Course 1.

Animal diets sources

In animal diets can be used a variety of sources (feeds), which are mainly
of vegetable origin and animal origin.
Synthetic amino acids, mineral supplements, vitamin supplements, and other
additives can be added alongside basic feeds to prepare complete diets for animals.
The most used criterion of classifying the nourishment sources of animals
is based on their nutritional density.
From this point of view, feeds can be delimited into: (α) volume feeds
(presented first) and (β) concentrate feeds (presented afterwards).

α. Volume feeds

Volume feeds in the natural state (not by reference to the dry matter content)
have lower nutritional values, compared to concentrate feeds.
The most important sources of volume feeds in their priority of presentation
are:
* Green fodders
* Silages
* Hays, artificially dried forages and straws
* Roots, tubers and their by-products

Green fodders

Green fodders are the basic nourishment sources in the warm seasons for
herbivores.
First of all, green fodders are characterized by high water content (70-85%),
the one that induces high intake, high digestibility, diuretics and dietetics effects.
Green fodders have good energy and protein nutritional values, they are
excellent sources of vitamins and minerals, contributing decisively to maintaining
the health of the animals and to achieve production. Also, there are the cheapest
sources of feeds, positively influencing the cost price of animal products.
Green fodders can be obtained from pastures (grasslands) and fodder crops.
 Pastures

The pastures occupy the largest share of Europe's agricultural area, about
33% (or 56 million hectares).
Technically speaking, the simplest pastures are those which have only a
single species of plants, which may be a grasses plant (such as English ryegrass)
or a leguminous plant (such as alfalfa).
These pastures have a limited life (1-4 years) and they are described as
temporary pastures.
Permanent pastures include several species of plants, both grasses and
leguminous, as well as shrubs (some may be regarded as weeds) and are
operational more than five years.
The feeding of the grazing animals is different from that of housed
livestock, for several reasons.
In the first place, intake is variable. A second important feature of the
grazing animals is that they lose more time and consume more energy in
harvesting plants from the pastures.
The diets of the grazing animals are therefore difficult to evaluate; even if
its nutritive values are known, the opportunities for correcting deficiencies are
limited.
Natural grasslands have a variable composition and nutritional values,
determined by a number of factors, including the stage of vegetation, botanical
family and others.

Stage of vegetation
The further advancing the plants in the vegetation, they accumulate large
amounts of crude fibre (CF), a wider extent from 20% in dry matter (DM) for
young plants to 40% in DM for mature plants.
Under these conditions, the digestibility of organic matter (dOM) varies
from 85% to young plants in spring to 50% for the same mature plants in autumn.
In a reverse situation with crude fibre is crude protein (CP), which
decreases as the plants advance in vegetation (in relation to dry matter content).
For example, on plain pastures, between the beginning and ending of
flowering, protein content decreases from 13% to 9% (in DM).
The advancement of plants from pasture in vegetation leads to an increase
in productivity, but a decrease in nutritional values and productive performances
obtained from animals.
 Some authors studied the cross-effects of vegetation stage and vegetation
cycle in a permanent pasture on the composition, nutritional values, consumption
and milk production in cows (along with pasture, provided ad libitum, cows
received and concentrates, offered restricted).
The floristic composition of the pasture consisted of 51% perennially
grasses, 21% perennially leguminous and 28% other plants. Three consecutive
cycles of vegetation were followed, each of seven weeks.
We present, in Table 1, extracts from the obtained results.
In terms of productivity, composition (protein content and crude fibre
content), nutritional values, consumption of cows and milk production, significant
interactions were found between the vegetation cycle and the vegetation stage (not
for the digestibility of the organic matter).

Botanical family
In connection with the botanical family, it has been shown that plants on
natural grasslands belong mainly to grasses and leguminous, plus other botanical
families (in smaller proportions).
It is recognized that quality pastures should contain: 65-75% grasses plants,
20-25% leguminous plants and 5-10% other species.
But the quality of pastures is given not only by the proportions of botanical
families, but also by representative species of each botanical family.
The species of grasses plants considered good quality are English ryegrass
and Italian ryegrass and among leguminous there are alfalfa, red clover and white
clover.
 Table 1 - The influence of the vegetation cycle and the vegetation stage of
permanent pasture on some experimental parameters in lactating cows

Vegetation week 1 3 5 7
The first cycle of vegetation
Productivity (kg DM / ha) 1692 3439 4842 5782
Crude protein (g/kg DM) 202 160 127 129
Crude fiber (g/kg DM) 222 283 315 326
Digestibility of OM SO (%) 78.2 72.6 68.5 60.8
Energy values (Mj NEL/kg DM) 6.44 5.89 5.48 4.78
Pasture consumption (kg DM/day) 13.34 12.86 12.32 10.66
Permitted pasture milk production
15.1 12.3 10.0 5.4
(kg/day)
The third cycle of vegetation
Productivity (kg DM / ha) 1968 3068 3625 3739
Crude protein (g/kg DM) 206 190 179 160
Crude fiber (g/kg DM) 272 273 274 268
Digestibility of OM SO (%) 78.0 74.6 70.7 67.7
Energy values (Mj NEL/kg DM) 6.31 6.00 5.65 5.30
Pasture consumption (kg DM/day) 12.80 13.03 13.01 12.02
Permitted pasture milk production
13.4 12.8 11.7 8.7
(kg/day)

Soil type can influence the composition of grasslands, especially mineral

content.
The structure and composition of the soil influences to a large extent the
content of grasses herbage in phosphorus, magnesium, copper and cobalt.
In normal conditions, plants react to the deficit of soil in minerals either by
limiting their growth or reducing their concentration in these nutritive elements.
Acid soils, with lower pH, is an important factor influencing sometimes
trace mineral elements in plant, especially molybdenum, while on calcareous soil,
manganese and cobalt are poorly absorbed by plants.
Fertilizing pastures can influence both the growth of the plants and content
of mineral elements. Using nitrogenous fertilizers leads to the increase of crude
protein in the plants, but also to the increase of the content of nitrates and amides
(the consequence is decreases the quality of the protein). In another way,
fertilizers with nitrogen stimulate the development of grasses on the detriment of
leguminous plants.
Operationally factors (especially overgrazing or under-grazing) lead to
disappearance of valuable plant species and the appearance of low-value species.
 Normally, after grazing the plants can have a better regeneration rate.

Green fodder crops

Green fodder crops are volume feeds which belong in particular to

leguminous and grasses plants, which can be added other plants species, but in
smaller share.

Green leguminous plants

This family of plants contains about 18000 species, which are recognized
by their ability to grow in a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria
and for their drought (dryness) resistance. Leguminous plants can be perennials
or annually.

Green perennials leguminous plants

Perennials leguminous are grown on large areas due to the high nutritional
values, high productivity and their use in diets for many species and categories of
animals.
First of all, they are excellent sources of protein, both in terms of quantity
and quality; this determines their administration alone to animals, leads to a waste
of protein, due mainly to the protein-energy imbalance.
That is the reason, it is recommended to administer perennials leguminous
in combination with feeds recognized by a lower protein content and a higher
energy concentration.

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)

Alfalfa (lucerne) is a perennial leguminous plant which grows worldwide,

in a variety of climatic conditions, including Europe, United States, southern
Canada, Asia, southern Latin America, South Africa, and Middle East.
More than 35 million hectares of alfalfa are cultivated annually at global
level, making it the most important forage crop in the world.
Alfalfa is also called the "queen of forage crops" because of several
important advantages comparing to other sources of green fodders, like:
- very high yields;
- is maintained efficient in culture up to 4 years;
 - higher content of nutrients, particularly protein, calcium and carotene;
- better resist in drought conditions and responds well to irrigation;
- after alfalfa harvesting, land is richer in organic matter and nitrogen than
before; this means that after alfalfa other plants grow very well.
But alfalfa is sensitive to the type of soil (poor results on acid soils).
Unlike other leguminous, alfalfa is grown generally in monoculture (alone),
although it can be grown in mixture cultures, especially with perennials grasses.
These mixtures are more balanced nutritionally, but the productivity (kg DM/ha)
is lower than alfalfa grown alone.
Harvest time of alfalfa is very important, because maximum yield is not
obtained at the same time with maximum nutritional values.
Total dry matter (DM) obtained per hectare increases constant from the first
stage of vegetation to the early flowering stage, and then is maintained at the same
level up to the end of the flowering.
Digestibility of energy (dE) is highest in the first stage of vegetation and
decreases towards the end of vegetation. The same trend is recorded for crude
protein (CP) content.
Therefore, considering both goals (productivity and nutritional values), the
optimal harvest time of alfalfa is beginning of flowering.
The exception is only alfalfa in the first cutting, when the optimal harvest
time is half of flowering, allowing than a better regeneration.
Alfalfa can be administered to animals as green form (directly by grazing
or mowed), can be converted into hay and artificially dehydrated alfalfa or may
be turn into silage (with preservatives, because is part of the group plants with
difficult ensilaging, due to the higher buffering capacity).
Basically, alfalfa in its various forms can be given in diets for all animal
species and categories.
Alfalfa has a relatively low energy nutritional value (0.70-0.75 LFU/kg
DM) and high protein nutritional value (17-19% CP in DM).
It has very high calcium content, about 16 g/kg DM.
In ruminants, green alfalfa can cause ruminal bloat or tympany (gases
accumulation in the rumen), due to the saponins contained, which inhibit the
respiratory and digestive activities. The primary cause of ruminal bloat is the
retention of the fermentation gases in stable foam in the rumen, no longer
eliminated by eructation (by mouth).
To prevent a such situation is recommended that maximum consumption
of green alfalfa to be achieved gradually (in maximum 8-10 days), concomitant
addition in rations of dry forages (hays, straws), avoiding consumption of
moistened alfalfa (after rain, for example), fading alfalfa (partial drying) when is
administered in shelter.

Red clover (Trifolium pratense)

Red clover is a perennial leguminous adapted especially for northern

temperate zones of the world, such as Europe and North America. Worldwide is
cultivated around 20 million hectares, succeeded alfalfa in this respect.
Red clover gives better results than alfalfa in more humid regions and on
soils with lower pH (greater acidity). It is resistant to drought, but to a lesser extent
than alfalfa.
Effectively it resists in the culture shorter time than alfalfa, 2-3 years.
Red clover can be used in pure culture (alone) or in association with some
perennial grasses.
In animal diets can be used either fresh or turned into hay (with a risk of
drying more difficult) or into silage. Like alfalfa, green, red clover is difficult to
convert into silage, because of low dry matter content and low readily soluble
carbohydrates (high buffer capacity).
Ensiling red clover is better in association with perennials grasses, the
combination containing higher dry matter and high readily soluble carbohydrates.
In general, red clover can be used in animal diets with the same rules
presented for alfalfa (and red clover produces ruminal bloat).
In terms of nutritional values, it is observed significantly higher content in
energy than alfalfa (0.75-0.85 LFU/kg DM) and significantly less content in
protein (15-17% CP in DM). Some research has shown that, at the same crude
fibre content, red clover has higher digestibility than alfalfa (which also explains
the higher energy nutritional value), being better suited to the rations of high-
yielding lactating cows.
As vegetation progresses, the digestibility of red clover decreases, due to
increased lignin content and reduced rumen degradability of polysaccharides
other than starch.

White clover (Trifolium repens)

White clover, a Mediterranean plant, is the most important perennial

leguminous grown for grazing, especially in Western and Northern Europe, North
America, New Zealand and Australia.
 White clover culture is used increasingly more recently, due to better
adaptability than red clover, is more resistant to cold, recorded higher production,
get better in vegetation, has a greater resistance to defoliation when turning into
hay.
Although it can be used in pure culture, most often is used in combination
with perennials grasses to improve their nutritive protein value.
In the optimum harvesting stage, beginning of flowering, nutritional energy
value is very high among volume feeds (0.95-1.00 LFU/kg DM), otherwise
nutritional protein value (20-22% CP in DM).
The digestibility of white clover is higher than that of other perennials
leguminous grown in temperate areas. In addition, it has a higher degree of intake
and can be used more efficiently by animals.

Egyptian clover or Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum)

Egyptian clover is an important leguminous plant grown in the

Mediterranean area, Middle East and India.
It is recognized for rapid growth in the cooler winter season in the
subtropics regions and for its good regeneration after cutting or grazing.
Nutritive values of Egyptian clover are very similar with those presented at
alfalfa.

Sweet clover (Melilotus albus)

Sweet clover is cultivated usually on sandy and salty soils, achieving better
results than other perennials leguminous plants. It is at the same time more
resistant to drought and frost, comparing to other plants of the same botanical
family.
It is recommended to be used as green fodder until to early bud stage,
because afterwards acquires a bitter taste and bad smell.
As in the case of other perennials leguminous plants, sweet clover has the
potential to cause tympany, but not to the same extent as alfalfa and red clover.
Sweet clover contains coumarin, which under certain conditions is
converted to dicoumarol.
Dicumarol is an anti-coagulant, which can cause internal bleeding, even the
death of the animals. Dicumarol is also considered antivitamin K.
In recent years new varieties of sweet clover were created, with lower
coumarin content.

Sainfoin (Onobrychis vicifolia)

 From this botanical family, sainfoin is a plant of less economic importance,
at least compared to alfalfa and red clover.
It is a perennial leguminous plant that works best on calcareous soils in dry
areas. Also, it goes better in vegetation than alfalfa and red clover in spring.
Sainfoin has lower crude protein content than alfalfa, especially after
flowering stage. It has a good level of minerals, but its calcium and sodium content
are lower than in other perennials leguminous. Also, sainfoin contains condensed
tannins.
Compared to alfalfa, red clover and white clover, green sainfoin does not
produce tympany, probably due to the ability of the tannins which it contains to
precipitate soluble proteins.
The addition of 10-20% sainfoin in green alfalfa-dominated rations reduces
the risk of appearance of tympany (tympanism) in fattening cattle.
In the same stage of vegetation, compared to alfalfa, sainfoin has higher
energy content and lower protein content.

Green annually leguminous plants

Annually leguminous plants are used on a smaller scale in herbivores diets,

comparing to perennials leguminous plants.
In pure culture annually leguminous plants can become sources of
nourishment only occasionally, not for their nutritional qualities, but for their
main destination is the production of grains. On a slightly larger scale are used in
mixed cultures, with annually grasses plants.
The most representative plant of this group is pea. Along with pea may be
listed: wetch, field bean, lupin and soya.

Pea (Pisum sativum)

Pea has a greater genetic diversity. The best known are garden pea
(consumed by humans, either green or grains) and forage pea (cultivated for
animals, consumed in green form or can be turned into silage or hay).
There are varieties of autumn and spring, varieties with leaf mass richer or
less, with vegetation periods shorter or longer.
Pea grows very well in cool climate and rainfall above average, on a variety
of soils. But heat and drought affect pea, especially during flowering.
For animals are cultivated varieties with leaf mass richer, ratio leaves/stems
higher, associated with higher nutritional value.
 Green pea can be cultivated in pure culture or mixed with some annually
grasses plants, like barley, oat, wheat or rye.
Growing in pure culture has the advantage of leaving the field early,
allowing sowing in the same year on the same land and other plants, so called
double crops (e.g., maize, sorghum).
Harvesting is between flowering and seeds formation, because afterwards
stems lignify and becomes hard consumable and hard digestible.
Growing with some annually grasses in mixed cultures has the advantage
of higher productivity, since annually grasses help pea not to fall to the ground.
Also, in this combination it has good energy-protein balance and it is better suited
for transformation into hay or silage.
In order to obtain the best productivity and the best nutritional values, there
must be certain ratios between pea and annually grasses, obviously if these are
grown together.
In terms of nutritional values, it can be observed a balancing between
energy and protein values.
In this regard, pea has about 0.80-0.90 LFU/kg DM and 16-17% CP in DM.
Pea also has a high content of calcium, close to that of alfalfa.

Wetch (Vicia sativa)

Wetch looks like pea, but with thinner and longer elongated leaves. It is
quite tolerant to cold and adapts to a diverse range of soils.
Like pea, wetch has a variety of autumn and spring.
It can be grown both alone, but most often in combination with the same
annually grasses, presented on pea.
Wetch if grown alone has a slightly shorter growing season than pea, so
that it can be used as a source of green mass even in late April and early May in
temperate regions. If grown in mixed cultures with annually grasses, wetch can
be harvested earlier if joins with rye, then with barley and then with wheat.
Energy and protein nutritional values of wetch are somewhat lower than
pea.
Wetch has a great ability to fix nitrogen from the soil. It can also provide
nitrogen to the plant which grown in association, as well as to future plants grown
on the same soil. It also has the ability to destroy weeds, especially when grown
in mixtures with annually grasses plants.

Field bean (Vicia faba)

 This plant is grown usually for seeds, but occasionally for green mass. As
green fodder, field bean is recommended to be administered to animals in smaller
quantities, or mixed with other green feeds, because it has a low degree of
consumption.
Field beans have two important varieties, which produces large grains
(especially for human consumption) and which produces small grains (used
primarily in animal feeding).
This plant does not require nitrogen fertilization, moreover, fixing
significant amounts of nitrogen in the soil and controls the occurrence of diseases.
Mixing field bean with annually grasses is good, maybe better than the
combination pea - annually grasses.

Lupin (Lupinus spp.)

Lupin has several forms, according to the colour of the flowers: white,
yellow and blue.
There are varieties "bitter" and "sweet“, differentiated by the content in
alkaloids and saponins (anti-nutritional factors).
Lupin for optimal growth needs cooler weather and it grows well on sandy
soils.
The protein content of lupin plants decreasing from 16% to 12% (in DM)
for all varieties, with the advancement in the vegetation, and under the same
conditions alkaloid content is reduced.

Soya (Glycine maxima)

Soya (soybean) is grown especially for grains. As green fodder is cultivated

on smaller scales, although it can be a very valuable forage resource. In order to
be cultivated as green fodder there are used different varieties than for grains, with
slower growth rate, with greater height, with more leaves.
Soya loves the heat and moisture, but it is sensitive if it grows on acid soils.
Harvesting as green fodder is recommended to be done at the beginning of
yellowing leaves, corresponding to the beginning of seeds formation. Regarding
protein content at this stage of the vegetation, soya is comparable with alfalfa.
Soya can also be grazed (by sheep and goats), as it happens in the USA.
The first grazing is recommended to be done when the plants have about 60 cm
high, corresponding to the best protein content.
Soya may be grown in inter-cropping with maize or sorghum. If it is
cultivated with maize, mixture can be transformed into silage, with 30-40% more
protein than maize. The association with maize also leads to increasing the intake
degree of soya.
Soya grown in inter-cropping with sorghum can be transformed into silage,
this combination (40% soya and 60% sorghum), especially with addition of
molasses, producing very good results, particularly in lactating cows.