Chapter 2

Atomic Structure

Atoms are the basic units of matter, forming the foundation of all physical substances. They
consist of a central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons, with the arrangement of these
particles determining the properties of the atom and the material it forms.

• Atom: An atom is the smallest unit of an element that retains the chemical properties of
that element. It is composed of a nucleus at the center, which contains protons and
neutrons, and is surrounded by electrons in various energy levels or shells. The
arrangement and behavior of these subatomic particles dictate the atom's properties and
how it interacts with other atoms.

• Molecule: A molecule is a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest

fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction.
Molecules can consist of atoms from the same element or different elements.
• Compound: Compounds are substances formed when two or more different elements
chemically combine in fixed proportions. For example, water (H₂O) is a compound made
of hydrogen and oxygen atoms.

• Element: An element is defined by the number of protons in the nucleus of its atoms,
known as the atomic number (Z). Elements are pure substances, each consisting of only
one type of atom. For example, all hydrogen atoms have 1 proton, making hydrogen an
element with atomic number 1.
Ion: An ion is an atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons, resulting in a
net electric charge. This can occur through a chemical reaction or physical process, where the
atom or molecule becomes either positively or negatively charged.

Types of Ions:

1. Cation: A positively charged ion that has lost one or more electrons. Since electrons are
negatively charged, losing them results in a net positive charge. Example: Na + (sodium
ion), Ca2+ (calcium ion)
 2. Anion: A negatively charged ion that has gained one or more electrons. The addition of
electrons, which are negatively charged, gives the ion a net negative charge. Example: Cl −
(chloride ion), O2− (oxide ion)

Subatomic Particles

• Nucleus: The nucleus is the central part of an atom, containing protons and neutrons.
It is positively charged due to the presence of protons and holds most of the atom's mass.
The nucleus is extremely dense and compact, making up only a small fraction of the
atom's total volume.
• Proton: Protons are positively charged subatomic particles located within the nucleus.
Each proton has a charge of +1 (1.60×10⁻¹⁹ coulombs) and a mass of approximately
 1.672×10⁻²⁷ kg. The number of protons in the nucleus, known as the atomic number
(Z), determines the identity of the element and its chemical properties.
• Neutron: Neutrons are neutral subatomic particles, meaning they carry no electric
charge. They are also found in the nucleus alongside protons. Neutrons have a slightly
larger mass than protons, about 1.675×10⁻²⁷ kg. The number of neutrons can vary within
atoms of the same element, leading to different isotopes, which can have different physical
properties.
• Electron: Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles that orbit the nucleus in
energy levels or shells. They have a charge of -1 (1.60×10⁻¹⁹ coulombs) and a very small
mass, approximately 9.11×10⁻³¹ kg. Electrons are responsible for the chemical behavior of
atoms, as they are involved in forming bonds with other atoms.

Atomic Characteristics

Atomic Mass (A): The atomic mass of an atom is the total number of protons and neutrons in
its nucleus. Because protons and neutrons are much more massive than electrons, the atomic mass
is primarily determined by the nucleus's composition.

Atomic Number (Z): The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
This number uniquely identifies an element. For example, carbon has an atomic number of 6,
meaning every carbon atom has 6 protons in its nucleus.

Avogadro's Number (N₀): Avogadro's number, approximately 6.023×10²³, is a fundamental

constant in chemistry and physics that represents the number of constituent particles—whether
they are atoms, molecules, ions, or other entities—in one mole of a substance. This number is
named after the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro, who first hypothesized that equal volumes of
gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molecules.

Significance of Avogadro's Number

1. Bridging the Microscopic and Macroscopic Worlds: Atoms and molecules are
extremely small, making it impractical to count or measure them individually in laboratory
 settings. Avogadro's number allows scientists to work with macroscopic quantities of
substances while still accounting for the precise number of microscopic particles. For
example, when you have 1 mole of carbon atoms, you have 6.023×10²³ carbon atoms. This
allows chemists to relate the mass of a substance (measured in grams) to the number
of atoms or molecules it contains.
2. Moles as a Counting Unit: The mole is a standard unit in chemistry used to express
amounts of a chemical substance. One mole of any substance contains exactly 6.023×10²³
of its constituent particles. This relationship makes it easier to perform calculations
involving chemical reactions, stoichiometry, and the conversion of masses to numbers of
particles. For instance, 1 mole of water (H₂O) contains 6.023×10²³ water molecules,
regardless of the substance being water, hydrogen, or oxygen.
3. Chemical Reactions: Avogadro's number is essential in understanding chemical reactions
on a quantitative level. It allows chemists to predict how much of a substance will react
with a given amount of another substance. For example, in the reaction 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O,
using Avogadro's number helps determine that two moles of hydrogen gas (H₂) will react
with one mole of oxygen gas (O₂) to produce two moles of water (H₂O), involving
6.023×10²³ molecules of O₂ and 12.046×10²³ molecules of H₂.
4. Atomic and Molecular Masses: Avogadro's number connects atomic and molecular
masses with measurable quantities. For example, the atomic mass of carbon is
approximately 12 atomic mass units (amu). This means that one mole of carbon atoms has
a mass of about 12 grams, and within that mass, there are 6.023×10²³ carbon atoms. This
relationship is crucial for converting between grams and atomic mass units.
5. Applications in Various Fields: Beyond chemistry, Avogadro's number is used in
physics, materials science, and even in fields like biology and pharmacology where it helps
in calculating the number of particles in a given sample or substance. For instance, it plays
a key role in determining the number of molecules in a gas under standard conditions (STP)
and in calculations involving the ideal gas law.
Atomic Linkage

Atoms naturally link or bond to form various materials. This linkage is fundamental in
determining the state of matter—whether it is a gas, liquid, or solid. The nature of the bonds
between atoms plays a crucial role in the properties and stability of the resulting material.

• Tendency to Reach Low Energy States: The bonding between atoms is driven by the
universal tendency of systems to achieve the lowest possible energy state. Atoms naturally
seek to stabilize themselves by reaching a lower energy configuration, which often involves
gaining, losing, or sharing electrons.
• Octet Rule: Most atoms achieve stability by having eight electrons in their outermost shell,
a concept known as the octet rule. This configuration is particularly stable because it
resembles the electron configuration of noble gases, which are inert and chemically non-
reactive.
• Exceptions: The first shell is an exception, as it is stable with only two electrons (e.g., in
hydrogen and helium). Atoms with fewer or more than eight electrons in their outer shell
tend to react with other atoms to achieve a full octet, either by transferring electrons (as in
ionic bonds) or sharing them (as in covalent bonds).
Periodic Table

The periodic table is a systematic arrangement of chemical elements, organized based on their
atomic number, electron configurations, and recurring chemical properties.
• Rows (Periods):

o The periodic table consists of horizontal rows called periods.

o Each period corresponds to the number of electron shells in an atom. For instance,
elements in Period 1 have one electron shell, while elements in Period 2 have two.
o As you move from left to right across a period, the atomic number (the number of
protons in the nucleus) increases, and the elements transition from metals on the left to
non-metals on the right.

• Columns (Groups/Families):

o The vertical columns are called groups or families. Elements in the same group have
similar chemical and physical properties because they have the same number of valence
electrons (electrons in the outermost shell).
o There are 18 groups in the periodic table.

o Group 1 (alkali metals): Highly reactive metals with one valence electron.
o Group 2 (alkaline earth metals): Metals with two valence electrons.
o Groups 3-12 (Transition metals) known for forming various oxidation states.
o Group 17 (halogens): Highly reactive non-metals with seven valence electrons.
 o Group 18 (noble gases): Unreactive gases with a full outer electron shell.

• Metals, Non-metals, and Metalloids:

o The table is divided into three main categories:

o Metals: Found on the left and center of the table. These elements are generally shiny,
good conductors of heat and electricity, and malleable. Examples include iron,
copper, and gold.
o Non-metals: Located on the right side. These elements are poor conductors of heat
and electricity and have varied physical properties. Examples include oxygen,
carbon, and sulfur.
o Metalloids (Transient Metals): Positioned between metals and non-metals (a stair-
step line starting from boron to polonium). Metalloids have properties intermediate
between metals and non-metals. Examples include silicon and arsenic.

• Electronegativity and Electro positivity

o Electropositive Elements: Typically found on the left side of the periodic table,
these elements have low electronegativity and easily lose electrons to form cations.
Metals like sodium (Na) and potassium (K) are examples.
o Electronegative Elements: Found on the right side of the periodic table, these
elements have high electronegativity and readily gain electrons to form anions.
Nonmetals like fluorine (F) and oxygen (O) are examples.
 • Atomic Number and Atomic Mass:

o The elements are arranged by increasing atomic number (number of protons). Each
element has a unique atomic number.
o The atomic mass (average mass of an element’s atoms) typically increases as you move
down a group or across a period, though there are some exceptions due to isotopic
distributions.

• Trends Across the Periodic Table:

o Atomic radius decreases across a period (left to right) and increases down a group.
o Ionization energy (the energy required to remove an electron) increases across a period
and decreases down a group.
o Electronegativity (the tendency of an atom to attract electrons) increases across a period
and decreases down a group.

• Inert Gases (Noble Gases):

Elements with a complete set of eight electrons in their outermost shell are found in the far-right
column of the periodic table. These are the noble gases, including helium (He), neon (Ne), argon
(Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn). Because their outer shells are full, these elements
are chemically inert, meaning they rarely form compounds or participate in chemical reactions.
Electron Configuration and Valence Electrons

Electron Configuration: The electron configuration of an atom describes how electrons are
distributed among the various atomic orbitals. The electron configuration follows the principles
of quantum mechanics, filling orbitals in a specific order (from lower to higher energy levels).

For example:

• Hydrogen (H): 1s¹ (one electron in the first shell)

• Helium (He): 1s² (two electrons in the first shell, filling it completely)
• Carbon (C): 1s² 2s² 2p² (four electrons in the second shell, two in the s orbital and two in
the p orbital)

Valence Electrons: Valence electrons are the electrons located in the outermost shell of an atom.
These electrons play the most crucial role in chemical reactions because they are the ones
involved in forming bonds between atoms. The number of valence electrons determines the
reactivity of an element and its ability to form bonds.

Impact of Valence Electrons: Valence electrons are crucial in determining:

• Types of Atomic Bonds: Whether atoms will share, donate, or accept electrons to form
covalent, ionic, or metallic bonds.
• Interatomic Distances: The distance between the nuclei of bonded atoms, influenced by
the number and distribution of valence electrons.
• Mechanical Strength: How atoms are bonded together can influence the material's
strength, hardness, and ductility.
• Electrical Properties: Materials' conductivity is determined by how easily electrons can
move through them, which depends on the arrangement of valence electrons.
• Chemical Properties: Reactivity and the types of chemical reactions an element can
participate in are governed by its valence electrons.
• Thermal Properties: The ability of a material to conduct heat is also linked to the behavior
of valence electrons.

Stability and Reactivity:

• Atoms with a full outer shell (like the noble gases) are stable and chemically inert because
they do not need to gain or lose electrons. For example, neon (Ne) has an electron
configuration of 1s² 2s² 2p⁶, with 8 electrons in the outermost shell, making it stable and
non-reactive.
 • Atoms with 1 to 3 valence electrons (like sodium, Na) tend to lose those electrons to
achieve a stable configuration similar to the nearest noble gas. These atoms typically form
positive ions (cations).
• Atoms with 5 to 7 valence electrons (like fluorine, F) tend to gain electrons to complete
their outer shell, forming negative ions (anions).
• Atoms with exactly 4 valence electrons (like carbon, C) can either gain or lose electrons,
depending on the chemical environment, making them versatile in forming various types
of bonds.

Atomic Bonding

Atomic Bonding refers to the interactions that hold atoms together within a substance. These
bonds determine the physical and chemical properties of materials and are categorized into two
main types: Primary Bonds and Secondary Bonds.

Primary Bonds

Primary bonds are the strongest type of chemical bonds and include the following:

• Ionic Bonds: Formed when one atom donates one or more of its electrons to another
atom, resulting in the formation of positive and negative ions. The electrostatic attraction
between these oppositely charged ions forms the bond. This type of bond is common in
compounds formed between metals and nonmetals (e.g., NaCl).
o Example: NaCl (Sodium Chloride):

o Sodium (Na): Sodium has 11 electrons. To achieve stability, it donates one electron,
reducing its electron count to 10, thus becoming a positively charged ion (Na⁺).
o Chlorine (Cl): Chlorine has 17 electrons. It gains one electron to complete its outer
shell, making it a negatively charged ion (Cl⁻).
The transfer of electrons from sodium to chlorine is energetically favorable, reducing the overall
energy of the system. After electron transfer, sodium shrinks in size (due to loss of an electron),
while chlorine expands (due to gain of an electron).

• Properties of Ionic Bonding:

1. Electrostatic Attraction: The bond is formed due to strong electrostatic forces between
positively and negatively charged ions (coulombic forces).
2. Non-directional Bonding: Each ion is surrounded by oppositely charged ions, making the
bond non-directional.
3. Strong, Stable, Brittle: Ionic bonds are strong and stable but tend to be brittle due to their
rigid lattice structure.
4. High Melting Points: Ionic compounds typically have high melting points because of the
significant amount of energy required to overcome the electrostatic forces between ions.
5. Poor Electrical Conductivity: In the solid state, ionic compounds are poor conductors of
electricity. However, when molten or dissolved in water, they can conduct electricity due
to the movement of ions.
6. Electronegativity Difference: Ionic bonds form between atoms with significant
differences in electronegativity—typically, one with high electronegativity (e.g., chlorine)
and one with low electronegativity (e.g., sodium).

• Covalent Bonds: In this type of bond, atoms share pairs of electrons to achieve stability.
This shared electron pair constitutes the bond between the atoms. Covalent bonds are
typical in organic compounds (e.g., H₂O, CO₂).

• Examples of Covalent Bonds:

• Cl₂ Molecule: Each chlorine atom has seven valence electrons. By sharing one electron
each, they form a single covalent bond, resulting in a Cl₂ molecule where each chlorine
atom has a full outer shell.

• Properties of Covalent Bonds:

1. Based on Electron Sharing: Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electron pairs between
atoms.
2. Directional Bonding: Each atom in a covalent bond is surrounded by a definite number
of other atoms, leading to the formation of specific molecular shapes.
3. Strong and Hard Bonds: Covalent bonds are generally strong and result in hard, stable
compounds.
4. High Melting Points: Substances with covalent bonds typically have high melting points
due to the strong bonds.
5. Poor Electrical Conductivity: Covalent compounds are generally poor conductors of
electricity because they do not have free-moving charged particles.
6. Forms Between Atoms with High Electronegativity: Covalent bonds usually occur
between non-metals with high electronegativity values, such as in molecules like HCl and
H₂O.
• Metallic Bonds: In metallic bonding, atoms release some of their electrons to form a
"sea of electrons" that is free to move around. This electron cloud results in strong
bonding between the metal atoms, which is responsible for the conductivity and
malleability of metals.

• Example: Metallic Bonding in Sodium (Na)

1. Sodium Atoms in Solid Sodium:

o Sodium is an alkali metal with a single valence electron in its outermost shell (the
3s orbital). In a solid piece of sodium metal, each sodium atom loses its single
valence electron.
2. Formation of Positive Ions:
o When sodium atoms lose their outermost electron, they become positively charged
ions (Na⁺). These positive ions are arranged in a regular, repeating pattern, known
as a crystal lattice.
3. Electron Cloud:
o The lost electrons from each sodium atom do not belong to any particular ion.
Instead, they form a "sea of electrons" that is free to move throughout the entire
metal lattice.
4. Bonding and Properties:
 o The positive sodium ions are held together in the metal by the electrostatic attraction
between them and the freely moving electrons. This attraction is the metallic bond.

Properties of Metallic Bonds:

1. Electron Sharing Among All Atoms:

o The electron cloud allows electrons to move freely between atoms, which is why
metals can conduct electricity so well.
2. Non-Directionality:
o Unlike covalent bonds, which are directional (meaning they only occur between
specific atoms), metallic bonds are non-directional. This means that the strength of
the bond is the same in all directions, contributing to the malleability and ductility
of metals.
3. High Thermal and Electrical Conductivity:
o The free-moving electrons in the electron cloud allow metals to efficiently conduct
both heat and electricity.
4. Moderately Lower Melting Points:
 o Metallic bonds generally result in high melting points, but compared to ionic or
covalent bonds, the melting points are moderate. This is because the strength of
metallic bonds is typically less than that of ionic or covalent bonds.
5. Weakest Primary Bond:
o While metallic bonds are strong, they are generally weaker than ionic and covalent
bonds. This lower bond strength allows metals to be shaped and deformed without
breaking.
6. Ductility and Malleability:
o The ability of metals to be drawn into wires (ductility) or hammered into sheets
(malleability) is a direct consequence of the non-directional nature of metallic bonds
and the free movement of electrons within the metal lattice.

Secondary Bonds

Van der Waals bonding, or van der Waals forces, refers to weak interactions that occur between
neutral atoms or molecules. These forces are not as strong as covalent or ionic bonds but play a
significant role in the physical properties of materials, such as boiling points, melting points, and
solubility.

Types of Van der Waals Forces

Van der Waals bonding includes three main types:

1. Dispersion Forces (London Forces): Caused by temporary dipoles that occur due to
fluctuations in the electron cloud of atoms or non-polar molecules.
 2. Dipole-Dipole Interactions: Occur between molecules with permanent dipoles, such as
in polar molecules.

3. Dipole-Induced Dipole Interactions: Arise when a molecule with a permanent dipole

induces a temporary dipole in a neighboring non-polar molecule.

Example Van der Waals bonding in Argon: An example of Van der Waals bonding is the
interaction between the molecules of argon gas (Ar). In an argon gas sample, the atoms do not
form strong bonds with each other. Instead, they experience weak attractions due to temporary
dipoles caused by the constant motion of electrons. These weak attractions are enough to hold the
gas molecules together at very low temperatures, allowing argon to exist as a liquid or solid under
certain conditions.
Properties of Van der Waals:

1. Weak Intermolecular Forces:

o Van der Waals bonds are significantly weaker than covalent, ionic, or hydrogen
bonds. They arise from temporary dipoles formed in molecules or atoms due to
uneven distribution of electron clouds. These interactions are typically only effective
over short distances and are easily disrupted by heat.

2. Dependence on Distance:

o The strength of van der Waals forces rapidly decreases as the distance between atoms
or molecules increases. Specifically, they vary with the inverse sixth power of the
1
distance between particles ( 6). This means that even a slight increase in distance
𝑟

between molecules or atoms can greatly reduce the attraction.

3. Universality:

o Van der Waals forces exist between all types of molecules and atoms, regardless of
their polarity. They are particularly important in non-polar molecules and noble
gases where other stronger bonding mechanisms (like ionic or hydrogen bonds) are
absent.

4. Influence on Physical Properties:

 o These forces play a crucial role in determining the physical properties of substances,
such as boiling points, melting points, and solubility. Substances with stronger van
der Waals interactions (e.g., larger molecules with greater surface areas) tend to have
higher boiling and melting points since more energy is required to overcome these
weak attractions.

Classification of Different Materials Based on The Types of Atomic Bonds

1. Metals: Metallic Bond

• Metallic Bonding: In metals, the atoms are bonded together through metallic bonds. In
this type of bond, valence electrons are shared collectively by all the atoms in the material,
creating a "sea of electrons." This electron cloud allows metals to conduct electricity and
heat and gives them their malleability and ductility.

2. Ceramics: Ionic/Covalent Bonds

• Ionic Bonding: Ceramics often contain a combination of metallic and non-metallic

elements, such as in aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃). Ionic bonding occurs when electrons are
transferred from one atom (usually a metal) to another atom (usually a non-metal), creating
oppositely charged ions that attract each other.
• Covalent Bonding: Some ceramics also involve covalent bonding, where electrons are
shared between atoms. This type of bond is typically strong and directional, contributing
to the hardness and brittleness of ceramics.

3. Polymers: Covalent and Secondary Bonds

• Covalent Bonding: Polymers, such as plastics, are composed of long chains of molecules
held together by covalent bonds. These bonds form the backbone of the polymer chains,
providing strength and stability.
 • Secondary Bonds: In addition to covalent bonds, polymers often exhibit secondary
bonding (like Van der Waals forces) between the chains. These weaker interactions help
hold the polymer structure together but allow some flexibility and elasticity.

4. Semiconductors: Covalent or Covalent/Ionic Bonds

• Covalent Bonding: Semiconductors like silicon are primarily bonded through covalent
bonds, where each atom shares electrons with its neighbors. This bonding structure allows
semiconductors to conduct electricity under certain conditions, which is crucial for their
function in electronic devices.
• Covalent/Ionic Bonding: In some semiconductors, such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), there
is a mix of covalent and ionic character in the bonding. The partial ionic nature of the bonds
affects the material's electronic properties, making it useful in various applications.