Metric spaces and examples: -

Definition: Set: A set is a well-defined collection of objects with some common properties.

Space: A set equipped with some algebraic or geometric or topological or ordered structure
is called a space.

Metric Spaces:
Let X be a nonempty set and let 𝑑: 𝑋 × 𝑋 ⟶ ℝ be a mapping satisfying the following
conditions

𝑚1 ). 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0, ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋 (non negativeness)

𝑚2 ). 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⟺ 𝑥 = 𝑦 , ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋 (equality)

𝑚3 ). 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥) , ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋 (Symmetry)

𝑚4 ). 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) , ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋 (Triangle inequality)

Then 𝑑 is called a metric or distance functions and (𝑋, 𝑑) is called a metric space.

In this case the elements of 𝑋 are called points.

 1. Consider the real line ℝ and defined a map 𝑑: ℝ × ℝ ⟶ ℝ by 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦|,
∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ. Show that 𝑑 is a metric on ℝ.

Solution: - Here 𝑑: ℝ × ℝ ⟶ ℝ is a map defined by 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦|, ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ.

We are to prove that d is a metric on ℝ.

𝑚1 ). we know that |𝑥 − 𝑦| ≥ 0 , ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ
⟹ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ [by definition of the map 𝑑]

𝑚2 ). 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
⇔ |𝑥 − 𝑦| = 0
⇔ 𝑥−𝑦 =0
⇔ 𝑥=𝑦
∴ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ

𝑚3 ). 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦|
= |(−1)(𝑦 − 𝑥)|
= |(−1)||𝑦 − 𝑥|
= |𝑦 − 𝑥|
= 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥)
∴ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥) , ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ

𝑚4 ). Let 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ
Now 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦|
= |𝑥 − 𝑧 + 𝑧 − 𝑦|
≤ |𝑥 − 𝑧| + |𝑧 − 𝑦|
= 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦)
∴ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) , ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ
Consequently the results 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 together imply that 𝑑 is a metric on ℝ and
hence (ℝ, 𝑑) is a metric space.
Remark: The above metric 𝑑 is known as the usual metric on ℝ.
2. Consider the real line ℝ and define a map 𝑑: ℝ × ℝ ⟶ ℝ by
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥≠𝑦
𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = {
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥=𝑦

Show that d is a metric on ℝ.

Solution: - Here 𝑑: ℝ × ℝ ⟶ ℝ is a map defined by

1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦
𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = ⟦ .
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦

We are to prove that d is a metric on ℝ.

𝑚1 ). Here the range of d consists of exactly two points viz. 1 and 0.
So 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ
𝑚2 ). By definition
𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ
𝑚3 ). Let 𝑥 and 𝑦 be any two points in ℝ
If 𝑥 = 𝑦, then 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 & 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥) = 0 So in this case 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥)

Next suppose that 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦 then 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 1 & 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥) = 1

So in this case also 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥)
Hence we can conclude that 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ
𝑚4 ). Let 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ
If 𝑥 = 𝑦, then 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
And 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) ≥ 0 and 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) ≥ 0
So in this case 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦)
Next suppose that 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦
Then 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 1
Then also we have either 𝑧 ≠ 𝑥 or 𝑧 ≠ 𝑦
i.e. either 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) = 1 or 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) = 1
So in this case also 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦)

∴ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ

Consequently the results 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 together imply that 𝑑 is a metric on

ℝ and hence (ℝ, 𝑑) is a metric space.
Remark:

(1). The above metric 𝑑 is known as the discrete metric on ℝ.

(2). Any arbitrary nonempty set can be made a metric space with respect to a metric
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦
d defined by 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = ⟦
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦

Theorem: Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a metric space. Prove that for any three points 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 the following
result is true. |𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) − 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦)| ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑦

Solution: - By the triangle inequality we have

𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑧)

𝑥

⟹ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) − 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑧) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦)

𝑧
⟹ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) − 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) [Since 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦)] (*)

Again by triangle inequality we have

𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑥) + 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦)

⟹ 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) − 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑥) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦)
⟹ 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) − 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) [Since 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑥) = 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧)] (**)
From the result (*) and (**) we can conclude that
|𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) − 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦)| ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦)

Hence proved.

An important inequality:

Minkowski’s Inequality: -

If {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 … … 𝑎𝑛 } and {𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 … … 𝑏𝑛 } be two finite set of real

numbers or complex numbers then
1 1 1
𝑛 2 𝑛 2 𝑛 2
[∑|𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑖 |2 ] ≤ [∑|𝑎𝑖 |2 ] + [∑|𝑏𝑖 |2 ]
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1
3. Let ℝ3 consists of all three dimensional points 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ), 𝑥𝑖 ′𝑠 ∈ ℝ. Show that
the following mappings are metrics on ℝ3
𝑑1 : ℝ3 × ℝ3 → ℝ defined by
1⁄
3 2
𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = [  ( x i − yi ) ] 2
Where 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) and
i =1

𝑦 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , 𝑦3 ) ∈ ℝ3

3
𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = x
i =1
i − yi

𝑑3 (𝑥, 𝑦) = max { x i − y i , 1 ≤ i ≤ 3}

Solution: - Here ℝ3 = {𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 )|𝑥𝑖′ 𝑠 ∈ ℝ}

and 𝑑1 : ℝ3 × ℝ3 → ℝ defined by
1⁄
3 2
𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = [  ( x i − yi ) 2 ]
i =1

Where 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) and 𝑦 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , 𝑦3 ) ∈ ℝ3

We are to show that 𝑑1 is a metric on ℝ3
𝑚1 ). We know that (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3
3
⟹ 
i =1
(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ≥ 0

1
3 2
⟹ [  (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ] ≥ 0
i =1

⟹ 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ3
𝑚2 ). 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
1
3 2
⇔ [  (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ] = 0
i =1

3
⇔ 
i =1
(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 = 0

⇔ (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 = 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3
⇔ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 = 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3
⇔ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3
 ⇔ 𝑥=𝑦
∴ 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ3
1
3 2
𝑚3 ). 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = [  (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ]
i =1

1
3 2
= [  (𝑦𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 )2 ]
i =1

= 𝑑1 (𝑦, 𝑥)
∴ 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑1 (𝑦, 𝑥) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ3
𝑚4 ). Let 𝑧 = (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 ) ∈ ℝ3
1
3 2
Now 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = [  (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ]
i =1

1
3 2
= [  (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑧𝑖 + 𝑧𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ]
i =1

1 1
3 2 3 2
≤ [  (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑧𝑖 )2 ] + [  (𝑧𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ]
i =1 i =1

[By Minkowski’s inequality]

= 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑1 (𝑧, 𝑦)
∴ 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑1 (𝑧, 𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ3

Consequently the results 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 together imply that 𝑑1 is a metric

on ℝ3 and hence (ℝ3 , 𝑑) is a metric space.

(2). Solution: - Here ℝ3 = {𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 )|𝑥𝑖′ 𝑠 ∈ ℝ}

3
and 𝑑2 : ℝ3 × ℝ3 → ℝ defined by𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = i =1
|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 |

Where 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) and 𝑦 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , 𝑦3 ) ∈ ℝ3

We are to show that 𝑑2 is a metric on ℝ3
𝑚1 ). we |𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 | ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3
3
⟹ i =1
|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 | ≥ 0

⟹ 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ3
 𝑚2 ). 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
3
⇔ 
i =1
|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 | = 0

⇔ |𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 | = 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3
⇔ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 = 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3
⇔ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3
⇔ 𝑥=𝑦
∴ 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ3
3
𝑚3 ). 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 
i =1
|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 |

3
= i =1
|𝑦𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 |

= 𝑑2 (𝑦, 𝑥)
∴ 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑2 (𝑦, 𝑥) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ3

𝑚4 ). Let 𝑧 = (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 ) ∈ ℝ3
3
Now 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) =  i =1
|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 |

3
= i =1
|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑧𝑖 + 𝑧𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 |

3 3
≤ 
i =1
|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑧𝑖 | + 
i =1
|𝑧𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 |

= 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑2 (𝑧, 𝑦)
∴ 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑2 (𝑧, 𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ3
Consequently the results 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 together imply that 𝑑2 is a metric on ℝ3 and
hence (ℝ3 , 𝑑) is a metric space.
 4. Let ℝ𝑛 consists of all n dimensional points 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … 𝑥𝑛 ), 𝑥𝑖 ′𝑠 ∈ ℝ𝑛 . Show that
the following mappings are metrics on ℝ𝑛
1⁄
n 2
𝑑1 : ℝ𝑛 × ℝ𝑛 → ℝ defined by 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = [  ( x i − y i ) 2 ]
i =1

Where 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … 𝑥𝑛 ), 𝑦 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … 𝑦𝑛 ) ∈ ℝ𝑛

n
𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = x
i =1
i − yi

max
𝑑3 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 1≤i≤n { x i − yi }

Solution: - Here ℝ𝑛 be the collections of n tuples 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … 𝑥𝑛 ), 𝑥𝑖 ′𝑠 ∈ ℝ𝑛 .

and 𝑑1 : ℝ𝑛 × ℝ𝑛 → ℝ be a map defined by
1⁄
n 2
𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = [  (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 ) ] 2
i =1

Where 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … 𝑥𝑛 ), 𝑦 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … 𝑦𝑛 ) ∈ ℝ𝑛

We are to show that 𝑑1 is a metric on ℝ𝑛

𝑚1 ). We have (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛

n
⟹ 
i =1
(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ≥ 0

1
n 2
⟹ [  (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ] ≥ 0 [taking the square root]
i =1

⟹ 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ𝑛
𝑚2 ). 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
1
n 2
⇔ [  (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ] = 0
i =1

n
⇔ 
i =1
(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 = 0

⇔ (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 = 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛
⇔ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 = 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛
⇔ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛
⇔ 𝑥=𝑦
∴ 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ3
 1
n 2
𝑚3 ). 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = [  (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ]
i =1

1
n 2
= [  (𝑦𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 )2 ]
i =1

= |(−1)||𝑦 − 𝑥|
= 𝑑1 (𝑦, 𝑥)
∴ 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑1 (𝑦, 𝑥) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ𝑛

𝑚4 ). Let 𝑧 = (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , … … 𝑧𝑛 ) ∈ ℝ𝑛
1
n 2
Now 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = [  (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ]
i =1

1
n 2
= [  (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑧𝑖 + 𝑧𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ]
i =1

1 1
n 2 n 2
≤ [  (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑧𝑖 )2 ] + [  (𝑧𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ]
i =1 i =1

[By Minkowski’s inequality]

= 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑1 (𝑧, 𝑦)
∴ 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑1 (𝑧, 𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ
Consequently the results 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 together imply that 𝑑1 is a metric on ℝ𝑛 and
hence (ℝ𝑛 , 𝑑) is a metric space.

(2). Here ℝ𝑛 be the collections of n tuples 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … 𝑥𝑛 ), 𝑥𝑖 ′𝑠 ∈ ℝ𝑛 .

and 𝑑2 : ℝ𝑛 × ℝ𝑛 → ℝ be a map defined by
3
𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 
i =1
|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 |

Where 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … 𝑥𝑛 ), 𝑦 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … 𝑦𝑛 ) ∈ ℝ𝑛

We want to show that 𝑑2 is a metric on ℝ𝑛
𝑚1 ). we have |𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 | ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛
n
⟹ 
i =1
|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 | ≥ 0

⟹ 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ𝑛
 𝑚2 ). 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
n
⇔ 
i =1
|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 | = 0

⇔ |𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 | = 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛
⇔ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 = 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛
⇔ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛
⇔ 𝑥=𝑦
∴ 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ𝑛

n
𝑚3 ). 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 
i =1
|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 |

n
= i =1
|𝑦𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 |

= 𝑑2 (𝑦, 𝑥)
∴ 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑2 (𝑦, 𝑥) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ𝑛

𝑚4 ). Let 𝑧 = (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , … … 𝑧𝑛 ) ∈ ℝ𝑛
n
Now 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) =  i =1
|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 |

n
= i =1
|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑧𝑖 + 𝑧𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 |

n n
≤ 
i =1
|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑧𝑖 | + 
i =1
|𝑧𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 |

[By Minkowski’s inequality]

= 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑2 (𝑧, 𝑦)
∴ 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑2 (𝑧, 𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ𝑛
Consequently the results 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 together imply that 𝑑2 is a metric on ℝ𝑛 and
hence (ℝ𝑛 , 𝑑2 ) is a metric space.
(3). Here ℝ𝑛 be the collections of all n-tuples, 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … 𝑥𝑛 ), 𝑥𝑖 ′𝑠 ∈ ℝ𝑛 .
and 𝑑2 : ℝ𝑛 × ℝ𝑛 → ℝ be a map defined by
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑑3 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 1≤𝑖≤𝑛 |𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 |
Where 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … 𝑥𝑛 ), 𝑦 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … 𝑦𝑛 ) ∈ ℝ𝑛
We want to show that 𝑑2 is a metric on ℝ𝑛
𝑚1 ). we have |𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 | ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛
𝑚𝑎𝑥
⟹ 1≤𝑖≤𝑛 |𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 | ≥ 0
⟹ 𝑑3 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ𝑛

𝑚2 ). 𝑑3 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
𝑚𝑎𝑥
⇔ 1≤𝑖≤𝑛
|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 | = 0
⇔ |𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 | = 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛
⇔ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 = 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛
⇔ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛
⇔ 𝑥=𝑦
∴ 𝑑3 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ𝑛

𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑚3 ). 𝑑3 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 1≤𝑖≤𝑛 |𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 |
𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 1≤𝑖≤𝑛 |𝑦𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 |
= 𝑑3 (𝑦, 𝑥)
∴ 𝑑3 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑3 (𝑦, 𝑥) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ𝑛

𝑚4 ). Let 𝑧 = (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , … … 𝑧𝑛 ) ∈ ℝ𝑛
𝑚𝑎𝑥
Now 𝑑3 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 1≤𝑖≤𝑛 |𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 |
𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 1≤𝑖≤𝑛 |𝑥𝑖 − 𝑧𝑖 + 𝑧𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 |
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥
≤ 1≤𝑖≤𝑛
|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑧𝑖 | + 1≤𝑖≤𝑛 |𝑧𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 |
= 𝑑3 (𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑3 (𝑧, 𝑦)
∴ 𝑑3 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑3 (𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑3 (𝑧, 𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ𝑛
Consequently the results 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 together imply that 𝑑2 is a metric on ℝ𝑛 and
hence (ℝ𝑛 , 𝑑3 ) is a metric space.
5. Let 𝑙2 be the set consists of all real sequences 𝑥 = x n n =1 having the property that


x
n =1
2
n   . Prove that 𝑙2 is a metric space with respect to a metric defined by you.


Solution: - Here 𝑙2 = {𝑥 = {𝑥𝑛 }∞
𝑛=1 | 
n =1
𝑥𝑛2 < ∞ }

Let us define a map 𝑑: 𝑙2 × 𝑙2 → ℝ by

1⁄
 2
𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = [  (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 )2 ]
n =1

Where 𝑥 = {𝑥𝑛 }, 𝑦 = {𝑦𝑛 } ∈ 𝑙2

We first want to show that 𝑑 is well defined.

Since 𝑥 = {𝑥𝑛 }, 𝑦 = {𝑦𝑛 } ∈ 𝑙2

 
∃ positive constants A and B such that 
n =1
𝑥𝑛2 < 𝐴 & 
n =1
𝑥𝑛2 < 𝐵

1⁄
 2
Now 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = [  (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 )2 ]
n =1

1⁄
 2
= [  {𝑥𝑛 + (−𝑦𝑛 )}2 ]
n =1

1⁄ 1⁄
 2  2
≤ [  𝑥𝑛 2 ] + [  𝑦𝑛 2 ] [By Minlowskis’s Inequality]
n =1 n =1

1 1
≤ 𝐴2 + 𝐵 2

1 1
=𝐾 Where 𝐾 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 is a positive constant

Thus for every pair of points 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑙2 , 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) represents a non-negative

definite real number and so d is well defined.
 Next we want to show that d is a metric on 𝑙2 .

𝑚1 ). We have (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 )2 ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … … ∞


⟹ 
n =1
(𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 )2 ≥ 0

1
 2
⟹ [  (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 )2 ] ≥ 0 [taking the square root]
n =1

⟹ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑙2

𝑚2 ). 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0

1
 2
⇔ [  (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 )2 ] = 0
n =1


⇔ 
n =1
(𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 )2 = 0

⇔ (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 )2 = 0 ∀ 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … … ∞

⇔ 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 = 0 ∀ 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … … ∞

⇔ 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑦𝑛 ∀ 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … … ∞

⇔ 𝑥=𝑦

∴ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑙2

1
 2
𝑚3 ). 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = [  (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 )2 ]
n =1

1
 2
= [  (𝑦𝑛 − 𝑥𝑛 )2 ]
n =1

= 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥)
 ∴ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑙2

𝑚4 ). Let 𝑧 = {𝑧𝑛 }∞
𝑛=1 ∈ 𝑙2

1
n 2
Now 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = [  (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 )2 ]
n =1

1
n 2
= [  (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑧𝑛 + 𝑧𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 )2 ]
n =1

1 1
n 2 n 2
≤ [  (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑧𝑛 )2 ] + [  (𝑧𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 )2 ]
n =1 n =1

[By Minkowski’s inequality]

The above inequality is true for any positive integer n and hence letting 𝑛 → ∞ we obtain

1 1 1
 2  2  2
[  (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 )2 ] ≤ [  (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑧𝑛 )2 ] + [  (𝑧𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 )2 ]
n =1 n =1 n =1

⟹ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑙2

Consequently the results 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 together imply that 𝑑1 is a metric on 𝑙2 and

hence (𝑙2 , 𝑑) is a metric space.
 6. Let 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏] be the collections of all continuous real valued functions defined on the
closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]. Prove that 𝑐[𝑎, 𝑏] is a metric space with each of the following
metrics

i). 𝑑: 𝑐[𝑎, 𝑏] × 𝑐[𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ such that

𝑑(𝑓, 𝑔) = sup{|𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)|: 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]}

𝑏
ii). 𝜌(𝑓, 𝑔) = ∫𝑎 |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)|𝑑𝑥

Solution: - Here 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑓 |𝑓: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ & 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠} and

𝑑: 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏] × 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏] ⟶ ℝ is a map defined by

𝑑(𝑓, 𝑔) = sup{|𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)|: 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]}

We first want to show that d is well defined

Since f and g are continuous functions on [𝑎, 𝑏] they are bounded. So ∃

positive constants 𝐾1 and 𝐾2 such that |𝑓(𝑥)| ≤ 𝐾1 and |𝑔(𝑥)| ≤ 𝐾2 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]

Now 𝑑(𝑓, 𝑔) = sup{|𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)|: 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]}

≤ sup{|𝑓(𝑥)| + |𝑔(𝑥)|: 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]}

≤ 𝑠𝑢𝑝 {𝐾1 + 𝐾2 : 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] }

= 𝐾1 + 𝐾2

= 𝐾 (say), a positive constant.

𝑑(𝑓, 𝑔) ≤ 𝐾, ∀ 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]

Thus foe every pair of points 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏], 𝑑(𝑓, 𝑔) always represents a definite real
number and hence d is well defined.

Next we want to show that d is a metric on 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏].

𝑚1 ). we have |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)| ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]

⟹ sup{|𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)|: 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]} ≥ 0

⟹ 𝑑(𝑓, 𝑔) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏]

𝑚2 ). 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0

⇔ sup{|𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)|: 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]} = 0

⇔ |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)| = 0

⇔ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = 0

⇔ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)

⇔ 𝑓=𝑔

∴ 𝑑(𝑓, 𝑔) = 0 ⇔ 𝑓 = 𝑔 ∀ 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏]

𝑚3 ). 𝑑(𝑓, 𝑔) = sup{|𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)|: 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]}

= sup{|𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)|: 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]}

= 𝑑(𝑔, 𝑓)

∴ 𝑑(𝑓, 𝑔) = 𝑑(𝑔, 𝑓) ∀ 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏]

𝑚4 ). Let ℎ ∈ 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏]

Now 𝑑(𝑓, 𝑔) = sup{|𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)|: 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]}

= sup{|𝑓(𝑥) − ℎ(𝑥) + ℎ(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)|: 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]}

≤ sup{|𝑓(𝑥) − ℎ(𝑥)|: 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]} + sup{|ℎ(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)|: 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]}

= 𝑑(𝑓, ℎ) + 𝑑(ℎ, 𝑔)

∴ 𝑑(𝑓, 𝑔) ≤ 𝑑(𝑓, ℎ) + 𝑑(ℎ, 𝑔) ∀ 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ ∈ 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏]

Consequently the results 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 together imply that 𝑑 is a metric on

𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏] and hence (𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏], 𝑑) is a metric space.
(2). Here 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑓 |𝑓: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ & 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠} and
𝜌: 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏] × 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏] ⟶ ℝ is a map defined by

𝑏
𝜌(𝑓, 𝑔) = ∫𝑎 |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)|𝑑𝑥

We first want to show that 𝜌 is well defined

Since the difference of two continuous functions is a continuous

function 𝑓 − 𝑔 is also continuous. Since the Riemann integration on a continous
𝑏
function always exists, so ∫𝑎 |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)|𝑑𝑥 exists.

Thus for every pair of points 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏], 𝜌(𝑓, 𝑔) always represents a definite real
number and hence d is well defined.

Next we want to show that d is a metric on 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏].

𝑚1 ). we have |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)| ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]

𝑏
⟹ ∫𝑎 |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)|𝑑𝑥 ≥ 0
⟹ 𝜌(𝑓, 𝑔) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏]
𝑚2 ). 𝜌(𝑓, 𝑔) = 0
𝑏
⇔ ∫𝑎 |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)|𝑑𝑥 = 0
⇔ |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)| = 0
⇔ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = 0
⇔ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)
⇔ 𝑓=𝑔
∴ 𝜌(𝑓, 𝑔) = 0 ⇔ 𝑓 = 𝑔 ∀ 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏]

𝑏
∫𝑎 |𝑓(𝑥)|𝑑𝑥 = 0 ⇒ |𝑓(𝑥)| = 0

𝑏
𝑚3 ). 𝜌(𝑓, 𝑔) = ∫𝑎 |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)|𝑑𝑥

𝑏
= ∫𝑎 |𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)|𝑑𝑥

= 𝑑(𝑔, 𝑓)
 ∴ 𝑑(𝑓, 𝑔) = 𝑑(𝑔, 𝑓) ∀ 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏]

𝑚4 ). Let ℎ ∈ 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏]

𝑏
Now 𝜌(𝑓, 𝑔) = ∫𝑎 |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)|𝑑𝑥

𝑏
= ∫𝑎 |𝑓(𝑥) − ℎ(𝑥) + ℎ(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)| 𝑑𝑥

𝑏 𝑏
≤ ∫𝑎 |𝑓(𝑥) − ℎ(𝑥)|𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑎 |ℎ(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)|𝑑𝑥

= 𝜌(𝑓, ℎ) + 𝜌(ℎ, 𝑔)

∴ 𝜌(𝑓, 𝑔) ≤ 𝜌(𝑓, ℎ) + 𝜌(ℎ, 𝑔) ∀ 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ ∈ 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏]

Consequently the results 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 together imply that 𝜌 is a metric on

𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏] and hence (𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏], 𝜌) is a metric space.

7. Let 𝑋 consists of all real sequences = {𝑥𝑛 }∞

𝑛=1 . Prove that 𝑋 is a metric space with


|𝑥𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |
respect to the metric 𝑑 defined by 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2𝑛 [1+|𝑥𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |]
n =1

Solution: -Here 𝑋 = {𝑥 = {𝑥𝑛 }∞

𝑛=1 |𝑥𝑛 ′𝑠 ∈ ℝ} and 𝑑: 𝑋 × 𝑋 → ℝ is a map defined by

 |𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 |
𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 
n =1
2𝑛 [1 + |𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 |]

We first want to show that d is well defined.

We have |𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 | ≥ 0 ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ

⟹ 1 + |𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 | ≥ 1 ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ

Now |𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 | < |𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 | + 1 ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ

|𝑥𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |
⟹ <1 ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ
1+|𝑥𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |
 |𝑥𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 | 1
⟹ 𝑛
< 2𝑛 ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ
2 [1+|𝑥𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |]

  1

 
|𝑥𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 | 1 2
⟹ < = 1 =1 ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ
2𝑛 [1+|𝑥𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |] 2𝑛 1−
n =1 n =1 2

⟹ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 1

Thus for every pair of points (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑋, 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) always takes a definite real number
and hence d is well defined.

Next we want to show that d is a metric on X.

𝑚1 ). We have |𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 | ≥ 0, ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ

& 1 + |𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 | ≥ 1 ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ

|𝑥 −𝑦𝑛 |
⟹ 1+|𝑥𝑛 ≥0 ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ
𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |

𝑛 |𝑥 −𝑦𝑛 |
⟹ 2𝑛[1+|𝑥 ≥0 ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ
𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |]


|𝑥𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |
⟹ 𝑛 ≥0
2 [1+|𝑥𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |]
n =1

⟹ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋

𝑚2 ). 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0


|𝑥𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |
⇔ =0
2𝑛 [1+|𝑥𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |]
n =1

|𝑥𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |
⇔ =0 ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ
2𝑛 [1+|𝑥𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |]

⇔ |𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 | = 0 ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ

⇔ 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 = 0

⇔ 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑦𝑛
 ⇔ 𝑥=𝑦

∴ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋


|𝑥𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |
𝑚3 ). 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2𝑛 [1+|𝑥𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |]
n =1


|𝑦𝑛 −𝑥𝑛 |
= 2𝑛 [1+|𝑦𝑛 −𝑥𝑛 |]
n =1

= 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥)

∴ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋

𝑚4 ). Let 𝑧 = {𝑧𝑛 }∞
𝑛=1 ∈ 𝑋

|𝑥𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 | 1
Now = 1 − 1+|𝑥
1+|𝑥𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 | 𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |

1
≤ 1 − 1+|𝑥
𝑛 −𝑧𝑛 |+|𝑧𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |

|𝑥 −𝑧𝑛 |+|𝑧𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |

= 1+|𝑥𝑛
𝑛 −𝑧𝑛 |+|𝑧𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |

|𝑥𝑛 −𝑧𝑛 | |𝑧𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |

= 1+|𝑥 + 1+|𝑥
𝑛 −𝑧𝑛 |+|𝑧𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 | 𝑛 −𝑧𝑛 |+|𝑧𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |

|𝑥 −𝑧𝑛 | |𝑧 −𝑦𝑛 |
≤ 1+|𝑥𝑛 |
+ 1+|𝑧𝑛
𝑛 −𝑧𝑛 𝑛 −𝑦𝑛 |

|𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 | |𝑥𝑛 − 𝑧𝑛 | |𝑧𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 |

∴ ≤ 𝑛 + 𝑛
2𝑛 [1 + |𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 |] 2 [1 + |𝑥𝑛 − 𝑧𝑛 |] 2 [1 + |𝑧𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 |]

 |𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 |  |𝑥𝑛 − 𝑧𝑛 |  |𝑧𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 |

⟹ 
n =1
𝑛
2 [1 + |𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 |]
≤ 
n =1
𝑛
2 [1 + |𝑥𝑛 − 𝑧𝑛 |]
+ 
n =1
2𝑛 [1+ |𝑧𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 |]

⟹ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋

∴ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋

Consequently the results 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 together imply that 𝑑 is a metric on 𝑋 and

hence (𝑋, 𝑑) is a metric space.
8. Prove that the product of two metric spaces is a metric space.

Solution: -

Let (𝑋1 , 𝑑1 ) and (𝑋2 , 𝑑2 ) be two metric spaces.

Let 𝑋 = 𝑋1 × 𝑋2

= {𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) |𝑥𝑥1 ∈𝑋
∈𝑋
1
}
2 2

We define a map 𝑑: 𝑋 × 𝑋 ⟶ ℝ

𝑥=(𝑥1 ,𝑥2 )
𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = √𝑑12 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + 𝑑22 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) where 𝑦=(𝑦 ,𝑦 )
∈𝑋
1 2

We need to show that d is a metric on 𝑋.

𝑚1 ). Let 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) & 𝑦 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 ) ∈ 𝑋 Then 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ∈ 𝑋1 & 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ∈ 𝑋2

Since 𝑑1 and 𝑑2 are metrics, so

𝑑1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) ≥ 0 & 𝑑2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) ≥ 0

⟹ 𝑑12 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) ≥ 0 & 𝑑22 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) ≥ 0

⟹ 𝑑12 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) ≥ 0 + 𝑑22 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) ≥ 0

⟹ √𝑑12 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + 𝑑22 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) ≥ 0 [Taking positive square root]

⟹ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋

𝑚2 ). 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0

⇔ √𝑑12 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + 𝑑22 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = 0

⇔ 𝑑12 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + 𝑑22 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = 0

⇔ 𝑑12 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = 0 & 𝑑22 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = 0

⇔ 𝑑1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = 0 & 𝑑2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = 0

 ⇔ 𝑥1 = 𝑦1 & 𝑥2 = 𝑦2

⇔ 𝑥=𝑦

∴ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋

𝑚3 ). 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = √𝑑12 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + 𝑑22 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )

= √𝑑12 (𝑦1 , 𝑥1 ) + 𝑑22 (𝑦2 , 𝑥2 )

= 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥)

∴ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋

𝑚4 ). Let 𝑧 = (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ) ∈ 𝑋

Now 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = √𝑑12 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + 𝑑22 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )

≤ √[𝑑1 (𝑥1 , 𝑧1 ) + 𝑑1 (𝑧1 , 𝑦1 )]2 + [ 𝑑2 (𝑧2 , 𝑦2 ) + 𝑑2 (𝑧2 , 𝑦2 )]2

≤ √𝑑12 (𝑥1 , 𝑧1 ) + 𝑑22 (𝑥2 , 𝑧2 ) + √𝑑12 (𝑧1 , 𝑦1 ) + 𝑑22 (𝑧2 , 𝑦2 )

= 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) [By Minlowski’s Inequality]

∴ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋

Consequently the results 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 together imply that 𝑑 is a metric on 𝑋 and

hence (𝑋, 𝑑) is a metric space.

9. Prove that the product of n metric spaces is a metric space.

Solution: - Let (𝑋1 , 𝑑1 ), (𝑋2 , 𝑑2 ), … … (𝑋𝑛 , 𝑑𝑛 ) be n metric spaces.

Let 𝑋 = 𝑋1 × 𝑋2 × … … × 𝑋𝑛

𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … 𝑥𝑛 ), 𝑦 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … 𝑦𝑛 ) be two elements of X then we define a map

1
n 2
𝑑: 𝑋 × 𝑋 → ℝ by 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = [  𝑑𝑖2 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )]
i =1
We want to show that d is a metric on 𝑋.

𝑚1 ). Since 𝑑𝑖′ 𝑠 are metrics.

𝑑𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 ) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛

⟹ 𝑑𝑖2 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 ) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛

1
n 2
⟹ [  𝑑𝑖2 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )] ≥ 0 [taking the square root]
i =1

⟹ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋

𝑚2 ). 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0

1
n 2
⇔ [  𝑑𝑖2 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )] = 0
i =1

n
⇔ 
i =1
𝑑𝑖2 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 ) = 0

⇔ 𝑑𝑖2 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 ) = 0 ∀ 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛

⇔ 𝑑𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 ) = 0 ∀ 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛

⇔ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 ∀ 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛 , [Since 𝑑𝑖′ 𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠]

⇔ 𝑥=𝑦

∴ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑙2

1
n 2
𝑚3 ). 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = [  𝑑𝑖2 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )]
i =1
 1
n 2
= [  𝑑𝑖2 (𝑦𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖 )]
i =1

= 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥)

∴ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋

𝑚4 ). Let 𝑧 = (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … 𝑧𝑛 ) ∈ 𝑋

1
n 2
Now 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = [  𝑑𝑖2 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )]
i =1

1
n 2
≤ [  {𝑑𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑧𝑖 ) + 𝑑𝑖 (𝑧𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )}2 ]
i =1

1 1
n 2 n 2
≤ [  𝑑𝑖2 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑧𝑖 )] + [  𝑑𝑖2 (𝑧𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )]
i =1 i =1

[By Minkowski’s inequality]

= 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋

∴ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋

Consequently the results 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 together imply that 𝑑 is a metric on 𝑋 and

hence (𝑋, 𝑑) is a metric space.
10. Let 𝑋 = 𝑋1 × 𝑋2 × … … × 𝑋𝑛 . Show that X is a metric space with respect to a metric
n
𝜌 defined by 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = i =1
𝑑𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )

Solution: - Let (𝑋1 , 𝑑1 ), (𝑋2 , 𝑑2 ), … … (𝑋𝑛 , 𝑑𝑛 ) be n metric spaces.

Here 𝑋 = 𝑋1 × 𝑋2 × … … × 𝑋𝑛

Let 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … 𝑥𝑛 ), 𝑦 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … 𝑦𝑛 ) be two elements of 𝑋

n
We define a map 𝜌: 𝑋 × 𝑋 → ℝ by 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = i =1
𝑑𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )

We want to show that 𝜌 is a metric on 𝑋.

𝑚1 ). we have 𝑑𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 ) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛

n
⟹ i =1
𝑑𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 ) ≥ 0

⟹ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋

𝑚2 ). 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0

n
⇔ i =1
𝑑𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 ) = 0

⇔ 𝑑𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 ) = 0 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛

⇔ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 ∀ 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … … 𝑛 [Since 𝑑𝑖′ 𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠]

⇔ 𝑥=𝑦

∴ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ𝑛

n
𝑚3 ). 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 
i =1
𝑑𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )
 n
= 
i =1
𝑑𝑖 (𝑦𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖 ) [By Symmetric properties of 𝑑𝑖 ′𝑠]

= 𝜌(𝑦, 𝑥)

∴ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝜌(𝑦, 𝑥) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋

𝑚4 ). Let 𝑧 = (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , … … 𝑧𝑛 ) ∈ 𝑋

n
Now 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = i =1
𝑑𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )

n
= 
i =1
𝑑𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑧𝑖 ) + 𝑑𝑖 (𝑧𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )

n n
≤ i =1
𝑑𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑧𝑖 ) + 
i =1
𝑑𝑖 (𝑧𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )

= 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝜌(𝑧, 𝑦)

∴ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝜌(𝑧, 𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋

Consequently the results 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 together imply that 𝜌 is a metric on 𝑋 and

hence (𝑋, 𝜌) is a metric space.

𝑑(𝑥,𝑦)
11. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a metric space. If we define a map 𝜌 by 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 1+𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦)

∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋. Prove that 𝜌 is also a metric on X.

Solution: - Here (𝑋, 𝑑) be a metric space and 𝜌: 𝑋 × 𝑋 → ℝ be a map defined by
𝑑(𝑥,𝑦)
𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 1+𝑑(𝑥, ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋
𝑦)

𝑚1 ). Since 𝑑𝑖′ 𝑠 are metrics.

𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 [∵ 𝑑 is a metric]
⟹ 1 + 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0
𝑑(𝑥,𝑦)
⟹ 1+𝑑(𝑥,𝑦) ≥ 0

⟹ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋
 𝑚2 ). 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
𝑑(𝑥,𝑦)
⇔ =0
1+𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦)

⇔ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
⇔ 𝑥=𝑦
∴ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋

𝑑(𝑥,𝑦)
𝑚3 ). 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 1+𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥)
=
1+𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥)

= 𝜌(𝑦, 𝑥)
∴ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝜌(𝑦, 𝑥) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋

𝑚4 ). Let 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋
𝑑(𝑥,𝑦) 1
Now = 1 − 1+𝑑(𝑥,𝑦)
1+𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦)
1
≤ 1 − 1+𝑑(𝑥,𝑧)+𝑑(𝑧,𝑦)
𝑑(𝑥,𝑧)+𝑑(𝑧,𝑦)
=
1+𝑑(𝑥,𝑧)+𝑑(𝑧,𝑦)
𝑑(𝑥,𝑧) 𝑑(𝑧,𝑦)
= + 1+𝑑(𝑥,𝑧)+𝑑(𝑧,𝑦)
1+𝑑(𝑥,𝑧)+𝑑(𝑧,𝑦)

𝑑(𝑥,𝑧) 𝑑(𝑧,𝑦)
≤ + 1+𝑑(𝑧,𝑦)
1+𝑑(𝑥,𝑧)

= 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝜌(𝑧, 𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋
∴ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝜌(𝑧, 𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋
Consequently the results 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 together imply that 𝜌 is a metric on 𝑋 and
hence (𝑋, 𝜌) is a metric space.
 12. Let X be a metric space with respect to two metrics 𝑑1 and 𝑑2 . If we define a map 𝜌
by 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) , ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋.
Solution: -
Here 𝑋 be a metric space with respect to two metrics 𝑑1 and 𝑑2 .
We define a map 𝜌: 𝑋 × 𝑋 → ℝ by
𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) , ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋.
We want to show that 𝜌 is a metric on 𝑋
𝑚1 ). Since 𝑑1 and 𝑑2 are metrics
∴ 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 and 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0
⟹ 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0
⟹ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋
𝑚2 ). 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
⇔ 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
⇔ 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 & 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
⇔ 𝑥=𝑦
∴ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋
𝑚3 ). 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦)
= 𝑑1 (𝑦, 𝑥) + 𝑑2 (𝑦, 𝑥) [By symmetric properties in 𝑑1 & 𝑑2 ]
= 𝜌(𝑦, 𝑥)
∴ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝜌(𝑦, 𝑥) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋

𝑚4 ). Let 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋
Now 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑦)
≤ 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑1 (𝑧, 𝑦) + 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑2 (𝑧, 𝑦)
[ Since 𝑑1 & 𝑑2 are metrices]
= 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑2 (𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑1 (𝑧, 𝑦) + 𝑑2 (𝑧, 𝑦)
= 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝜌(𝑧, 𝑦) [By Minlowski’s
Inequality]
∴ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝜌(𝑧, 𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋
Consequently the results 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 together imply that 𝜌 is a metric on 𝑋 and
hence (𝑋, 𝜌) is a metric space.
 13. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) is a metric spaces if we define a map 𝜌 by 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = min {1, 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦)}.
Prove that 𝜌 is also a metric on X.
Solution: -
Here (𝑋, 𝑑) is a metric space.
We define a map 𝜌: 𝑋 × 𝑋 → ℝ by
𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = min {1, 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦)}
We want to show that 𝜌 is a metric on 𝑋
𝑚1 ). Since 𝑑 is a metric
∴ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋
Again we also know that 1 > 0
∴ min {1, 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦)} ≥ 0
⟹ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋

𝑚2 ). 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
⇔ min {1, 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦)} = 0
⇔ {1, 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦)} = 0
⇔ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 [∵ 1 ≠ 0]
⇔ 𝑥=𝑦 [Since 𝑑 is a metric]
∴ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋
𝑚3 ). 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = min {1, 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦)}
= min {1, 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥)} [By symmetric properties in 𝑑1 & 𝑑2 ]
= 𝜌(𝑦, 𝑥)
∴ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝜌(𝑦, 𝑥) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋
𝑚4 ). Let 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋
Now 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = min {1, 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦)}
≤ min {1, 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦)}
≤ min{1, 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧)} + min{1, 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦)}
[ Since 𝑑1 & 𝑑2 are metrices]
= 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝜌(𝑧, 𝑦) [By Minlowski’s Inequality]
∴ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝜌(𝑧, 𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋
Consequently the results 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 together imply that 𝜌 is a metric on 𝑋 and
hence (𝑋, 𝜌) is a metric space.
14. Let ℝ represents the real line. We define a map 𝑑 by 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) =
|𝑥| + |𝑦| 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦
⟦ . Show that d is a metric on ℝ.
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦

Solution: - Here 𝑑: ℝ × ℝ ⟶ ℝ is a map defined by

|𝑥| + |𝑦| 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦
𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = ⟦
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦

We are to prove that d is a metric on ℝ.

𝑚1 ). Since |𝑥| ≥ 0 & |𝑦| ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ

⟹ |𝑥| + |𝑦| ≥ 0

⟹ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ [by definition of the map 𝑑]

𝑚2 ). By the given hypothesis

𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦 ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ

𝑚3 ). Let x and y be any two points in ℝ.

If 𝑥 = 𝑦 then 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 & 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥) = 0

So in this case 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥)

If 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦 then 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥| + |𝑦|

= |𝑦| + |𝑥|

= 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥)

∴ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥)

Hence we can conclude that 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ

𝑚4 ). Let x, y, z be any three elements in ℝ.

If 𝑥 = 𝑦 then 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
 And 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) ≥ 0 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) ≥ 0

So in this case 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦)

Next suppose that 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦

Then 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥| + |𝑦|

≤ |𝑥| + |𝑧| + |𝑧| + |𝑦|

= 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦)

∴ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ

Consequently the results 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 together imply that 𝑑 is a metric on ℝ and

hence (ℝ, 𝑑) is a metric space.