HYDRAULIC

ENGINEERNIG (CVE 211)

Delivered by: Ing. Leticia Osae Adum,

loadum@atu.edu.gh
ATU, DoCE.
1
January, 2022.
 QUIZ

Explain the following

1. Steady flow
2. Non-uniform flow
3. Depth of flow section
4. Best hydraulic section of a channel
5. Wetted area

2
 QUIZ

Explain the following

1. Uniform flow
2. Prismatic channel
3. Laminar flow
4. Subcritical flow
5. Rate of flow

3
 QUIZ

Fill in the following with the correct statements/terms;

1. When Froude’s number is equal to unity, the flow in an
open channel is said to be ………………..
2. A hydraulic jump occurs in a channel when the bed
slope changes from ………………to…………….
3. Darcy-Weisbach equation is used to find headloss due
to …………….
4. When flow is in a region where velocity profile changes
the flow is said be …………………
5. When the depth of flow changes gradually over a long
period of time, then the flow will be termed as
…………………….. 4
 QUIZ

Fill in the following with the correct statements/terms;

1. In open channel flow when velocity, slope, cross-section
and depth of flow does not change with space at a given
time, then the flow is………………..
2. Flow may be characterized as laminar when ……………
3. An open channel is one in which the solid boundaries
confining flow are ………………..
4. The cross-section of a channel which carries maximum
discharge under given conditions of slope, roughness
and flow area is the……………………
5. The highest point of a syphon is known as the …………
5
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Definition: An open channel refers to a passage through which

liquid flows with it’s upper surface exposed to the atmosphere.
Flow in an open channel is due to gravity, therefore the slope of
the channel has immense influence on the conditions of flow.
Consider the diagram below

6
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
Some key terms in open channel flow
 Depth of flow (y): it is the vertical distance of the lowest
point of a channel section from the free surface (surface
exposed to the atmosphere).
 Depthof flow section (d): This is the depth of flow
perpendicular to the bed of the channel. If the channel bed
makes an angle θ with the horizontal, then 𝑑 = 𝑦 cos 𝜃.
 Top width (T): It is the width of the channel section at the
free surface.
 Wetted area/Area of flow (A): this refers to the cross-
sectional area of the flow section of the channel.

7
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

 Wettedperimeter (P): It is the length of the channel

boundary in contact with the flowing liquid at any section.
 Hydraulic radius(R): This is the ratio of wetted area to
the wetted perimeter. It is also known as the hydraulic
𝐴
mean depth. Thus, 𝑅 =
𝑃
 Hydraulic depth (D): This is the ratio of the wetted area
𝐴
to the top width. Thus, 𝐷 =
𝑇

8
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
Open channel sections
For a Rectangular section,

9
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

For Rectangular section,

Area of flow, 𝐴 = 𝑏 × 𝑦

Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝑏 + 𝑦 + 𝑦 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦

𝐴 𝑏×𝑦
Hydraulic radius,𝑅 = =
𝑃 𝑏+2𝑦

𝐴 𝑏×𝑦
Hydraulic depth, 𝐷 = =
𝑇 𝑏

10
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

For a Triangular section,

11
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

For Triangular section,

𝑦
𝐶𝑂 = 𝐵𝑂 = ;𝑏 = 2 × 𝑦 tan 𝜃,
cos 𝜃
1
Area of flow, 𝐴 = × 𝑏 × 𝑦
2

Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐵𝑂
1
𝐴 ×𝑏×𝑦
2
Hydraulic radius,𝑅 = =
𝑃 𝐶𝑂+𝐵𝑂
1
𝐴 𝑏×𝑦
2
Hydraulic depth, 𝐷 = =
𝑇 𝑏

12
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
For a Trapezoidal section,

 Horizontal distance, 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐵𝐹 = 𝑥𝑦, where 𝑥 = side slope

(1 vertical to 𝑥 horizontal)
 Top width, 𝐷𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐵𝐹 = 𝑏 + 2𝑥𝑦
13
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
Slant side,𝐴𝐷 = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 = 𝑦 𝑥 2 + 1,
𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ+𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
Area of flow, 𝐴
= ×
2
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑏 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏
= × 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑏 + 𝑥𝑦
2
Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦 𝑥 2 + 1
𝐴 𝑦(𝑏+𝑥𝑦)
Hydraulic radius, 𝑅 = =
𝑃 𝑏+2𝑦 𝑥 2 +1
𝐴 𝑦(𝑏+𝑥𝑦)
Hydraulic depth, 𝐷 = =
𝑇 𝑏+2𝑥𝑦
14
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
Worked Examples

Calculate the hydraulic radius (R) and hydraulic depth (D)

for each of the channel sections above.
15
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Solution
For rectangular section,
Area of flow, 𝐴 = 0.18 × 0.15 = 0.027𝑚2
Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 0.18 + 0.15 + 0.15 = 0.48𝑚
𝐴 0.027
Hydraulic radius,𝑅 = = = 0.056𝑚
𝑃 0.48
𝐴 0.027
Hydraulic depth, 𝐷 = = = 0.15𝑚
𝑇 0.18

16
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
Solution
For triangular section,
𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 𝑇 = 𝑏 = 2 × 0.25 tan 30° = 0.288𝑚
0.25
𝐶𝑂 = 𝐵𝑂 = = 0.288𝑚
cos 30°
1
Area of flow, 𝐴 = × 0.288 × 0.25 = 0.036𝑚2
2
Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐵𝑂
= 0.288 + 0.288 = 0.576𝑚
𝐴 0.036
Hydraulic radius,𝑅 = = = 0.0625𝑚
𝑃 0.576
𝐴 0.036
Hydraulic depth, 𝐷 = = = 0.125𝑚
𝑇 0.288 17
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
An open trapezoidal channel has a base width of 8m and a depth
of flow of 2.4m. If the side slopes of the channel are 1 horizontal
to 3 vertical, calculate the hydraulic radius and hydraulic depth of
the channel.
Solution

18
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
Solution
Horizontal distance, 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐵𝐹 = 𝑥𝑦, where x = side slope (1
vertical to x horizontal)
Top width, 𝐷𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐵𝐹 = 𝑏 + 2𝑥𝑦
1
= 8 + 2 × × 2.4 = 9.6𝑚
3

Slant side,𝐴𝐷 = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑦2 + 𝑥2𝑦2 = 𝑦 𝑥2 + 1

𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ+𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

Area of flow, 𝐴 = × 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
2
𝑏 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏
= × 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑏 + 𝑥𝑦
2
19
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

1
Area of flow, 𝐴 = 2.4 8 + × 2.4 = 21.12𝑚2
3

Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐵𝐶
2
1
= 𝑏 + 2𝑦 𝑥2 + 1 = 8 + (2 × 2.4 + 1)
3
= 13.06𝑚
𝐴 21.12
Hydraulic radius, 𝑅 = = = 1.617𝑚
𝑃 13.06

𝐴 21.12
Hydraulic depth, 𝐷 = = = 2.2𝑚
𝑇 9.6

20
 ASSIGNMENT 1 (DUE DATE: 10/02/2022)
Question 1
A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 6m and a side slope of 1
horizontal to 1 vertical. The depth of flow is 1.5m.
i. Sketch the trapezoidal channel section
ii. Determine the hydraulic radius and hydraulic depth of the channel
Question 2
A trapezoidal canal has one vertical side and the other side has a slope of 2
horizontal to 1 vertical. The base width and depth of flow are 7.16m and
5.79m respectively.
i. Sketch the trapezoidal canal section described above.
ii. Calculate the hydraulic radius and Hydraulic depth of the canal.
Question 3
A rectangular channel has a base width of 4m and a normal depth of flow of
2m.
i. Sketch the rectangular channel section
ii. Determine the hydraulic radius and hydraulic depth of the channel
21
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Rate of flow or discharge

Rate of flow or discharge refers to the quantity of a liquid flowing

through a section of a channel or pipe per second. Discharge,
(Q), is given by
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 𝑚3 /𝑠
Where, A = area of flow
V = average velocity of the liquid

 The purpose of designing an open channel is to determine the

shape, dimensions, and lining materials that will safely
accommodate the design flow at a reasonable cost and limit
the erosion and deposition of materials in the channel
22
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

 Constructed open channels are used as major drainage-ways

in urban storm-water management systems and also for
irrigation projects.

 Such channels are either lined with concrete or unlined. In this

course, it will be assumed that the channel will have a uniform
flow

 Chezy’s and Manning’s equation are the most used equations

for calculating the rate of flow in open channels

23
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Chezy’s Formular
According to Chezy’s formular average flow velocity (V
) is given by;
𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑅𝑆
Where, C = Chezy’s constant
R = hydraulic radius
S = slope of the channel bed
Therefore, discharge(Q) becomes;
𝑸 = 𝑨𝑪 𝑹𝑺

24
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Conveyance of a channel section (K) is a measure of

the carrying capacity of the channel. For a channel with
a constant slope, conveyance is directly proportional to
discharge. Mathematically,

𝐾 = 𝐴𝐶 𝑅

So, discharge can be written as;

𝑄=𝐾 𝑆

25
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Worked examples

Example1

A triangular channel whose sides include an angle of

60° conveys water at a depth of 0.25m. if the bed slope
of the channel is 1 in 137, determine the discharge, Q,.
Take Chezy’s constant, C = 52

26
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Solution

𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 𝑇 = 𝑏 = 2 × 0.25 tan 30° = 0.288𝑚

0.25
𝐶𝑂 = 𝐵𝑂 = = 0.288𝑚
cos 30°
27
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Solution

1
Area of flow, 𝐴 = × 0.288 × 0.25 = 0.036𝑚2
2

Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐵𝑂

= 0.288 + 0.288 = 0.576𝑚

𝐴 0.036
Hydraulic radius,𝑅 = = = 0.0625𝑚
𝑃 0.576

28
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Solution
Using Chezy’s formular,

1
𝑄 = 𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝑆 = 0.036 × 52 × 0.0625 ×
137
𝑄 = 0.04𝑚3 /𝑠

29
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Example 2

A rectangular channel has a bed width of 5m.

Using Chezy’s formular, determine the bed slope
for a flow rate of 11.48m³/s for uniform flow at a
depth 1.5m. Take C = 50.

30
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Solution

Area of flow, 𝐴 = 5 × 1.5 = 7.5𝑚2

Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 5 + 1.5 + 1.5 = 8𝑚

31
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Solution
𝐴 7.5
Hydraulic radius,𝑅 = = = 0.938𝑚
𝑃 8
Using Chezy’s formular,
𝑄 = 𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝑆 = 7.5 × 50 × 0.938 × 𝑆
11.48 = 7.5 × 50 × 0.938 × 𝑆
Making S the subject,
11.48 2
375 ൙
𝑆= 0.938
−3
1
𝑆 = 1 × 10 𝑜𝑟
1000 32
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Manning’s Equation
According to Manning, Chezy’s constant can be
determined with the empirical formula;
1 1ൗ
𝐶 = ×𝑅 6
𝑛

where, n = Manning’s constant

Substituting this into the discharge equation,

𝟏 𝟐ൗ 𝟏ൗ
𝑸 = 𝑨𝑹 𝟑 𝑺 𝟐
𝒏
33
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Worked examples

Example 1.

Determine the rate of flow for a rectangular channel

7.5m wide for uniform flow at a depth of 2.25m with a
bed slope of 1 in 1000. Take Manning’s constant, n =
0.0193.

34
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Solution
Area of flow, 𝐴 = 7.5 × 2.25 = 16.875𝑚2
Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 7.5 + 2.25 + 2.25 = 12𝑚
𝐴 16.875
Hydraulic radius,𝑅 = = = 1.406𝑚
𝑃 12

1 2ൗ 1ൗ
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑅 3 𝑆 2
𝑛
1ൗ
1 1 2
2ൗ
= × 16.875 × 1.406 3 ×
0.0193 1000
𝑄 = 34.7𝑚3 /𝑠

35
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Example 2

A trapezoidal channel has a base width of 0.9m with a

side slope of 1 horizontal to 1 vertical and a bed slope
of 1 in 1,200. Using Mannaing’s equation, calculate
the discharge if the depth of flow is 1.085m. Take n =
0.0164

36
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Solution
𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ+𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
Area of flow, 𝐴 = × 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
2
𝑏 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏
= ×𝑦
2
= 𝑦 𝑏 + 𝑥𝑦
= 1.085 0.9 + (1 × 1.085 )
= 2.15𝑚2
Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦 𝑥 2 + 1
= 0.9 + (2 × 1.085 1 2 + 1)
= 3.968𝑚
37
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

𝐴 2.15
Hydraulic radius,𝑅 = = = 0.542𝑚
𝑃 3.968
1 2ൗ 1ൗ
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑅 3 𝑆 2
𝑛
1ൗ
1 1 2
2ൗ
= × 2.15 × 0.542 3 ×
0.0164 1200
𝑄 = 2.5𝑚3 /𝑠

38
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Best Hydraulic Sections and Most Efficient Channel

The concept of best hydraulic section refers to the section for

which a channel gives the maximum discharge for a particular
shape, area, slope and roughness. The best hydraulic section
gives the highest efficiency (least resistance to flow) and is
usually the most economical.

From the flow rate equation, if area is assumed to be constant,

then discharge increases with increasing velocity. Also,
hydraulic radius is maximum when the wetted perimeter is
minimum. 39
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Best section for rectangular channel

For the most economical rectangular channel section;
𝑏 = 2𝑦, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
Therefore,
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴 = 2𝑦 × 𝑦 = 2𝑦 2
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 = 2𝑦 + 𝑦 + 𝑦 = 4𝑦
𝐴 2𝑦 × 𝑦 2𝑦 2
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝑅 = = =
𝑃 2𝑦 + 𝑦 + 𝑦 4𝑦
𝑦
𝑅=
2 40
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Worked examples

Example 1

A rectangular channel is to be constructed to convey

12m³/s of water at an average velocity of 3m/s. Find
its most economical section. Take Chezy’s constant,
C = 50

41
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Solution

Given;

Discharge, 𝑄 = 12m³/s

Average velocity, 𝑉 = 3m/s

Chezy’s constant, 𝐶 = 50

For most economical section of rectangular channel;

𝑏 = 2𝑦
42
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Solution
Thus,
𝑄 = 2𝑦 × 𝑦 × 𝑉 = 2𝑦 2 × 𝑉
» 12 = 3 × 2𝑦 2

12
𝑦= =1.414m
6

∴ 𝑏 = 2 × 1.414 = 2.828𝑚

𝑦 1.414
Hydraulic radius,𝑅 = = = 0.707𝑚
2 2 43
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Solution

From Chezy’s equation, V= 𝐶 𝑅𝑆

Making S the subject, we have

𝑉2 32 1
𝑆= 2 = 2 =
𝐶 𝑅 50 × 0.707 196

Hence, for most economical section:

Base width, b = 2.828m; depth of flow, y =

1
1.414m; and bed slope, S = 44
196
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Example 2

Determine the most economical section of a

rectangular channel carry water at a rate of
0.5m³/s if the bed slope of the channel is1 in
2000. Take Chezy’s constant, C = 50. Also
calculate the average velocity of flow.

45
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Solution
Given Discharge, 𝑄 = 0.5m³/s
1
Bed slope, 𝑆 =
2000
Chezy’s constant, 𝐶 = 50
𝑦
Area 𝐴 = 2𝑦 2 Hydraulic radius 𝑅 =
2

2 𝑦 1
» 𝑄 = 𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝑆 = 2𝑦 × 50 ×
2 2000

46
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Solution

𝑦 1
0.5 = 2𝑦 2 × 50 ×
2 2000

1 5ൗ
0.5 = 100 ×𝑦 2
4000
𝑦 = 0.63𝑚
» 𝑏 = 2𝑦 = 2 × 0.63 = 1.26𝑚

0.63 1
Average velocity, 𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑅𝑆 = 50 ×
2 2000

𝑉 = 0.627𝑚/𝑠 47
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Best section for triangular channel
For a triangular channel section;

𝐵𝐷 = 𝐷𝐶 = 𝑦𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃; ≫ 𝐵𝐶 = 2𝑦𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑦
𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐵𝑂 = 𝐶𝑂 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

48
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Best section for triangular channel
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴 = × 2𝑦𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 × 𝑦 = 𝑦 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
2
2𝑦
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 = 𝐵𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂 = = 2𝑦𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
For most economical section, side slope is 1 in 1,
thus 𝜃 = 45°
Therefore; 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴 = 𝑦 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛45° = 𝑦 2
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 = 2𝑦𝑠𝑒𝑐45° = 2𝑦 2

𝑦2 𝑦
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝑅 = =
2𝑦 2 2 2 49
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Best section for triangular channel

Determine the most economical section of a lined

triangular channel for conveying water at a rate of
0.05m³/s if the bed slope of the channel is1 in 1200.
Take Chezy’s constant, C = 50. Also calculate the
average velocity of flow.

50
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Best section for triangular channel

Solution
For most economical section, side slope is 1 in 1,
thus 𝜃 = 45°
Therefore; 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴 = 𝑦 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛45° = 𝑦 2
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 = 2𝑦𝑠𝑒𝑐45° = 2𝑦 2

𝑦2 𝑦
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝑅 = =
2𝑦 2 2 2
51
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Best section for triangular channel

Solution
𝑦 1
𝑄 = 𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝑆 = 𝑦2 × 50 ×
2 2 1200

2
𝑦1
0.05 = 𝑦 × 50 ×
2 2 1200
𝑦 = 0.32𝑚
𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 𝑏 = 2𝑦𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 2 × 0.32𝑡𝑎𝑛45°
𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 0.64𝑚
52
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Best section for triangular channel

Solution
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
1 1
𝐴 = × 𝑦 × 𝑏 = × 0.32 × 0.64 = 0.102𝑚2
2 2
𝑄 0.05
𝑉= = = 0.49𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 0.102

53
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Best section for trapezoidal channel

For a trapezoidal channel section;
Top width, 𝐷𝐶 = 𝑏 + 2𝑥𝑦
Slant side,𝐴𝐷 = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑦 𝑥 2 + 1,

54
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Best section for trapezoidal channel
Area of flow, 𝐴 = 𝑦 𝑏 + 𝑥𝑦
Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦 𝑥 2 + 1
𝐴
𝑏 = − 𝑥𝑦
𝑦
𝐴
Substituting, 𝑃 = − 𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 𝑥 2 + 1
𝑦

For a given area, 𝐴, 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝐴
= 0, =0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑦 𝑦 − 𝐴 2 =0
= − 𝑥 + 2 1 + 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑦2
55
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Best section for trapezoidal channel
−𝐴 2 =0
− 𝑥 + 2 1 + 𝑥
𝑦2
𝐴 2−𝑥
= 2 1 + 𝑥
𝑦2
𝐴 = 𝑦 2 (2 1 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥)
𝑦 2 (2 1 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥)
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑃 = − 𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 𝑥 2 + 1
𝑦
𝑃 = 2𝑦(2 𝑥 2 + 1 − 𝑥)

𝐴 𝑦 2 (2 1+𝑥 2 −𝑥) 𝑦
Hydraulic radius,𝑅 = = =
𝑃 2𝑦(2 𝑥 2 +1−𝑥) 2

56
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Best section for trapezoidal channel
For most economical section;
𝑏 + 2𝑥𝑦
= 𝑦 𝑥2 + 1
2
1
𝑥= thus 𝜃 = 60°
3

Substituting and simplifying,

𝑏 = 1.15𝑦

1 2 1
Area of flow, 𝐴 = 𝑦2 2 1+ −
3 3

1 1
𝐴= 𝑦2 2 1+ −
3 3

𝐴 = 3𝑦 2 57
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Best section for trapezoidal channel

1 2 1
Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 2𝑦(2 +1− )
3 3

𝑃 = 2𝑦 3
Worked example
Determine the best hydraulic section for a trapezoidal channel
for a flow rate of 10m³/s with a bed slope, S, of 0.0004 and a
side slope of 3/2. Take n = 0.014.

58
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Best section for trapezoidal channel
Solution
Discharge, 𝑄 = 10𝑚3 /𝑠 Mannings coefficient, 𝑛 = 0.014
Bed slope, 𝑆 = 0.0004
3
Side slope, 𝑥 =
2

59
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Best section for trapezoidal channel
Solution
For best hydraulic section of trapezoidal channel,
Area, 𝐴 = 𝑦 2 2 1 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥
2
2
3 3
𝐴=𝑦 2 1+ − = 2.11𝑦 2
2 2

2 2
𝐴 2
2.11𝑦 3 3
𝑃 = − 𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 𝑥 + 1 = − 𝑦 + 2𝑦 +1
𝑦 𝑦 2 2
𝑃 = 4.215𝑦

60
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Best section for trapezoidal channel
Solution
𝐴 2.11𝑦 2 𝑦
Hydraulic radius, 𝑅= = =
𝑃 4.215𝑦 2

Substituting,
1 2ൗ 1ൗ
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑅 3 𝑆 2
𝑛
2ൗ
1 2
𝑦 3 1ൗ
10 = × 2.11𝑦 × × 0.0004 2
0.014 2

3ൗ
𝑦= 5.266 8 = 1.86𝑚

𝐴 = 2.11 × 1.862 = 7.3𝑚2 61

 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Best section for trapezoidal channel

Solution
Base width;
𝐴 7.3 3
𝑏 = − 𝑥𝑦 = − × 1.86 = 1.13𝑚
𝑦 1.86 2
Top width,𝑙 = 𝑏 + 3𝑦 = 1.13 + 3 × 1.86 = 6.71𝑚

62
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Best hydraulic section summary table

Base Wetted
Shape Best geometry Area Top width
width Perimeter

1.15𝑦 4
Trapezoid Half of a hexagon 3𝑦 2 2𝑦 3 3𝑦
3
2𝑦 2 2𝑦 4𝑦 2𝑦
Rectangle Half of a square

Triangle Half of a square 𝑦2 _ 2𝑦 2 2𝑦

𝜋 2 2𝑦
Semi-circle 𝑦 _ 𝜋𝑦
2

63
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
NON-UNIFORM FLOW
Specific Energy and Specific Energy Curve
Consider the diagram below;

64
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Specific Energy and Specific Energy Curve

The total energy of flow per unit weight, E, is given by the
equation
𝑉2
𝐸 =𝑧+𝑦+
2𝑔
Where, 𝑧 =
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝑦 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑉 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

65
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Specific Energy and Specific Energy Curve
If the bottom of the channel is considered as the datum, then the
energy is known as specific energy. Thus, specific energy is
defined as the energy per unit weight of flowing liquid above the
channel bottom. Therefore, the total energy equation when the
channel bottom is considered as the datum becomes;

𝑉2
𝐸 =𝑦+
2𝑔

66
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Specific Energy and Specific Energy Curve

Specific energy is made up of;
Potential energy flow, 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑦
𝑉2
Kinetic energy flow, 𝐸𝑘 =
2𝑔

≫ 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑝 + 𝐸𝑘

From the equation of discharge,

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝑄
≫𝑉=
𝐴
67
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Specific Energy and Specific Energy Curve

If we consider a rectangular channel then;
𝑄 𝑞
𝑉= =
𝑏×𝑦 𝑦
where q = discharge per unit width.
Substituting V in to the specific energy equation;
𝑞2
𝐸 =𝑦+
2𝑔𝑦 2

68
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Specific Energy and Specific Energy Curve
The diagram below shows the specific energy curve/plot

69
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Specific Energy and Specific Energy Curve
The plot consists of the following;

 The potential energy curve is a straight line passing through the

origin and makes an angle of 45° with each axis (i.e. x and y axes)
 The curve for kinetic energy is a parabola

 Plot of specific energy is obtained by adding kinetic energy to

potential energy. Specific energy is asymptotic to the horizontal axis
for small values of y, and asymptotic to the potential energy line for
high values of y.

 At a certain depth known as the critical depth,𝑦𝑐 , the specific energy

curve has a point of minimum specific energy. The velocity at this
70
point is also known as the critical velocity, 𝑉𝐶 .
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Specific Energy and Specific Energy Curve

1
2
𝑞 3
Critical depth, 𝑦𝑐 =
𝑔

Critical velocity, 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑔𝑦𝑐

Aside from the minimum specific energy, there are two possible
depths of flow for every value of specific energy (𝑦1 &𝑦2 ),
referred to as alternate depths.

71
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Specific Energy and Specific Energy Curve
Critical flow: A flow corresponding to critical depth is known as
critical flow (y =𝑦𝑐 ).

Froude number, Fr = 1

Subcritical flow (streaming or tranquil): When depth of flow is

greater than critical depth (𝑦 > 𝑦𝑐 ). Froude number, Fr < 1

Super critical flow (shooting or torrential): When depth of flow is

less than critical depth (𝑦 < 𝑦𝑐 ). Froude number, Fr > 1

𝑉
Recall, 𝐹𝑟 =
𝑔𝐷 72
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Specific Energy and Specific Energy Curve

Worked Example
A rectangular channel of width 8m conveys 15m³/s of water at a
depth of 1.2m. Calculate:
i. Specific energy of flow
ii. Critical depth, and critical velocity
Determine whether flow is supercritical or subcritical

73
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Solution
Width, b =8m
Depth of flow, y = 1.2m
Discharge, Q = 15m³/s
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝑄 15
≫ 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑉 = = = 1.5625𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 8 × 1.2
𝑄 15
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 𝑞 = = = 1.875𝑚³/𝑠 per m
𝑏 8
𝑉2 1.56252
i. 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, 𝐸 = 𝑦 + = 1.2 + = 1.324𝑚
2𝑔 2×9.81
1 1
𝑞2 3 1.8752 3
ii. 𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ, 𝑦𝑐 = = = 0.71𝑚
𝑔 9.81
74
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Solution

𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑔𝑦𝑐 = 9.81 × 0.71 = 2.64𝑚/𝑠

𝑉
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝐹𝑟 =
𝑔𝐷

𝐴 8 × 1.2
𝐷= = = 1.2𝑚
𝑇 8

𝑉 1.5625
𝐹𝑟 = = = 0.455
𝑔𝐷 9.81 × 1.2
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝐹𝑟 < 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙.
75
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Hydraulic Jump and its Application

Hydraulic jump is a phenomenon that occurs when rapidly

flowing stream in an open channel abruptly changes to slowly
flowing stream. A distinct rise or jump in the elevation of liquid
surface takes place. When hydraulic jump occurs, there is a loss
of kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of the rapidly flowing stream
is converted to potential energy by the hydraulic jump. A
hydraulic jump is also known as a standing wave. Some
practical examples of where hydraulic jumps are experienced
include sluice gate or at the toe of spillways

76
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Hydraulic Jump and its Application
The figure below illustrates a hydraulic jump

77
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Hydraulic Jump and its Application

Analysis of hydraulic jump
Assumptions
 Loss of head due to friction at the walls and channel bed is
negligible
 Theflow is uniform and the pressure distribution is hydrostatic
before and after the jump

 The channel is horizontal or it has a very small slope

 The weight component in the direction of flow is negligible

 The momentum correction factor, β, is unity

78
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Hydraulic Jump and its Application

Depth after the hydraulic jump can be expressed in terms of the

Froude number as;

𝑦1 2
𝑦2 = 1 + 8 𝐹𝑟1 −1
2

Height of hydraulic jump, 𝐻𝑗 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1

𝑦2 −𝑦1 3
Loss of Energy/Loss in total head, 𝐸𝐿 =
4𝑦1 𝑦2

79
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Hydraulic Jump and its Application

Worked example
A sluice gate discharges water into a horizontal rectangular
channel with a velocity of 10m/s and depth of flow of 1m.
Determine
i. Depth of flow after the hydraulic jump
ii. Height of the hydraulic jump
iii. Loss in total head.

80
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Hydraulic Jump and its Application
Solution
Given
Velocity of flow before jump, 𝑉1 = 10𝑚/𝑠
Depth of flow before jump, 𝑦1 = 1𝑚
𝑉 𝑉1 10
Recall 𝐹𝑟 = , thus 𝐹𝑟1 = = = 3.192
𝑔𝐷 𝑔𝑦1 9.81×1

𝑦1 2
i. Depth of flow after hydraulic jump,𝑦2 = 1 + 8 𝐹𝑟1 −1
2
1 2
= 1 + 8 3.192 −1
2
= 4.04𝑚

81
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Hydraulic Jump and its Application

Solution
Height of hydraulic jump, 𝐻𝑗 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 = 4.04 − 1 = 3.04𝑚
𝑦2 −𝑦1 3 3.04 3
Loss in total head, 𝐸𝐿 = = = 1.74𝑚
4𝑦1 𝑦2 4×4.04×1

82
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Hydraulic Jump and its Application

Example 2
In a rectangular channel of width 0.5m, a hydraulic jump occurs
at a point where depth of flow is 0.15m and Froude number is
2.5. Determine
i. the specific energy
ii. the critical and subsequent depths
iii. loss of head

83
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Hydraulic Jump and its Application

Solution

Width of channel, 𝑏 = 0.5𝑚; Depth of flow before jump, 𝑦1 =

0.15𝑚; Froude number, 𝐹𝑟1 = 2.5

𝑉1
Then 𝐹𝑟1 = ≫ 𝑉1 = 2.5 × 9.81 × 0.15 = 3.03𝑚/𝑠
𝑔𝑦1

𝑉1 2 3.032
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, 𝐸 = 𝑦1 + = 0.15 + = 0.62𝑚
2𝑔 2 × 9.81

84
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Hydraulic Jump and its Application

Solution

1 1
𝑞2 3 3.03 × 0.15 2 3
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ, 𝑦𝑐 = = = 0.28𝑚
𝑔 9.81

𝑦1 2
Subsequent depth,𝑦2 = 1 + 8 𝐹𝑟1 −1 =
2

0.15 2
1 + 8 2.5 − 1 = 0.46𝑚
2

𝑦2 −0.15 3 0.46−0.15 3
loss of head, 𝐸𝐿 = = = 0.108𝑚
4𝑦1 𝑦2 4×0.15×0.46
85
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Flow Profiles for Gradually Varied flow

The channel slope for gradually varied flow can be put into five
(5) main classes;
𝑆𝑜 > 𝑆𝑐 - Steep (S)
𝑆𝑜 = 𝑆𝑐 - Critical (C)
𝑆𝑜 < 𝑆𝑐 - Mild (M)
𝑆𝑜 = 0 - Horizontal (H)
𝑆𝑜 < 0 - Adverse (A)

Where 𝑆𝑜 is the actual channel slope and 𝑆𝑐 is the critical slope

for the same discharge, 𝑄

86
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Flow Profiles for Gradually Varied flow
These five (5) classes of channel slope give rise to twelve (12)
surface profiles
Slope class Depth class Froude Actual Depth Symbol for
number Profile
𝐹𝑟 < 1 𝑦 > 𝑦𝑛 ; 𝑦 > 𝑦𝑐 S1
𝐹𝑟 > 1 𝑦𝑐 > 𝑦 > 𝑦𝑛 S2
Steep (𝑆𝑜 > 𝑆𝑐 ) 𝑦𝑐 > 𝑦𝑛
𝐹𝑟 > 1 𝑦 < 𝑦𝑛 ; 𝑦 < 𝑦𝑐 S3

𝐹𝑟 < 1 𝑦 > 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑦𝑐 C1

Critical (𝑆𝑜 = 𝑆𝑐 ) 𝑦𝑐 = 𝑦𝑛 𝐹𝑟 > 1 𝑦 < 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑦𝑐 C3

𝐹𝑟 < 1 𝑦 > 𝑦𝑛 ; 𝑦 > 𝑦𝑐 M1

Mild (𝑆𝑜 < 𝑆𝑐 ) 𝑦𝑐 < 𝑦𝑛 𝐹𝑟 < 1 𝑦𝑛 > 𝑦 > 𝑦𝑐 M2

𝐹𝑟 > 1 𝑦 < 𝑦𝑛 ; 𝑦 < 𝑦𝑐 M3

87
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Flow Profiles for Gradually Varied flow

Slope class Depth class Froude Actual Depth Symbol for
number Profile
𝐹𝑟 < 1 𝑦 > 𝑦𝑐 H2

Horizontal (𝑆𝑜 = 0) 𝑦𝑛 = ∞ 𝐹𝑟 > 1 𝑦 < 𝑦𝑛 ; 𝑦 < 𝑦𝑐 H3

𝐹𝑟 < 1 𝑦 > 𝑦𝑐 A2

Adverse (𝑆𝑜 < 0) 𝑛𝑜 𝑦𝑛 𝐹𝑟 > 1 𝑦 < 𝑦𝑐 A3

88
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Flow Profiles for Gradually Varied flow

Steep (𝑆𝑜 > 𝑆𝑐 ) Critical (𝑆𝑜 = 𝑆𝑐 )

89
DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Mild (𝑆𝑜 < 𝑆𝑐 ) Horizontal (𝑆𝑜 = 0)

Adverse (𝑆𝑜 < 0) 90

 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Design Procedure for Lined Channels
Design Procedures for Lined Channels The procedures
illustrated below assume that the flow rate (Q) is known by the
designer.
 Determine the Manning’s coefficient (n) for the specified lining
material. This can be obtained from literature/books. n = 0.013
is the minimum for concrete lined channel.
 Compute the normal depth of flow (y) using the Manning
equation. Best hydraulic sections maybe specified.
 Check the minimum permissible velocity (0.6m/s) and the
Froude number. The Froude number (Fr) determines whether
the flow is subcritical or not. The flow should be subcritical
 Calculate the required freeboard F= 0.55 𝐶𝑦 where C is a
coefficient which varies from 1.5 at a flow of 0.57m3/s to 2.5 for
a flow of 85m3/s and y is the normal depth (depth of flow) 91
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Design Procedure for Lined Channels

Example
Using the best hydraulic section, design a lined rectangular
channel to carry a discharge of 34.7m3/s. The longitudinal slope
of the channel is 1 in 1000 and the lining of the channel is
concrete. Take manning coefficient n = 0.0193.

92
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Design Procedure for Lined Channels

Solution

For most economical section, 𝑏 = 2𝑦

Therefore; 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴 = 2𝑦 × 𝑦 = 2𝑦 2
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 = 2𝑦 + 𝑦 + 𝑦 = 4𝑦

2𝑦 2 𝑦
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝑅 = =
4𝑦 2
1 2ൗ 1ൗ
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑅 3 𝑆 2
𝑛
2ൗ 1ൗ
1 𝑦 3 1 2
2
34.7 = × 2𝑦 × ×
0.0193 2 1000 93
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
Design Procedure for Lined Channels
Solution
𝑦 = 2.88𝑚
𝑏 = 2𝑦 = 2 × 2.88 = 5.76𝑚
𝐴 = 2𝑦 2 = 2 × 2.882 = 16.59𝑚2
𝑄 = VA
𝑄 34.7
𝑉= = = 2.09𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 16.59
𝑉 2.09
𝐹𝑟 = = = 0.39
𝑔𝐷 9.81 × 2.88
Thus, flow is subcritical
Freeboard F = 0.55 𝐶𝑦
From interpolation C = 1.9 based on a flow of 34.7 m3/s.
94
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Design Procedure for Lined Channels

Solution
Freeboard F = 0.55 1.9 × 2.88 = 1.29𝑚
Total depth of channel = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 + 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑
= 2.88 + 1.29𝑚
= 4.17𝑚

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