence. Poverty, broken
homes, migration, breakdown of social networks, crime and conflict, street children are exposed
to all the risks and abuses: substance abuse, physical and moral violence, sexual abuse, health
risks like STD/HIV-AIDS, promiscuity and prostitution. Some live in gangs, thus taking up the
laws of the group as their own and are in danger of developing risk behaviours in their everyday
lives.
These children too have the right to adequate housing/shelter, proper nutrition, education, health
care and above all protection from all forms of abuse and violence. This is a group of children
neglected completely by legislatures and programme planners.
The activities of the street children may include:

• Begging for money, food and other things.

• Selling small scale merchandise to pedestrians and motorists.
• Directing motor vehicles in and out of parking in return for a trip.
• Watching over vehicles against interference or theft in return for a tip.
• Loitering along the streets for purposes of prostitution.
• Selling drugs and other illicit goods.
• Engaging in petty crimes such as pickpocketing, snatching necklaces and handbags.
• Touting
 • Collecting papers, bottles, plastics and metal for recycling or scavenging from garbage
dumps or bins.
• Shoe shining.
• Washing cars, cleaning peoples premises and assisting council cleaners in collecting
gabbage.

Child beggars
Child beggars are at great risk of engaging in petty crime, subjected to sexual and physical abuse,
substance abuse and developing health problems like skin ailments and STDs. These children are
victims of abuse of different forms and are living on the edge.

Child Sex Workers

There are many children in Kenya that are sexually exploited. Some of those cases go unreported
to the relevant authorities. Child victims of commercial sexual exploitation are deprived of basic
necessities and suffer the dangers of unwanted pregnancies, maternal mortality, torture, physical
injury, mental trauma and disorders and sexually transmitted diseases.

Child Suffering from Abuse

Child abuse can take several forms, i.e. physical, psychological or emotional, sexual abuse and
neglect. What would fall in the category of physical abuse varies from culture to culture. In
Kenya, physical punishment of the child by the parents is considered as a form of physical abuse.
However, in some cultures, physical punishment by parents or other senior members of the
family is considered as essential at times to discipline children. It is categorised as abuse only
when it leads to bruises or injuries. Human Rights Committee of United Nations has stated that
the prohibition of degrading treatment or punishment extends to corporal punishment of children.
Humiliations, spankings and beatings, slaps in the face, etc. are all considered as forms of
physical abuse of children, because they injure the integrity and dignity of a child. Child sexual
abuse occurs when an adult or older adolescent abuses a child for sexual activities such as sexual
intercourse, indecent exposure of the genitals to a child or viewing child’s genitals forcefully,
making physical contact with the child’s genitals, showing porn films to the child or using a
child to produce pornography. Effects of child sexual abuse on the victim(s) include guilt and
self-blame, nightmares, insomnia, fear of the abuser or things associated with the abuse
(including objects, smells, places etc.), lower self-esteem, sexually transmitted diseases, chronic
pain, self-injurious or suicidal tendencies, depression, stress disorders, personality disorders or
other psychiatric problems etc.
Unfortunately, in most of the child sexual abuse cases, offenders are people on whom the child
had placed trust and are mostly known to the child. The offender in many instances could be a
family member, neighbours etc. Hence, it is very essential for parents to develop in the child
trust in them so that they can comfortably report to the parent such instances of sexual abuse. It
is also important to tell the child the difference between ‘good touch’ and ‘bad touch’ so that the
child is intolerant to sexual abuse in any form.

Children Infected and Affected with HIV/AIDS

The major concern is for millions of children who are becoming orphans due to parents losing
out to AIDS. Such children face gross discrimination by their extended families and have to be
often placed in institutions. Sometimes, children live with HIV-positive parents. And sometimes,
children are affected by AIDS. These children need long-term care to prolong and improve their
quality of life.

Children in Conflict with The Law

The term ‘children in conflict with the law’ refers to anyone under 18 years of age who comes
into contact with the justice system as a result of being suspected or accused of committing an
offence. Children who come in conflict with law cannot be treated in the same way as an adult
offender. The system needs to understand what circumstances lead to the child committing a
crime and then help the child to come out of the situation. Being a child, there is always hope
that the child with proper guidance and support can be rehabilitated into the main stream rather
than becoming a hardened criminal. The entire juvenile justice system rests on this belief and
ideology.

It is important to ensure that the child is not being victimized by the system. Most children in
conflict with the law have committed petty crimes or minor offences of which most are not
considered criminal when committed by adults. In addition, some children who engage in
criminal behaviour have been used or coerced by adults. Too often, prejudice related to social
and economic status may bring a child into conflict with the law even when no crime has been
committed, or result in harsh treatment by law enforcement officials. In the area of juvenile
justice, there is need to reduce incarceration while protecting children from violence, abuse and
exploitation. Options that promote rehabilitation that involves families and communities are
safer, more appropriate and effective approach than punitive measures.
Justice systems designed for adults often lack the capacity to adequately address these issues and
are more likely to harm than improve a child’s chances for reintegration into society. For all
these reasons, a just juvenile justice system needs to evolve which would strongly advocate
directing children away from judicial proceedings and towards community solutions which
promote reconciliation, restitution, restoration, rehabilitation and responsibility through the
involvement of the child, family members, victims and communities. It also looks for
alternatives to custody or sentencing, like counselling and community service.

Children Whose Mothers Are Imprisoned

The numbers of females in prison have greatly increased in the last few decades particularly due
to drug related offences.
Whether born in prison or outside, children of imprisoned mothers experience many problems
precipitated mainly by inadequate quality of care, poverty, lack of family support and enduring
childhood trauma.
The children face financial hardship, shame, social stigma, lack of emotional and fear of their
mother’s safety.

Factors That Lead Children to Live Under Difficult Circumstances

The factors that contribute to child taking to labor force, and hazardous child labour in particular,
include;

 parental poverty and illiteracy;

 social and economic circumstances; lack of awareness;
 lack of access to basic and meaningful quality education and skills;
 high rates of adult unemployment and under-employment

Support Services That Learners Who Live Under Difficult Circumstances Require to
Participate in Learning`

A number of strategies can be adopted to help to build a support mechanism for children by
drawing on the school, the family and community. These ideas can also be applied to a variety of
community-based activities for children:

i) The Teacher and The Family

Support to help children's recovery can be given in various ways in the family, in school and in
the community. A good school-family relationship helps children in the process of learning and
recovery. This relationship can be through the following ways:

a) talking with the children's families so that the teacher can find out about the conditions in
which they are living and to discuss with the parents how they can encourage their children's
development

b) school meetings with parents or guardians to discuss the effects of war or social conflicts on
children's development and/or possible ways of supporting affected children

ii) Behavioural problems at school

When a child has behavioral problems at school, it is important that these should be discussed
with the family. The teacher may discover that:
a) parents had already noticed the same or other problems; or

b) the family does not understand the child's needs or the effects of war on development; or

c)the child is living in a very difficult situation and is neglected, badly treated or not well
accepted.

After talking to the family, the possible reasons for the child's behaviour and difficulties may be
more apparent.

iii) How to talk to parents or guardians

Encourage the parents or guardians to talk freely about such conversational topics as:

a) Their present life (or lack of food, clothing, support and so on);

b) Their previous life, where they lived, the difficulties of that time; their difficulties with the
children;

c) Their difficulties in educating children in time of war;

d) Their main worries.

iv) The teacher and the community

Mobilizing the community is very important for the children's recovery, even if they do not go to
school. Among the ways of encouraging the community's involvement are:

• Organizing meetings at the school with the various local authorities to explain the effects
of war and other difficult situations on children's development, and possible ways
towards their recovery and rehabilitation.
• Re-opening schools wherever possible.
• Building more classrooms and other school buildings.
• Organizing a parent's committee in the school.
• Organizing a programme of activities that are useful both to pupils and the community,
such as assistance given by pupils to widows and old people in building their houses and
clearing their fields.

Children from Affluent Families

The needs of children from affluent families
Who Are These Children from The Affluent Families?
These are children from well doing families. It is expected that children from these kind of
families do not experience intellectual and social emotional challenges.

The main challenge of the learners from the affluent families is the social-emotional challenges.
Wealth creates social-emotional vulnerability. There seems to be a gap between the concerns of
wealthy learners and the lived experience of many of their teachers. However, it can be helpful to
understand the deeper vulnerabilities of children of wealth. Most of the parents from the affluent
families are too busy with their work to the point that it interferes with the school activities of the
learner from such a family.

Affluent vulnerable kids are most wary of judgment and will snap the lid shut quickly if they feel
judged, and then the teacher loses all hope of getting the kid to widen her perspective or learn
coping skills.

Yet, affluence brings its own stress, isolating children and distorting the social ties that make for
healthy development.

There is increasing evidence that children from affluent backgrounds are vulnerable to high
levels of emotional and social distress. This seems to result from two factors:

i) Excessive pressure to achieve

ii) Emotional and physical isolation from parents.

The emphasis on material success can compromise other factors essential for psychological well-
being, such as close interpersonal relationships.

In wealthy families, material resources can compromise supportive networks, since parents may
buy services such as child care or tutoring rather than sharing those responsibilities with the
extended family or community.

The experiences of warmth and care are limited in the lives of many wealthy children.

Similarly, some children of wealth may be painfully unaware and unprepared for what they will
face as they live their lives. In this case, the “wealth bubble” can leave a learner believing that
there are no meaningful problems out there, or at least none that their wealth or family influence
can’t manage. When they confront the ordinary difficulties of making a relationship work,
dealing with the inevitable failures and challenges of life, they often have not built up sufficient
resilience to cope.

Wealth breeds a variety of complicated feelings and attitudes. Some wealthy parents bring a
particular set of expectations and influences to the school, further complicating the faculty
relationship with their child.
Factors That May Affect Learning Among Learners from Affluent Families
Children from affluent families may be affected by a number of factors. These factors include:

a) The achievement pressures

Most of the children from affluent families have got very high perfectionist strivings. In case
they experience failure in their lives they view it a persona problem. This makes such children to
have depression, anxiety and substance abuse.
b) isolation from adults
this isolation can be both literal and emotional. Many parents from affluent families live children
at home alone with a believe that this promotes self-sufficient. This results to distress among the
children from the affluent families.
c) defiance

children from affluent families are likely to become defiant. This can be linked with overt
displays of low academic effort, disobedience at school, aggressiveness among girls, and
substance use among boys. The boys are likely to become aggressive. This results to indiscipline
cases in schools and disrespect to authority.

Support Services That Learners from Affluent Families May Require to Participate in
Learning
• Create an integrated system of school supports that includes extended learning
opportunities and community partnerships

• Develop habits, skills, and mindsets that build learners’ social, emotional, and academic
competence

• Implement meaningful, engaging instructional practices that develop learners’ ability to

manage their own learning

• Foster a supportive environment that promotes strong relationships among staff, learners,
and families

Task

Justify the claim that social-economic factors play the greatest role in creating children’s
difficult circumstances.

Discuss what you think should be done to protect children from the hazards of living under
difficult circumstances such as those described in this chapter.
 Chapter 3
An Inclusive Learning Environment

Characteristics of inclusive learning environment

Traditional classrooms and inclusive classrooms differ significantly in the way learners receive
their education. There are differences in overall educational philosophy, instructional strategies
and resources to support learners. There are many myths and misunderstanding about inclusion,
even at the school level. Thus, it’s helpful for parents and guardians of learners with special
needs to know the characteristics of inclusive classrooms; then they can advocate for truly
inclusive education. these are the characteristics:

i) Inclusive schools welcome learners of all abilities.

Classrooms are established by placing children together by age despite ability level. There are
significant academic, social, emotional and physical benefits to teaching typically and non-
typically developing learners in the same classroom. The teaching strategies such as Universal
Design for Learning and Differentiation (UDLD)were derived from the intent to teach the
different types of learners in one classroom.

ii) School supports such as specialized service providers (speech-language therapists,

occupational therapists), flexible scheduling, and accessible spaces reinforce the premise that
learners learn better together.

iii) Support given to learners such as a writing assignment and some as subtle as the teacher
using a book with large print for a class story.

The Features of an Inclusive Classroom

Groups of desks are placed around the classroom. Grouping learners allows for socialization as
well as cooperative and peer learning. This promotes cooperation, compared with competitive
and individualistic efforts, typically results in higher achievement and greater productivity, more
caring, supportive, and committed relationships, and greater psychological, health, social
competence, and self-esteem.

Visual learning aids such as a daily schedule, timers, posters, and flip charts assist in teaching
learners who are visual learners. It is commonly understood that approximately 65% of learners
are visual learners. In addition, executive functioning skills, structure and transitions can be
supported through the use of visual aids.

Developmentally appropriate learning materials such as leveled books, manipulatives, and

centers with hands-on activities are placed around the room. These various materials are suited
for learners at different levels of abilities as well as kinesthetic learners.
A classroom social skills program is the cornerstone of a respectful and productive learning
environment. By guiding learners in the development of their social skills, teachers can support
communication between learners, the growth of confidence and encourage culturally-responsive
behavior. Learner learn to engage and interact with one another in socially appropriate manners,
and adapt to the needs of others.

Assistive technology is available to learners to support their individual interests, styles and
educational needs. Items such as adaptive pencil grips, iPads, apps, augmentative communication
and color overlays are examples used to make curriculum accessible. Whether simple or
complex, assistive technology can be used in many ways to level the playing field for all
learners.

The Qualities of a Good Teacher in an Inclusive Setting

Qualities Of A Good Teacher

1. A good communicator. This skill in teaching and learning process involves sending and
receiving messages. The teacher should pass the message clearly to the learners using
appropriate language that is age appropriate he or she should know the following techniques :
- Verbal instruction using verbal communication speaking clearly
- Modelling (observation learning) where an opportunity is created for the learners to observe
somebody performing a task and then imitate. However in an inclusive setting learners with
visual Impairment may not benefit.
- Prompting. This requires sequencing of learning unit in small sections so that you can quickly
signal the learner to perform the activity or give the response required during the process. Apply
prompts only when necessary to ensure learner success. Prompts can be manual, gestural or oral.
2. Knowledgeable and skilled - knowledge in special needs education is extremely necessarily.
A teacher should have the ability to address the needs of his or her learners. A teacher should be
Knowledgeable with:
a. Barriers within outside that may hinder learning.
b. Skills in teaching and learning approaches.
c. Use of assistive and adaptive education.
d. Support systems in schools and community

3. Positive attitude towards all learners: Attitudes play a major role in an inclusive setting. A
good teacher must understand learners needs and ensure they benefit from learning experiences
without being ridiculed by others. Make your learners feel good. and enjoy being members of a
class show them that you care. In the classroom make the learners feel liked and accepted your
positive and caring attitude will be seen in the way you support and encourage and include all
learners in all learning activities as active members. You show that you have a positive attitude
by:
- Speaking to learners in clear friendly voice.
- Use simple Language along with gesture pictures among others.
- Praise and encourage successful attempt by learners.
- Call learners by their names as this will show that you recognize them as individuals.
- Smile a lot.
- Look at them as you speak to them.
- Be physically near.
- Give them individual attention avoid things like flawing when they do wrong or criticizing their
performance. Instead of guiding them let them know their efforts however small are appreciated
as this build confidence self-esteem
encouragement which is key to success.
4. A good classroom manager: The key to successful class management is how you manage the
classroom as seen in how desks and groups are arranged, how educational materials are prepared
and used, how learners are motivated and encouraged to participate.
Note learners are likely to change your classroom management strategies for example
arrangement of desks and group area will be modified for learners using wheel chairs and those
with visual Impairment.
5. A good collaborator: Collaboration is working together towards the main goal for example in
your class you have a learner with head problems which require you to collaborate with
physician on implication of medication to learning.

Features of an Effective Inclusive Learning Environment That Promote Participation of

Learners
An inclusive classroom climate refers to an environment where all learners feel supported
intellectually and academically, and are extended a sense of belonging in the classroom
regardless of identity, learning preferences, or education. Such environments are sustained when
instructors and learners work together for thoughtfulness, respect, and academic excellence, and
are key to encouraging the academic success of all learners. Research indicates that many
learners may be more likely to prosper academically in settings with more collaborative modes
of learning that acknowledge learners’ personal experiences (Kaplan and Miller 2007).

learners learning can be enhanced by establishing a classroom tone that is friendly, caring and
supportive, and that lets learners explore the relationships among course material, personal, and
social experiences. Instructors can consider a variety of areas to promote inclusivity, including
the syllabus, choices in assigned reading, discussion expectations, and personal style.
To maintain an inclusive classroom climate, the instructor can:

 Structure classroom conversations to encourage respectful and equitable participation

- Instructors can establish ground rules or specific guidelines for appropriate behavior as
early as possible.
 Use small groups to encourage non-competitive ways of learning and encourage cross-
cultural communication - If patterns of seating segregation in the classroom are tied to
patterns of nonparticipation, instructors can assign small groups across racial/ethnic or
gender lines. If some learners are hesitant to speak up in class, they might contribute in
small groups first. Instructors should pay careful attention to group dynamics, and intervene
if some learners become excluded from full participation and/or more assertive learners
begin to dominate. Beyond classroom strategies, instructors can set up study groups or
assign collaborative projects that require meetings outside of class, such as peer editing,
group papers, laboratory assignments, or presentations that enable learners to work with
each other.
 Anticipate sensitive issues and acknowledge racial, class or cultural differences in the
classroom when appropriate - When discussing controversial issues, instructors should
expect emotional responses or even conflict. Such emotion is not necessarily negative,
unless it makes learners unduly upset, inhibits class discussion, or causes learners to behave
rudely. In such cases the instructor may need to intervene and remind learners of the rules
for classroom discussion. Establishing shared guidelines can help to mitigate disrespect and
hostility, or prevent it from arising in the first place.
 Model inclusive language - As an element of developing a respectful, inclusive
environment, instructors can be aware of the language practices they model. Common
beneficial practices include: avoid using masculine pronouns for both males and females.To
assist in this strategy, instructors can vary the concrete examples used to include a variety of
social characteristics, such as race or gender.
 Use multiple and diverse examples - Expanding on the idea of varied examples above,
instructors can include multicultural examples, visuals, and materials. These should include
multiple perspectives on the syllabus, in class discussion, and in assignments, when
possible. If including course material or examples that place a group in the position of an
oppressed victim, instructors should be sure to provide examples of empowerment for
balance.
 Personally connect with learners - Instructors can use a diversity statement or teaching
philosophy statement in the syllabus as a way to welcome all learners and model openness
and honesty.
 Provide alternative means for participation - To signal awareness of different emotional
and social conditions in the classroom, instructors should allow learner participation
opportunities via online discussions in addition to the classroom. Instructors can also collect
journal entries, reading logs, or other reflection pieces, and should avoid a single
homogenous strategy for the entirety of term.
 Respectfully communicate with learners - Instructors should take care to pronounce
learners’ names correctly and in the proper order: this includes not shortening or simplifying
a learner’s name without his/her clear approval; being aware that some ethnicities may
arrange their given and family names in various orders; asking learners for their preferred
 gender pronouns, and avoiding gender binaries by using plurals instead, such as “they”
instead of he or she; and being aware of contemporary terms for cultural identities. If unsure
of an appropriate address or cultural form of identity, the instructor can ask in a non-
threatening context. In contrast, instructors should not ask any learner to be a representative
spokesperson for his or her perceived group, or look pointedly at or away from these same
learners when discussing issues of race, class, gender, etc. Neither should they ask or expect
learners to be knowledgeable about their ethnic heritage, history, language, or culture unless
they volunteer such information.
 Address offensive, discriminatory, and insensitive comments - As part of an inclusive
classroom environment, instructors should respect all learners’ honest expressions and
thoughts. If a learner’s response indicates an emotional investment in the subject, instructors
should not let other learners dismiss their contribution as “irrational” or “unscholarly”
reactions; rather, they can address blatantly offensive and discriminatory comments and
hold learner’s accountable for their behavior.
 Perform a Self-Assessment - Instructors can explore any number of teaching inventories to
assess habits and classroom practices, reveal gaps in approaches, and consider strategies for
revision.

The Benefits of an Inclusive Learning Environment to Learners, Teachers, Parents and

The Community

1. Tailors teaching for all learners

All learners learn differently. This is a principle of inclusive education. In an inclusive

classroom, teachers weave in specially designed instruction and support that can help learners
make progress. These strategies are helpful for all learners. Kids may be given opportunities to
move around or use fidgets. And teachers often put positive behavioral interventions and
supports (PBIS) in place.

2. Makes differences less “different”

Inclusive classrooms are filled with diverse learners, each of whom has strengths and challenges.
Inclusion gives learners a way to talk about how everyone learns in their own way. They may
find that they have more in common with other learners than they thought. This can go a long
way in helping learners know that difference is just a normal part of life. It can also help
learners build and maintain friendships.

3. Provides support to all learners

An inclusive class often brings speech therapists reading specialists and other service providers
into the classroom. These professionals provide information and suggestions to help all learners.
 If learners aren’t eligible for special education but still need some extra support, they can get it
informally.

4. Creates high expectations for all

In an Individualized Education Program (IEP), a learner’s goals should be based on the academic
standards for their state. Those standards lay out what all learners are expected to learn in math,
reading, science, and other subjects by the end of the school year.

Differentiated instruction and co-teaching in a general education classroom make it easier for
learners with standard based IEP to be taught the same material as their classmates.

Benefits for teachers and educators:

• Professional growth

• Higher quality of engagement with learners

• Increased personal satisfaction

• Greater confidence in their ability as an educator.

Benefits for families and the community:

• Greater psychological and economic wellbeing for parents

• Parents may feel more supported and confident to return to work

• A more inclusive school community

• Greater community cohesion and the breaking down of discriminatory beliefs.

How to advance in inclusive education

To make inclusive education a reality we need to do the following:

 Ensure that educators have the training, flexibility, and resources to teach learners with diverse
needs and learning styles

 Ensure that kindergartens and schools receive adequate and sustainable financial support so that
all activities and services are fully inclusive

 Empower parents to assert their children’s right to education in inclusive settings

 Enable the entire community—including mainstream and special educators, social workers,
parents, and learners—to work together and participate in the design, delivery, and monitoring of
education, thereby reframing inclusive education as a shared responsibility

 Hold governments accountable for implementing antidiscrimination legislation, legal mandates

for inclusion, and policies to remove barriers

Inclusive education has a number of benefits to the learners, teachers, parents and the community
at large, some of these advantages include;
Inclusive education extends education to all.

It ensures that learners with disabilities are educated in the least restrictive environment (l.R.E)
They increase community awareness of special needs education and eliminate the stigma often
attached to learners with special needs.
It helps in the development of positive attitude in parents, peers and the community at large.
Inclusive education promotes social development through interaction of learners with and
without special needs, such interaction enables all learners to develop virtues, such as
accommodation, acceptance, cooperation, patience, humbleness ad the need to be supportive.
Inclusive education is cost effective, since it has always proved too expensive to run two parallel
systems of regular and special education.
Restructuring the education system would reduce the cost and the need for extensive expansion
of special education programmes. All learners would be able to share the already available
resources.

Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences

Learning Style
The term “learning styles” is commonly used throughout various educational fields and
therefore, has many connotations. In general, it refers to the uniqueness of how each learner
receives and processes new information through their senses. Learning style can be defined as,
“the composite of characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that serve as
relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and responds to the
learning environment.” Other phrases are used interchangeably with learning styles. Some
include perceptual styles, learning modalities, and learning preferences.

Each person is born with certain preferences toward particular styles, but culture, experience, and
development influence these preferences. The four most common learning styles are visual,
aural, reading/writing, and kinesthetic/tactile. Most learners learn through all modalities, but
have certain strengths and weaknesses in a specific modality. Some learners have an equal
propensity for more than one style, which is titled as the multimodal style. This preference can
be determined through various testing instruments. Once a learner’s learning style is ascertained,
accommodations can be made to increase academic achievement and creativity, as well as
improve attitudes toward learning. The various learning styles that can be used in an inclusive
setting include;

a) The Visual Learning Style

Visual learners process information most effectively when the information is seen. Depictions
can include charts, graphs, flow charts, and all the symbolic arrows, circles, hierarchies and other
devices that instructors use to represent what could have been presented in worlds. These
learners think in pictures and have vivid imaginations. Most children are classified as visual
learners.

b) The Aural Learning Style

Aural learners process information most effectively when spoken or heard. These learners
respond well to lectures and discussions and are excellent listeners. They also like to talk and
enjoy music and dramas. When trying to recall information, aural learners can often “hear” the
way someone told them the information.

c) The Reading/Writing Learning Style

Reading/Writing learners process information most effectively when presented in a written

language format. This type of learner benefits from instructors that use the blackboard to accent
important points or provide outlines of the lecture material. When trying to recall information,
reading/writing learners remember the information from their “mind’s eye.” Many academics
have a strong preference for the reading/writing style.

d) The Kinesthetic/Tactile Learning Style

Kinesthetic/Tactile learners process information actively through physical means. Kinesthetic

learning refers to whole body movement while tactile learning refers only to the sense of touch.
These learners gesture when speaking, are poor listeners, and lose interest in long speeches. Most
learners that do not perform well in school are kinesthetic/tactile learners. The crux of this
learning style is that the learner is connected to real situations through experience, example,
practice, or simulation. Children that uses this method utilizes hands on experiences through
field experiences and demonstrations.
 Learning Strategies for Each Learning Style

The Visual Learning Style

 Replace words with symbols or initials.

 Translate concepts into pictures and diagrams.
 Underline or highlight your notes or textbooks with different colors.
 Practice turning your visuals back into words.
 Make flashcards of key information with words, symbols, and diagrams.
The Aural Learning Style

 Attend lectures and tutorials.

 Discuss topics with your instructor and other learners.
 Put summarized notes on tape and listen to them.
 Tape record your lectures.
 When recalling information or solving problems, talk out loud.
The Reading/Writing Learning Style

 Write out important information again and again.

 Read your notes silently.
 Organize any diagrams into statements.
 Rewrite the ideas and principles in other words.
 Make flashcards of words and concepts that need to be memorized.
The Kinesthetic/Tactile Learning Style

 Sit near the instructor in classroom situations.

 Read out loud from your textbook and notes.
 Copy key points onto large writing surfaces (i.e. chalkboard or easel board).
 Copy key points using word processing software.
 Listen to audiotapes of your notes while exercising.
 Take in information through field trips, laboratories, trial and error, exhibits, collections, and
hands-on examples.
 Put real life examples into your notes summary.
 Recall experiments and role-play.
 Use pictures and photographs that illustrate an idea.
Educational Implications for Learning Styles
Teachers that rely on learning styles have opened their classrooms to more than one approach to
intellectual work. The activities planned by these teachers are more learner-centered than
traditional activities and have engaged in learning-style based instruction.

The first step in implementing learning style-based instruction is diagnosing the individual
learning styles of each learner.

The second step is profiling group preferences and weaknesses. Are most of the children visual
learners? Does your class have very few kinesthetic/tactile learners?

The third step is assessing current instructional methods to determine whether they are adequate
or require more flexibility. If modifications need to be made, various activities can be developed
and/or adapted to conform with learning styles. Three techniques have been proposed. They
include:

1. Teachers can add alternative activities that could replace or supplement ones. This could create
increased opportunities for learners to use different styles. For example, hands on activities can
be conducted after a lecture to confirm abstract concepts.
2. Teachers can also challenge learners to develop skills in other areas by completing assignments
that utilize all learning styles. For example, the learners can complete multidimensional packets,
which contain activities from each learning style.
3. Another approach to include learning styles in an education curriculum is to organize activities
around complex projects. These projects would require that learners use all learning styles. An
example of a complex activity would be a project-based learning project.
When teaching an individual, teachers should present the most difficult concepts in the preferred
style. Easier concepts should be introduced in a different style. When teaching an entire class,
teachers should use all learning styles in their presentations if they are to reach every learner.
This can be fairly simple.
 The Multiple Intelligences Theory

Howard Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences utilizes aspects of cognitive and

developmental psychology, anthropology, and sociology to explain the human intellect.
Although Gardner had been working towards the concept of Multiple Intelligences for many
years’ prior, the theory was introduced in 1983, with Gardner’s book, Frames of Mind.

Fig 3: Howard Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences

Gardner’s research consisted of brain research and interviews with stroke victims, prodigies, and
individuals with autism. Based on his findings, Gardner established eight criteria for identifying
the seven (he has subsequently added an eighth and is considering a ninth) separate intelligences.
The eight criteria used by Gardner to identify the intelligences are listed below:

 Isolation by brain damage/neurological evidence.

 The existence of prodigies, idiot savants, and exceptional individuals.
 Distinguishable set of core operations.
 Developmental stages with an expert end state.
 Evolutionary history and plausibility.
 Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system.
 Support from experimental psychological tasks.
 Support from psychometric research.

Originally, the theory accounted for seven separate intelligences. Subsequently, with the
publishing of Gardner’s Intelligence Reframed in 1999, two more intelligences were added to the
list. The intelligences are Verbal/Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Visual/Spatial, Bodily-
Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalistic, and Existential.
 Gardner’s theory challenges traditional, narrower views of intelligence. Previously accepted
ideas of human intellectual capacity contend that an individual’s intelligence is a fixed entity
throughout his lifetime and that intelligence can be measured through an individual’s logical and
language abilities. According to Gardner’s theory, an intelligence encompasses the ability to
create and solve problems, create products or provide services that are valued within a culture or
society. Originally, the theory accounted for seven separate intelligences. Subsequently, with the
publishing of Gardner’s Intelligence Reframed in 1999, two more intelligences were added to the
list. The nine intelligences are outlined in more detail in the section below. Listed below are key
points of Gardner’s theory:

 All human beings possess all nine intelligences in varying degrees.

 Each individual has a different intelligence profile.
 Education can be improved by assessment of learners’ intelligence profiles and designing
activities accordingly.
 Each intelligence occupies a different area of the brain.
 The nine intelligences may operate in consort or independently from one another.
 These nine intelligences may define the human species.
Gardner, a Professor of Education at Harvard University, and other researchers and educators
continue to work towards a more holistic approach to education through Project Zero.

Although the theory was not originally designed for use in a classroom application, it has been
widely embraced by educators and enjoyed numerous adaptations in a variety of educational
settings Teachers have always known that learners had different strengths and weaknesses in the
classroom. Gardner’s research was able to articulate that and provide direction as to how to
improve a learner’s ability in any given intelligence. Teachers were encouraged to begin to think
of lesson planning in terms of meeting the needs of a variety of the intelligences. The focus of
this part of the chapter will be on lesson design using the theory of Multiple Intelligences, and
providing various resources that educator’s may use to implement the theory into their classroom
activities.

The Eight Intelligences

Verbal/Linguistic

Verbal/Linguistic intelligence refers to an individual’s ability to understand and manipulate

words and languages. Everyone is thought to possess this intelligence at some level. This
includes reading, writing, speaking, and other forms of verbal and written communication.
Teachers can enhance their learners’ verbal/linguistic intelligence by having them keep journals,
play word games, and by encouraging discussion. People with strong rhetorical and oratory skills
such as poets, authors, and attorneys exhibit strong Linguistic intelligence. Some examples are
T.S. Elliot, Maya Angelou, and Martin Luther King Jr. Traditionally, Linguistic intelligence and
Logical/Mathematical intelligence have been highly valued in education and learning
environments.

Logical mathematical intelligence

Logical/Mathematical intelligence refers to an individual’s ability to do things with data:

collect, and organize, analyze and interpret, conclude and predict. Individuals strong in this
intelligence see patterns and relationships. These individuals are oriented toward thinking:
inductive and deductive logic, numeration, and abstract patterns. They would be a contemplative
problem solver; one who likes to play strategy games and to solve mathematical problems. Being
strong in this intelligence often implies great scientific ability. This is the kind of intelligence
studied and documented by Piaget. Teachers can strengthen this intelligence by encouraging the
use of computer programming languages, critical-thinking activities, linear outlining, Piagetian
cognitive stretching exercises, science-fiction scenarios, logic puzzles, and through the use of
logical/sequential presentation of subject matter.

Visual/Spatial

Visual/Spatial intelligence refers to the ability to form and manipulate a mental model.
Individuals with strength in this area depend on visual thinking and are very imaginative. People
with this kind of intelligence tend to learn most readily from visual presentations such as movies,
pictures, videos, and demonstrations using models and props. They like to draw, paint, or sculpt
their ideas and often express their feelings and moods through art. These individuals often
daydream, imagine and pretend. They are good at reading diagrams and maps and enjoy solving
mazes and jigsaw puzzles. Teachers can foster this intelligence by utilizing charts, graphs,
diagrams, graphic organizers, videotapes, color, art activities, doodling, microscopes and
computer graphics software. It could be characterized as right-brain activity.

Bodily/Kinesthetic

Bodily/Kinesthetic intelligence refers to people who process information through the sensations
they feel in their bodies. These people like to move around, touch the people they are talking to
and act things out. They are good at small and large muscle skills; they enjoy all types of sports
and physical activities. They often express themselves through dance. Teachers may encourage
growth in this area of intelligence through the use of touching, feeling, movement,
improvisation, “hands-on” activities, permission to squirm and wiggle, facial expressions and
physical relaxation exercises.

Naturalistic

Naturalistic intelligence is seen in someone who recognizes and classifies plants, animals, and
minerals including a mastery of taxonomies. They are holistic thinkers who recognize specimens
and value the unusual. They are aware of species such as the flora and fauna around them. They
notice natural and artificial taxonomies such as dinosaurs to algae and cars to clothes. Teachers
can best foster this intelligence by using relationships among systems of species, and
classification activities. Encourage the study of relationships such as patterns and order, and
compare-and-contrast sets of groups or look at connections to real life and science issues.
Charles Darwin and John Muir are examples of people gifted in this way.

Musical intelligence

Musical intelligence refers to the ability to understand, create, and interpret musical pitches,
timbre, rhythm, and tones and the capability to compose music. Teachers can integrate activities
into their lessons that encourage learners’ musical intelligence by playing music for the class and
assigning tasks that involve learners creating lyrics about the material being taught. Composers
and instrumentalists are individuals with strength in this area. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and
Louis Armstrong are examples.

Interpersonal

Although Gardner classifies interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences separately, there is a lot
of interplay between the two and they are often grouped together. Interpersonal intelligence is
the ability to interpret and respond to the moods, emotions, motivations, and actions of others.
Interpersonal intelligence also requires good communication and interaction skills, and the
ability show empathy towards the feelings of other individuals. Teachers can encourage the
growth of Interpersonal Intelligences by designing lessons that include group work and by
planning cooperative learning activities. Counselors and social workers are professions that
require strength in this area. Some examples of people with this intelligence include Gandhi,
Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton.

Intrapersonal
Intrapersonal Intelligence, simply put, is the ability to know oneself. It is an internalized version
of Interpersonal Intelligence. To exhibit strength in Intrapersonal Intelligence, an individual must
be able to understand their own emotions, motivations, and be aware of their own strengths and
weaknesses. Teachers can assign reflective activities, such as journaling to awaken learners’
Intrapersonal Intelligence. Its important to note that this intelligence involves the use of all
others. An individual should tap into their other intelligences to completely express their
Intrapersonal Intelligence. Those who are often associated with this intelligence are Sigmund
Freud, Plato, or Virginia Woolf.

There is a ninth intelligence that has yet to experience full acceptance by educators in the
classroom. This is Existential intelligence, which encompasses the ability to pose and ponder
questions regarding the existence — including life and death. This would be in the domain of
philosophers and religious leaders.
Multiple Intelligence in The Classroom

There are many ways to incorporate Multiple Intelligences theory into the curriculum, and there
is no set method by which to incorporate the theory. Some teachers set up learning centers with
resources and materials that promote involving the different intelligences. For example, a teacher
can create an area with art supplies in his/her classroom. Other instructors design simulations
that immerse learners into real life situations. Careful planning during the lesson design process
will help to ensure quality instruction and valuable learner experiences in the classroom.

Other instructional models, such as project-based and collaborative learning may be easily
integrated into lessons with Multiple Intelligences. Collaborative learning allows learners to
explore their interpersonal intelligence, while project-based learning may help structure activities
designed to cultivate the nine intelligences.

This particular instructional model allows learners to work together to explore a topic and to
create something as the end product. This works well with Multiple Intelligences theory, which
places value on the ability to create products. By collaborating with the Media Specialist to give
learners the opportunity to choose from a variety of resources to complete their assignments.

It is important for teachers to carefully select activities that not only teach to the intelligences,
but also realistically mesh with the subject matter of the lesson or unit. Multiple Intelligences
theory should enhance, not detract from what is being taught.

Two Approaches for Implementing Multiple Intelligences Theory in The Classroom

a) Teacher-centered approach, in which the instructor incorporates materials, resources, and

activities into the lesson that teach to the different intelligences. The other is a learner-centered
approach in which learners actually create a variety of different materials that demonstrate their
understanding of the subject matter.

b) The learner-centered approach which allows learners to actively use their varied forms of
intelligence. In a teacher-centered lesson, the number of intelligences explored should be limited
to two or three. To teach less than two is nearly impossible since the use of speech will always
require the use of one’s Verbal/Linguistic intelligence. In a learner-centered lesson, the instructor
may incorporate aspects of project-based learning, collaborative learning, or other inquiry-based
models. In such a case, activities involving all nine intelligences may be presented as options for
the class, but each learner participates in only one or two of the tasks.

Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence. The timeline and map assignments are learner-centered activities
that are designed to enhance learners’ Logical/Mathematical Intelligence, but they also delve into
Visual/Spatial Intelligence. Learners must collect and organize information for both the timeline
and the map therefore using their Logical/Mathematical intelligence. In creating these items,
 learners must think visually as well. By incorporating dance into one lesson, Ms. Cunningham is
able to promote awareness of her learners’ Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence. By showing videos
of popular dances from the time period, or inviting an expert from the community to talk about
the social aspects of dance, Ms. Cunningham might incorporate a teacher-centered activity.
Having learners learn and perform dances is a learner-centered way of teaching through Bodily-
Kinesthetic intelligence. The short plays that learners prepare involve Bodily-Kinesthetic
intelligence, as well as Interpersonal and Verbal/Linguistic intelligences. Class discussions
provide an opportunity for learners to exercise both areas of their personal intelligences, as well
as to reinforce the subject matter.

Planning and Implementing Learner-Centered Lessons

This type of lesson revolves around learner created materials. The types of activities and
assignments that support learner-centered lessons can be easily designed in concert with many of
the inquiry-based models discussed in the text of this book. One of the most important aspects of
learner-centered lessons is allowing learners to make choices. Teachers should encourage
learners to exercise their weaker intelligences, but allow them to explore their stronger areas as
well.

For instance, the teacher can motivate the learners to actively participate in other projects that are
not talented in or has no interest.

Listed below are steps to implement a learner-centered lesson or unit:

 Carefully identify instructional goals, objectives, and instructional outcomes.

 Consider activities that you can integrate into the lesson or unit that teach to the different
intelligences. Teachers need not incorporate all nine intelligences into one lesson.
 When gathering resources and materials, consider those which will allow learners to explore
their multiple intelligences.
 Specify a timeframe for the lesson or unit.
 Allow for considerable element of learner choice when designing activities and tasks for the
intelligences
 Design activities that are learner-centered, using inquiry-based models of instruction.
 Provide a rubric for learner activities. You might consider having learners help create rubrics.
 Incorporate assessment into the learning process.

Planning and Implementing a Teacher-Centered Lesson

Structured, teacher-centered activities provide an opportunity for teachers to introduce material
and establish prior knowledge and learner conceptions. Teachers may lecture learners, show
 informational videos and posters, perform drills, pose problem-solving exercises, arrange
museum visits, and plan outings to concerts. There are all examples of teacher-centered
activities.

All of these activities integrate the Multiple Intelligences into the subject matter being taught.
Teacher-centered lessons should be limited to a few activities that provide a foundation for
learners to later complete more exploratory tasks in which they can demonstrate understanding
of the material. A teacher may choose to start an instructional unit or lesson with teacher-
centered activities and then follow up with subsequent learner-centered lessons. Teachers may
follow these steps when designing and implementing a teacher-centered lesson:

 Identify instructional goals and objectives

 Consider teacher-centered activities that teach to learners’ Multiple Intelligences. In a teacher-
centered lesson, limit the number of activities to two or three.
 Consider what resources and materials you will need to implement the lesson. For example, will
you need to schedule a museum visit or to consult the Media Specialist for videos or other
media?
 Specify a timeframe for the lesson or unit.
 Provide an opportunity for reflection by learners
 Provide a rubric to scaffold learner activities
 Integrate assessment into the learning process
Assessment is one of the biggest challenges in incorporating Multiple Intelligences in the
classroom. The teacher can provide small projects upon which performance is assessed through
a portfolio that represents their work on these projects.

It is very important for assessment to be integrated into the learning process. Assessment should
give learners the opportunity to demonstrate their understanding of the subject matter.

One of the main goals of acknowledging and using Multiple Intelligences in the classroom is to
increase learners understanding of material by allowing them to demonstrate the ways in which
they understand the material. Teachers need to make their expectations clear, and may do so in
the form of a detailed assessment rubric.

Benefits of Multiple Intelligence Theory

Using Multiple Intelligences theory in the classroom has many benefits:

 As a teacher and learner you realize that there are many ways to be “smart”
 All forms of intelligence are equally celebrated.
 By having learners create work that is displayed to parents and other members of the community,
your school could see more parent and community involvement.
 A sense of increased self-worth may be seen as learners build on their strengths and work
towards becoming an expert in certain areas
 Learners may develop strong problem solving skills that they can use real life situations

Curriculum Differentiation
The Concept of Curriculum Differentiation
It is the process of modifying or adapting the curriculum according to the different ability levels
of the learners in the classroom. It is a strategy that teachers can use with a view to providing
meaningful learning experiences for all learners. Differentiation takes account of learner
differences and matches curriculum content and teaching and assessment methods to learning
styles and learner needs and characteristics. It may focus on input, task, outcome, output,
response, resources or support.

Ways in Which Curriculum Can Be Modified to Suit Diverse Learners in an Inclusive Setting
The educators need to modify the curriculum in order to suit the learners in an inclusive setting.
This can be achieved by removing curriculum barriers and presenting educational goals in
interesting ways to engage all learners and serve all learners equitably. Below are four important
strategies to consider when designing an inclusive classroom and curriculum.

1. Use universal design principles to create accessible classrooms

educators should endeavor to offer every learner an equal opportunity to learn, based on
the idea that every person has their own unique and individual learning style. This can be
based on three main principles: Representation (the what of learning), Action and
Expression (the how of learning), Engagement (the why of learning)
2. Use a variety of instructional formats
The first principle of universal design theory is the “what” of learning. It says to use
“multiple means of representation.” While some learners are visual learners, others may
grasp information better when it is presented through text or when it is spoken orally or
taught through kinesthetic learning. Some learners do best with a combination of the
above. While these differentiated teaching methods may support the needs of learners
with disabilities, they also offer diversity of instruction to the entire classroom, giving
each and every learner an opportunity to learn in the way they do best. Similarly, using
different mediums to present information and engage learners is important in inclusive
classrooms. Remember that principle two of universal design theory calls for utilizing
“multiple means of action and expression.” Some learners may find that their best outlet
and means of expression comes through writing, while others may prefer to give an oral
 presentation, act out a play or create a piece of art. Each learner is different and should be
given the opportunity to express their knowledge through the methods that work best for
them. Additionally, teachers can use a diversity of materials and mediums to engage
learners. Examples of mediums could include theater, art, video and computer software in
addition to the traditional mediums of lecture and text. Through using varied teaching
techniques and mediums, teachers can increase the engagement of their entire class, not
just the learners who respond to a particular style of learning and expression.
3. Know your learners’ IEPs (Individualized Educational Programme)
To create an equitable learning environment for everyone, it is important to familiarize
yourself with learners IEP plan. The teacher can work with the school counselor or
teaching specialists to better understand the learner’s specific needs. Much like the
concept of inclusive learning, IEP are designed to ensure that learners with disabilities are
allowed to learn in a regular classroom environment, while still being provided with
services, educational aids or accommodations they may require.
4. Develop a behavior management plan
Disruptive classroom behavior can affect not just the teacher, but the other learners in the
classroom as well. Developing a behavior management plan can help you prepare for the
inevitable moment a learner or learners exhibit disruptive behaviors — with the
understanding that some behaviors are of much less consequence than others (talking out
of turn vs. being defiant or aggressive). The behavior plan should be shared with parents
and learners, so that everyone is aware of the expectations and consequences should those
expectations not be met. The most effective plans typically involve a great deal of
positive reinforcement and a clear understanding of the expectations. There are several
different types of behaviour management plan the teacher can implement depending on
the needs of your classroom, including a whole group plan, a small group plan, an
individual plan or an individual plan designed for particularly challenging learners.

An Individualized Education Plan for Learners with Specific Needs to Their Learning in an
Inclusive Setting

Learners with delayed skills or other disabilities might be eligible for special services that
provide individualized education programs (IEPs) in public schools, free of charge to families.
Understanding your role in educating a learner with an IEP will benefit both the teacher and the
learner.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA 2004) makes teachers of learners with
special needs responsible for planning, implementing, and monitoring educational plans to help
the learners succeed in school. The IEP describes the goals set for the learners for the school
year, and any special support the learners need to help them reach those goals. The IDEA
requires states to provide public education for learners with disabilities ages 3 to 21, no matter
how severe the disabilities.
 Who needs an IEP?

Learners struggling in school may qualify for support services, allowing them to be taught in a
special way, for reasons such as:

 learning disabilities
 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder(ADHD)
 emotional disorders
 cognitive challenges
 autism
 hearing impairment
 visual impairment
 speech or language impairment
 developmental delay
 physical disabilities

Signs that a learner may have a learning disability include:

 getting poor grades despite significant effort

 needing continual, step-by-step guidance for tasks
 not being able to remember problem-solving steps because he or she does not understand the
tasks or the logic behind them
 having poor memory of spoken or written material
 having difficulty mastering tasks or transferring academic skills to other tasks
 not being able to remember skills and facts over time
 having strong general knowledge, but not being able to read (dyslexia), write (dysgraphia), or do
math (dyscalculia) at that level
 having difficulty with communication and language processing, as well as expressive and
receptive language
 being extremely frustrated with school and homework
How Are the Services Delivered?

In most cases, the services outlined in an IEP can be provided in regular education classrooms. In
other cases, IEP services might be delivered in separate resource classrooms or even separate
schools, depending on the learners' needs. Some learners may have an IEP for one subject area
only, while others may have one for all academic subjects in addition to social skills instruction.
 The least restrictive setting for learners with IEPs is a regular education classroom. Learners with
IEPs usually join regular education classes for special subject areas such as science, social
studies, art, music, library, gym, and health. It is critical for regular classroom teachers to read
learners' IEPs and be familiar with the services and monitoring that are required in the plan.

The next least restrictive setting is a resource or learning support classroom. In this setting,
groups of learners with similar needs are brought together for small-group instruction. A certified
special education teacher is the instructor and other school personnel (aides or support teachers)
assist with teaching.

Evaluation and referral

The referral process generally begins when a teacher, parent, or doctor is concerned that a child
may be having trouble in the classroom.

The first step is to gather specific data regarding the learner's progress or academic problems.
This may be done through:

 a conference with parents

 a conference with the learner
 observations of the learner
 analysis of the learner's performance (attention, behavior, work completion, tests, classwork,
homework, etc.)

This information helps teachers and school personnel determine the next step. At this point,
strategies specific to the learner could be used to help the child become more successful in
school prior to any formal testing. If this doesn't work, the child would be tested for a specific
learning disability or other impairment to help determine qualification for special services.

It's important to note, though, that the presence of a disability doesn't automatically guarantee a
child will receive services. To be eligible, the disability must affect functioning at school.

To determine eligibility, a multidisciplinary team of professionals will evaluate the child based
on their observations, the child's performance on standardized tests, and daily work such as tests,
quizzes, classwork, and homework.
 Who is on the team?

The professionals on the evaluation team can include:

 classroom teachers
 a psychologist
 a physical therapist
 an occupational therapist
 a speech therapist
 a special educator
 a vision or hearing specialist
 others, depending on the child's specific needs

After it is determined that further testing is necessary, parents will be asked to sign a permission
form that will detail who is involved in the process and the types of tests they use. These tests
might include measures of specific school skills, such as reading or math, as well as more
general developmental skills, such as speech and language. Testing does not necessarily mean
that a child will receive services.

Once the team members complete their individual assessments, they develop a comprehensive
evaluation report (CER) that compiles their findings, offers an educational classification, and
outlines the skills and support the child will need.

The parents then have a chance to review the report before the IEP is developed. If parents
disagree with the report, they will have the opportunity to work together with the school to come
up with a plan that best meets the child's needs.

Developing an IEP

The next step is an IEP meeting, during which the team and parents decide what will go into the
plan. Also, a regular classroom teacher should attend to offer suggestions about how the plan can
help the child's progress in the standard education curriculum and how it can be used in a regular
classroom setting, if that's appropriate.

At the meeting, the team will discuss a learner's educational needs and come up with specific,
measurable short-term and annual goals for each of those needs.

The cover page of the IEP outlines the related services and supports learners will receive and
how often they will be provided. These can include many different things; for example,
transportation; speech-language pathology and audiology services; psychological services;
physical and occupational therapy; recreation, including therapeutic recreation; social work
services; and medical services (for diagnostic and evaluation purposes only).

If the team recommends several services, the amount of time they take in the child's school
schedule can seem overwhelming. To ease that load, some services may be provided on a
consultative basis. In these cases, the professional consults with the teacher to come up with
strategies to help the child but doesn't offer any hands-on instruction. For instance, an
occupational therapist may suggest accommodations for a child with fine-motor problems that
affect handwriting, and the classroom teacher would incorporate these suggestions into the
handwriting lessons taught to the entire class.

Other services can be delivered right in the classroom, so the child's day isn't interrupted by
therapy. The child who has difficulty with handwriting might work one-on-one with an
occupational therapist while everyone else practices their handwriting skills. When deciding how
and where services are offered, the child's comfort and dignity should be a top priority.

If a child has academic needs and is working below grade level, services may be offered outside
the regular education classroom, with learners getting small-group instruction in a particular
subject area (usually language arts or math) by a special education teacher with other learners
who have similar needs.

The IEP should be reviewed annually to update the goals and ensure the levels of service meet
the learner's needs. During the school year, progress monitoring will be done often to make sure
the learner is achieving goals set in the IEP. IEPs can be changed at any time on an as-needed
basis.

Specific timelines ensure that the development of an IEP moves from referral to providing
services as quickly as possible. Be sure to ask about this timeframe and stay informed.

If parents disagree with any part of the IEP, mediation and hearings are options.

It is important for teachers to understand the IEP process and their role in delivering instruction
to learners who have an IEP. Any questions related to an IEP can be directed to the team or the
case manager assigned to a learner.

Learning Strategies That Suit Diverse Learners in an Inclusive Setting

Learners with special and exceptional needs are placed in inclusive learning environments
more frequently than in the past. For general educators with a limited special education
 background, this can often be anxiety provoking and stressful. Teachers should provide the
best instruction and education for their learners. They should ensure that all learners have the
necessary resources in order to be successful.

The strategies to be adopted by the teacher in an inclusive setting include:

1. Get to know the learner’s IEP

The teacher should know the information on the learner’s IEP. This will enable the teacher to
understand the kind of services the learner need. This enable the teacher to accommodate and
modify the classroom setting to suit the needs of the learner.

2. Implement universal design for learning(UDL)

It’s an approach to curriculum planning and mapping that makes learning engaging and
accessible to a wider range of learners with different strengths and needs. UDL builds on
Howard Gardener’s of multiple intelligences in that it calls for teaching to utilize multiple
modalities, and for learners to respond to learning with a variety of assessment tools. Educators
that recognize the importance of UDL realize that we all learn and express ourselves in
different ways, and that in order to assess skills we need to be allowed to use our strengths,
while practicing our areas of need at the same time.

3. Support important life skills

This can be achieved by providing more tasks that are performed by more severely disabled
learners, many of whom are not in a general education environment. Such learners may lack
necessary skills they need in order to be a productive and contributing member of society.
Many general education mainstream learners cannot perform the following simple tasks:

 telling time from an analog clock

 writing a simple letter
 signing their name in cursive
 note taking and study skills

4. Engage in collaboration planning and teaching

No classroom is an island, especially an inclusive classroom. The teacher open the room for
the service providers, paraprofessionals, special education teachers, and parents who give
 valuable opportunities to participate in collaborative teaching. Collaborative teaching looks
differently depending on what school, level, and setting.

5. Develop a strong behavior management plan

Having a successful inclusive classroom depends upon having control of an inclusive

classroom. It is essential to have clearly communicated expectations and goals, that are
accessible to all learners. The classroom environment should be tailored to better suit diverse
learners’ needs. With learners’ and specialists’ input, the teacher should create a checklist or
action plan for learners.

Some specific behavior management strategies that support effective instruction are:

 Posting daily schedules

 Displaying classroom rules and expectations
 Encouraging peer to peer instruction and leadership
 Using signals to quiet down, start working, and putting away materials.
 Giving learners folders, labels and containers to organize supplies.
 Checking in with learners while they work
 Utilizing proactive rather than reactive interventions as needed
 Speaking to learners privately about any concerns
 Employing specific, targeted positive reinforcement when a learner meets a behavioral or
academic goal.

Designing Learning Resources for Diverse Learners in an Inclusive Setting

The teacher should design appropriate resources for their learners in an inclusive environment.
This may include the teaching learning materials or text books. The designed resources should
enable the learners to improve in their skills and knowledge on what is being taught.
The design of appropriate resources promotes academic success amongst learners. It results to
the following characteristics in learners:

 Learners are educated whenever appropriate in the general education classroom with
teachers skilled in the content taught.
 Access and opportunities to progress in the general education curriculum is greatly
facilitated through inclusive practices.
 High expectations for all learners are the norm.
 Instruction is differentiated to engage learners on the basis of the skill sets, interests, and
learning styles.
 Teachers use flexible grouping that includes varied small group instruction, large group, and
paired instruction.
 Learners are actively engaged in instruction and in their own learning.
 Instructional accommodations and scaffolding are used to increase access to learning and
academic success.
 Chapter 4
Barriers to Inclusive Education

Introduction
The educators need to be sensitive on the various barriers to inclusive education. they may be
physical, economic, social or cultural. The teachers should do everything to alleviate these
barriers. The following aspects need to be looked into:
1. Teachers and pupils’ attitude – teachers and pupils in these schools need to be encouraged
to promote a positive attitude towards those children with special needs in an inclusive setting.

2. Inadequate trained teachers – majority of the teachers need to be trained in special needs.
Teachers should be exposed to the skills like the use of sign language and braille so as to help the
hearing impaired and visually impaired learners.

3. Availability of adapted environment- the school and class environment in those schools
need to be adapted to suit the various needs of the learners.
4. Availability of appropriate resources and other teaching/learning materials- the schools
should possess teaching/learning materials and other resources to cater for various needs of the
learners. However, financial assistance is very crucial to enable the schools maintain their
resources and acquire as need arises.

5. Availability of Support Services – all schools in Kenya need to provide support services to
children with special needs.

6. Community involvement – the community should be involved in inclusive activities, more

encouragement and continued sensitization is needed to maintain their spirit.
7. Flexible Curriculum – the schools should use adapted curriculum for learners with special
needs. Other adaptations on teaching/learning activities should be done where necessary to suit
such learners.

The Contributing Factors to Inclusive Education

Among the key ones include:

 Sensitization is a strong factor in inclusion. Mass sensitization on disability issues need

to be done to the teachers, pupils and the community in general. Through sensitization,
the members will come to understand better the causes of various disabilities, means of
prevention where they could and how to care for the learners living with disabilities. The
community which had earlier been compounded with fears and negative cultural beliefs
need to transform their fears into hopes and willingness to participate in inclusive
activities. They should discard their negative cultural beliefs.
  The government should reach out to the educationists and other stakeholders in education
through creating awareness, implementation of inclusive education.

What Need to Be Done by The Educationists and Other Stakeholders to Promote Inclusive
Education
1) Sensitization to be done in other areas of school fraternity.
2) The government should ensure that more teachers are trained in special needs education
(SNE) more specifically the head teachers.

3) The ministry should assist the schools to acquire appropriate resources and other teaching and
learning materials through funding.
4) The ministry of education should establish the attitude of teachers towards inclusion in regular
schools. This will enable them to plan for sensitization in preparation for implementation of
inclusion in a wider scale.
5) Regular schools be made barrier free to enhance access.
6) Implement the recently approved SNE policy guidelines.

Task
a) Evaluate the physical barriers that may impede effective implementation of inclusion
education in a learning setting.
b) Explore ways of alleviating physical barriers in a learning setting to support
inclusion of all learners.
c) Explore ways of engaging parents and the society to alleviate physical barriers that
may impede participation of all learners in the learning process.
d) Evaluate the social economic and cultural barriers that may impede effective
inclusion of learners.
e) Explore ways of alleviating social economic and cultural barriers in a learning setting
to support inclusion.
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