IoT Processing Topologies and Types

Data Format
 The Internet is avast space where huge quantities and varieties of data are
generated regularly and flow freely.
 As of January 2018, there are a reported 4.021 billion Internet users
worldwide.(5.52 billion user till October 2024)
 The massive volume of data generated by this huge number of users is further
enhanced by the multiple devices utilized by most users.
 In addition to these Data-generating sources, non-human data generation
sources such as sensor nodes and automated monitoring systems further
add to the data load on the Internet.
 This huge data volume is composed of a variety of data such as e-mails, text
documents (Word docs, PDFs, and others), social media posts, videos, audio
files, and images,

The various data generating and storage sources connected to the

Internet and the plethora of data types contained within
it
Data can be broadly grouped into two types based on how they can be accessed
and stored:
 Structured data
 Unstructured data.
Structured Data
 Typically text data that have a pre-defined structure.
 Structured data are associated with relational database management systems
(RDBMS). Primarily created by using length-limited data fields such as
phone numbers, social security numbers, and other such information.
 Even if the data is human or machine generated, these data are easily
searchable by querying algorithms as well as human generated queries.
 Common usage of this type of data is associated with flight or train reservation
systems, banking systems, inventory controls, and other similar systems.
 Established languages such as Structured Query Language (SQL) are used for
accessing these data in RDBMS.
 In the context of IoT, structured data holds a minor share of the total generated
data over the Internet.
Unstructured Data
 All the data on the Internet, which is not structured, is categorized as
Unstructured.
 These data types have no pre-defined structure and can vary according to
applications and data-generating sources.
e.g., Human-generated unstructured data include text, e-mails, videos,
images, phone recording recordings, chats, and others.
Machine-generated unstructured data include sensor data from traffic,
buildings, industries, satellite imagery, surveillance videos, and others.
 This data type does not have fixed formats associated with it, which
makes it very difficult for querying algorithms to perform a look-up.
 Querying languages such as NoSQL are generally used for this data type.

Importance of Processing in IoT

 The vast amount and types of data flowing through the Internet necessitate
the need for intelligent and resourceful processing techniques.
 Rapid advancements in the Internet of Things (IoT) are placing significant
pressure on existing global network infrastructure.
 It is important to decide - when to process and what to process?
 The data to be processed is divided into three types based on the urgency of
processing:
1. Very time critical,
2. Time critical,
3. Normal.

Very Time Critical:

Require immediate decision support, deemed as very critical, with a very low
processing latency threshold (typically a few milliseconds).
e.g., Flight control systems, healthcare.
Time Critical:
Data sources that can tolerate normal processing latency.
Typically allows for processing latency of a few seconds.
e.g., Vehicles, Traffic systems, Machine systems, Smart home systems and
Surveillance systems
Normal:
Data that can tolerate longer processing latency.
Can tolerate processing latency of a few minutes to a few hours.
e.g., Agriculture, Environmental monitoring, Other less data-sensitive domains
The key points regarding the processing requirements of databased on urgency
categories:
1. Very Time Critical Data:
o High Processing Requirements: Exceptional processing demands due
to the critical nature of the data.
o Proximity to Source: The need for processing data in place or near the
source is crucial for successful deployment in this domain.
2. Time Critical Data:
o Processing Flexibility: Allows for data to be transmitted to remote
locations or processors for processing.
o Remote Processing Options: Supports processing through
cloud computation or collaborative processing methods.
3. Normal Data:
o Leisurely Processing: No urgent processing requirements, allowing
for a more relaxed approach to data processing.
 o Time Tolerance: Can be processed without pressure, typically taking
longer (minutes to hours).

Processing Topologies:
The key points regarding the processing requirements and architecture
decisions for IoT applications:
1. Importance of Processing Requirements:
o Intelligent identification and selection of processing requirements are
crucial for determining IoT deployment architecture.
o A well-designed architecture can lead to significant savings in
network bandwidth.
o Efficient architecture conserves energy while ensuring
appropriate Processing latencies.
2. Topologies for Processing Solutions:
o On-site Processing:
Processing occurs closer to the data source, optimizing latency
and potentially enhancing real-time decision-making.
o Off-site Processing: This can be divided into:
1. Remote Processing:
Data is transmitted to distant locations (e.g., cloud
servers) for processing.
2. Collaborative Processing:
Multiple systems or devices work together to
process data, sharing the computational load.
Overall, careful consideration of these factors is essential for optimizing IoT
system performance and efficiency.
On- site Processing:
 On-Site Processing Topology:
o Data is processed at the source.
o Crucial for applications with low tolerance for latencies.
 Latency Sources:
o Can arise from processing hardware.
o Can also result from network transmission delays when sending data for
off-site processing.
 Critical Applications:
o Healthcare systems.
o Flight control systems.
o Both are classified as real-time systems.
 Data Characteristics:
o High data generation rates.
o Rapid temporal changes in data.
 Importance of Fast Processing:
o Fast and robust processing infrastructure is necessary.
o Failure to process data quickly can lead to catastrophic damages.
 Event detection using an on-site processing topology

Above Figure shows the on-site processing topology, where an event (here, fire) is
detected utilizing a temperature sensor connected to a sensor node. The sensor
node processes the
information from the sensed event and generates an alert. The node
additionally has the option of forwarding the data to a remote infrastructure for
further analysis and storage
Off- site Processing:
 Off-Site Processing Paradigm:
o Allows for latencies due to processing and network delays.
o Significantly cheaper than on-site processing topologies.
 Cost Differences:
o Lower costs result from reduced demands for on-site processing.
o Sustainable for large-scale Internet of Things (IoT) deployments.
 Sensor Node Functionality:
o Sensor nodes primarily collect and frame data.
o Data is transmitted for processing at a different location.
 High-Processing Devices:
o Off-site topology utilizes a few dedicated high-processing devices.
o These devices can be shared among multiple simpler sensor nodes.
 Cost Management:
o This arrangement keeps the costs of large-scale deployments
manageable.
 Data Transmission:
o Data from sensor nodes is sent to a remote location (server or cloud) or
multiple processing nodes.
o Allows for collaborative processing when feasible communication
pathways are unavailable.
 Collaboration Among Nodes:
o Multiple processing nodes can work together to enhance data processing
efficiency.

Event detection using an off-site remote processing topology

Remote Processing
 Common Topology: Widely used in present-day IoT systems.
 Data Sensing: Involves various sensor nodes that collect data.
 Data Forwarding: The collected data is sent to a remote server or cloud for
processing and analytics.
 Centralized Processing: Data from numerous sensor nodes is
processed simultaneously on a single, powerful computing
platform.
 Cost and Energy Savings:
o Enables reuse and reallocation of processing resources.
o Allows for deployment of smaller and simpler local processing nodes.
 Scalability:
o Facilitates massive scaling of solutions.
o Deployment costs remain relatively unaffected despite increased scale.
 Network Dependence:
o High reliance on network bandwidth.
o Continuous network connectivity is essential between sensor nodes and
remote processing infrastructure.
 Architecture: Local sensing leads to remote decision-making (e.g., via
cloud computing).

Collaborative Processing
 Use Case:
o Ideal for scenarios with limited or no network connectivity.
o Particularly beneficial in systems without a backbone network.
 Economic Efficiency:
o Cost-effective for large-scale deployments over vast areas.
o Reduces the need for extensive network infrastructure to connect to
remote systems.
 Local Processing:
o Combines processing power ofnearby nodes to collaboratively process
data close to the data source.
o Minimizes latency associated with data transfer over the network.
 Bandwidth Conservation:
o Reduces network bandwidth usage, especially for connections to the
Internet.
 Applications:
o Particularly suitable for applications like agriculture, where data logging
occurs at long intervals (hours) rather than requiring continuous, high-
frequency data processing.
 Network Preference:
o Mesh networks are preferred for easy and effective implementation of this
collaborative processing topology.

Event detection using a collaborative processing topology

IoT Device Design and Selection Considerations
While creating an Internet of Things (IoT) solution, one of the most important
decisions is choosing the right processor for the sensor node (the part that
collects data). This choice affectshow usable, designed, and affordable the entire
IoT system will be.

The processor is the key element in designing an IoT device for different
applications.

The factors to be considered while selecting a processor for a sensor node.

Size:
 Size is a critical factor in choosing the form factor and energy consumption of
a sensor node.
 A larger form factor generally leads to higher energy consumption of the
hardware.
 Larger devices are often unsuitable for many IoT applications that require
compact solutions, particularly in contexts like wearables.
 Many IoT applications necessitate minimal form factor designs to enhance
usability and integration into everyday life.
 Designers must balance between the necessary functionality of the sensor and
the size to maintain optimal energy efficiency and usability.
 The size of the sensor node can affect its deployment in various
environments, particularly where space is limited.
 In applications like wearables, a smaller form factor contributes to better user
comfort and acceptance.
Energy:
 The energy requirements of a processor are crucial in designing IoT sensing
solutions.
 Higher energy needs lead to more frequent battery replacements.
 Frequent battery changes reduce the long-term sustainability of IoT devices.
 It’s important to prioritize energy efficiency in IoT applications to enhance
sustainability.
Cost Factor:
 The price of processors and sensors influenceshow many sensor nodes can
be deployed in IoT solutions.
 Lower hardware costs allow users to deploy more devices.
e.g., For instance, if gas and fire detection sensors are cheaper, users can afford
to install more of them without spending too much.
Memory Needs:
 The amount of memory (both temporary/volatile and permanent/ Non-volatile)
in IoT devices/nodes affects what they can do.
 Memory is crucial for tasks like processing data locally, storing information,
filtering data, and formatting data.
 Devices/nodes with more memory usually cost more due to the increased
capabilities they offer.
Processing Power:
 Processing power is crucial for determining what sensors can be used
with IoT devices/nodes.
 Processing power can also influences the types of processing features that
can work directly on the device.
 Higher processing power is needed for complex applications, like those
involving video and image data, while simpler applications (like basic
environmental sensing) require less power.
I/O Rating:
 The input-output (I/O) rating of an IoT device, mainly from the processor,
determines how complex the circuits are, how much energy they use, and
which sensors can be connected.
 Newer processors usually operate at a lower I/O voltage of 3.3 V, while
older ones typically use 5 V.
 Connecting older sensors to newer processors may require extra voltage and
conversion circuits.
 Even though lower I/O voltage saves power, the need for additional circuitry
increases the complexity and overall costs of the device.
Add-ons:
 The availability of add-ons for a processor or IoT device influences its
strength and usability for different applications.
 Some of the useful add-ons include analog-to-digital converters (ADC), built-in
clock circuits, USB and Ethernet connections, and wireless capabilities.
 Add-ons can speedup the development process, particularly for the hardware
aspects of IoT applications.
 For beginners, having these features already integrated makes working with
processors or IoT devices easier and more appealing.

Processing Offloading (Refers to the practice of transferring data

processing task from resource constrained IoT devise to more
powerful computing resources such as cloud computing or edge
computing)
1. Importance of Processing Offloading: This method is crucial for creating
efficient, small, and cost-effective IoT solutions for sensing tasks.
2. IoT Deployment Layers: IoT systems consist of different layers that
range from local sensors detecting environmental conditions to cloud-
based processing.
3. Sensing Layer: The first layer involves various sensors (e.g., for detecting
fire or surveillance) that connect to processors mainly via wired
connections.
4. On-Site vs. Off-Site Processing:
o On-Site Processing: If immediate processing is needed, it happens on-
site.
o Off-Site Processing: Most IoT applications send data to be
processed off- site to keep devices simple and affordable.
5. Processing Options:
o Edge Layer: Some processing can occur locally using edge devices
within the network. These devices communicate over short-
range wireless connections.
o Fog Processing: Fog nodes serve smaller geographic areas
compared to the cloud and provide local processing functions.
o Cloud Processing: Data may be sent to the cloud or remote servers,
which typically require a stable internet connection using long-range
networks.
6. Challenges of Cloud Processing: Using cloud services can be expensive
due to network bandwidth, latency, and added complexity of devices and
infrastructure.
Structure of Data Offloading Section:
1. Offload Location: Identifying where processing can happen within
the IoT architecture.
2. Offload Decision Making: Choosing the best location for
processing and determining how much processing should be offloaded.
3. Offloading Considerations: Deciding the right time to offload data for
processing.
 The various data generating and storage sources connected to the Internet and the
plethora of data types contained within it

Offload location
In the context of IoT applications and deployment, the choice of offload location
is crucial as it affects various aspects such as performance, cost, and
sustainability. The Four types of offload locations can typically be categorized as
follows:
Edge:
 Offloading processing to the edge means carrying out data processing close
to where the data is generated.
 This processing happens on devices or servers that are near the source of the
data, such as sensors or local computers.
 Offloading to the edge is done to achieve aggregation, manipulation,
bandwidth reduction, and other data operations directly on an IoT device
Fog:
 Fog computing is a decentralized computing infrastructure that is utilized to
conserve network bandwidth, reduce latencies, restrict the amount of data
unnecessarily flowing through the Internet, and enable rapid mobility support
for IoT devices.

 The data, computing, storage and applications are shifted to a place between
the data source and the cloud resulting in significantly reduced latencies and
network bandwidth usage
Remote Server:
 A remote server is a powerful computer located away from the IoT devices
that can handle data processing.
 It takes over tasks from IoT devices that have limited processing power.
 Remote servers can handle complex computations and data analysis.
 It might be difficult to quickly scale up resources when more processing power is
needed.
 Remote servers can be more expensive to operate and maintain compared
to cloud solutions.
 They may require more effort to manage and maintain than cloud services.

Cloud:
 Cloud computing is a flexible computer system that provides access to shared
resources and services over the Internet.
 Users can customize and access various computing resources according to
their needs.
 All resources are hosted on remote servers, not on the user's local computers.
 It allows users to transfer processing tasks from their own devices to the
cloud, freeing up local resources.
 Users can access cloud services from anywhere with an Internet connection.
 Resources can be quickly set up and adjusted with minimal effort.
 Users can easily increase or decrease their resources as needed, allowing
for easy adjustment to demand.
 Users don’t have to buy and configure expensive hardware, as resources are
provided on demand.

Offload decision making

The choice of where to offload and how much to offload is one of the major
deciding factors in the deployment of an offsite-processing topology-based IoT
deployment architecture.
The decision making is generally addressed considering
Data generation rate,
Network bandwidth,
Criticality of applications,
Processing resource available at the offload site, and other factors.
Naive Approach:
 It relies on strict rules rather than flexible decision-making.
 Data from IoT devices is sent to the closest location based on predefined rules.
 It's straightforward to set up and use.
 Not Recommended for Dense Areas.
 It’s especially inefficient for complex data types, like multimedia or hybrid data.
 Decisions for offloading data are based on statistical measures.
Bargaining Based Approach:
 It's a method used to improve the quality of service (QoS) in IoT systems while
managing network congestion.
 It requires more computational resources during decision-making but aims
for better overall performance.
 The approach focuses on improving various service quality factors like
bandwidth and latency.
 Not all parameters can be maximized at the same time, so some might be
lowered to boost others.
 The goal is to achieve a better overall QoS for all devices instead of just a few
getting high-quality service.
 This approach often uses game theory principles to model interactions and
decisions.
 It doesn’trelyon past data to make decisions, allowing flexibility in dynamic
situations.
Learning based approach:
 The learning-based approach uses past behavior and data patterns to make
decisions about IoT operations.
 It aims to improve Quality of Service (QoS) parameters by learning from
historical data and optimizing previous solutions.
 Instead ofnegotiating like in bargaining-based approaches, it analyzes trends in
data flow through the IoT system.
 This approach enhances the overall performance and efficiency of IoT
devices by identifying what has worked well in the past.
 It requires significant memory and processing power, especially during decision
-making processes.
 The most widely used method in learning-based approaches is machine
learning, which allows systems to learn from data and improve overtime.

Offloading considerations
There area few offloading parameters which need to be considered while deciding
upon the offloading type to choose. These considerations typically arise from the
nature of the IoT application and the hardware being used to interact with the
application. Some of these parameters are as follows
Bandwidth:
 Bandwidth is the maximum amount of data that can be sent over a network at
one time.
 The bandwidth of a wired or wireless network is also considered to be its data-
carrying capacity and often used to describe the data rate of that network
Latency:
 Latency is the delay between the start and end of an operation.
 Types of Latency:
o Network Latency: Delay caused by data traveling over a network.
o Processing Latency: Delay caused by a processor executing tasks.
 Latency is due to the physical limits of the infrastructure involved.
 High latency can slow down operations and affect performance.
Criticality:
 It defines the importance of a task being pursued by an IoT application.
 More critical tasks require lower latency (faster response times).
o e.g., Fire detection using IoT needs a response time in milliseconds.
 Less critical tasks can afford higher latency (slower response times).
o e.g., Monitoring agricultural field conditions can take hours or even days
for a response.
Resources:
 Resources refer to the capabilities available at an offload location, such as
processing power and analytical tools.
 Types of Resources:
o Processing Power: The ability of a system to perform calculations
quickly.
o Analytical Algorithms: Tools and methods used to analyze data.
 Resource Allocation:
o It's important to use resources effectively based on the task's needs.
o Allocating high-power resources (like those for real-time multimedia)
to low- demand tasks (like simple data analysis) is inefficient.
o Proper management of resources ensures that tasks are handled
efficiently without unnecessary energy consumption or resource
waste.

Data Volume:
 Data volume refers to the amount of data generated by one or more
sources that an offload location can manage at the sametime.
 Each offload location has a specific capacity for processing data volumes.
 In large and dense IoT setups, the offload location needs to be strong and
capable to handle the huge amounts of data produced.
 Without adequate capacity, processing issues can arise when dealing with
extensive data.

IoT Connectivity Technologies

 This chapter introduces 15 common and emerging technologies used for
connecting IoT devices.

 These technologies can work with current sensors, actuators, and processing
systems to provide better connectivity.

 Some technologies, like Wi-Fi, require a basic processing infrastructure to

function, while others, like ZigBee, can operate independently without external
support.

 ZigBee and similar solutions can manage connectivity by themselves,

unlike Wi-Fi which relies on additional hardware.

 This chapter will provide more detailed explanations of each of these

connectivity solutions in the upcoming sections.
IEEE 802.15.4

The various device and network types supported in the IEEE 802.15.4 standard
IEEE 802.15.4 is a popular standard for low data rate wireless networks,
designed for monitoring and control applications with low power consumption.

It uses the first two layers of networking (physical and data link) along with two
additional layers called:
o Logical Link Control (LLC)
o Service-Specific Convergence Sublayer (SSCS)

Operates in the ISM band (industrial, scientific, and medical).

Utilizes Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) for communication,
offering better security and resistance to noise.

Data Encoding:
o Low-speed versions use Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK).
o High-speed versions use Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (O-
QPSK).

Uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA-CA) to

manage data transmission and avoid conflicts.

Designed for infrequent and short packet transmissions to minimize power usage,
typically under 1% duty cycle.
Transmission Range:
o Normal range: 10m to 75m.
o Best-case outdoor range: up to 1000m.
Network Topologies: Supports two types of network layouts:
o Star topology
o Mesh topology
Variants: There are seven variants of the standard:
o A/B: Base versions
o C: For China
o D: For Japan
o E: For industrial applications
o F: For active RFID uses
o G: For smart utility systems
Device Types:
o Reduced Function Device (RFD): Lower power, limited communication.
o Full Function Device (FFD): Higher cost, capable of communicating
with all devices.
Network Types:
o Beacon-enabled networks: Use periodic beacons for
synchronization and management.
o Non-beacon-enabled networks: Use unslotted CSMA/CA for
data transmission, requires source and destination IDs.
Frame Types:
o Beaconframes: For signalling and synchronization.
o Dataframes: For data transmission.
o Acknowledgmentframes: To confirm message receipt.
o MAC and commandframes: For various network management
requests.
Mesh Communication:
The standard supports decentralized communication among nodes in a mesh
configuration.
 Various frame types supported in the IEEE 802.15.4 standard
ZigBee

1. Purpose: ZigBee enables wireless personal area networks

(WPANs) for applications like controlling and monitoring.
2. Standard: It uses the IEEE 802.15.4 standard for its physical (PHY) and
medium access control (MAC) layers.
3. Data Rate: ZigBee typically operates at a data rate of 250 kbps.
4. Communication Range: It is designed for low-power devices to
communicate within a range of 10- 100 meters.
5. Frequencies Used: Common frequencies include:
o 2.4 GHz
o 902-928 MHz
o 868 MHz
Network Configurations:
1. Types of Communication:
o Master-to-master or master-to-slave communication.
2. Supported Topologies:
o Star Topology: One coordinator manages multiple end devices;
easy to deploy.
o Mesh Topology: Multiple routers allow devices to communicate with
one another, enhancing range and reliability.
o Cluster Tree Topology: A structure where devices are connected
in a hierarchical manner, facilitating communication through
parent
coordinators.
Device Types in a ZigBee Network:
1. ZigBee Coordinator:
o The central device that initiates and manages the network.
o Handles data storage and communication.
2. ZigBee Router:
o Intermediate nodes that connect devices.
o Help relay messages between devices.
3. ZigBee End Device:
o Limited functionality and communication, designed for low
power consumption.
Protocol Layers in ZigBee Stack:
1. Physical Layer (PHY):
o Operates across different frequency bands with multiple channels.
o 2.4 GHz: 16 channels at 250 kbps.
o 868.3 MHz: 1 channel at 20 kbps.
o 902-928 MHz: 10 channels at 40 kbps.
2. MAC Layer:
o Ensures reliable data transmission and manages channel access.
o Uses a method called CSMA-CA to avoid interference.
3. Network Layer:
o Manages network setup, device connections, and routing.
4. Application Support Sub-Layer:
o Interacts with network and lower layers for services (like ZigBee
Device Object and ZigBee Application Object).
o Handles data management and device matching.
5. Application Framework:
o Provides data services with key-value pairs and developer-defined
generic messages.
Operational Modes:
1. Non-Beacon Mode:
o More power-intensive.
o Coordinators and routers continuously monitor for data.
o No sleep mode available for routers and coordinators.
2. Beacon Mode:
o Low-power sleep state for coordinators and routers when no
data is communicated.
o Periodic transmission of beacons keeps track of available
routers, prolonging battery life.
RFID

An outline of the RFID operation and communication

1. RFID Definition:
o Stands for Radio Frequency Identification.
o Usestags and readers for communication.
2. How RFID Works:
o RFID tags have digital data stored on them.
o RFID readers can read the data from tags without needing to touch
them.
3. Comparison with Barcodes:
o Similar to barcodes, but RFID doesn't require a direct line of sight to work.
4. Precursor Technology:
o Automatic Identification and Data Capture (AIDC) is an early
form of identification technology that preceded RFID.
5. Components of RFID:
o An RFID system typically includes three main components:
1. RFID tag (or smart label)
2. RFID reader
3. Antenna
6. Structure of RFID Tags:
o Tags consist of:
An integrated circuit
An antenna
A protective casing for durability
7. Types of RFID Tags:
 o Passive Tags:
Commonly used due to their low cost.
Must be powered by an RFID reader to transmit data.
o Active Tags:
Have their own power source.
Can transmit data without needing external activation.
8. Data Transmission:
o Tags send data to an RFID reader (also called interrogator).
o The reader converts radio waves into usable data.
o A host computer system retrieves this data through communication
methods like Wi-Fi or Ethernet.
9. Applications of RFID:
o Used in various fields, including:
Inventory management
Asset tracking
Personnel tracking
Supply chain management

NFC

1. What is NFC?:
o Near Field Communication (NFC) is a short-range wireless
technology developed by Philips and Sony for data exchange.
2. How NFC Works:
o NFC uses magnetic induction to enable communication when
two NFC devices areplaced close together.
3. Integration with Other Technologies:
o NFC can work alongside other wireless technologies like Wi-Fi
after establishing a connection.
4. Typical Frequency:
o The operating frequency for NFC is 13.56 MHz, supporting data
rates of 106, 212, or 424 kbps.
5. Types of NFC Devices:
o There are two types of NFC devices:
1. Passive NFC: These do not require a power source and
can only store information.
 2. Active NFC: These can read from and write data to other NFC
devices and can communicate with both active and passive
devices.
6. Working Principle:
o An NFC reader emits a small electric current to create a magnetic
field that facilitates communication.
o This field is picked up by another device, converting it back to
electrical signals.
7. Data Transfer:
o NFC can transmit different types of data, including identifiers,
messages, and payment information.
8. Speed and Pairing:
o NFC communication is fast and does not require manual pairing
because of its inductive coupling method.
9. Common Applications:
o Smartphones, public transport card readers, and contactless
payment terminals are typical examples of NFC devices.
10. Information Exchange Modes:
o NFC supports three modes of communication:
1. Peer-to-Peer (P2P): Allows two devices to exchange
information with one becoming active and the other passive.
2. Read/Write: Involves one active device reading information
from a passive device.
3. Card Emulation: Enables smartphones to act like
contactless credit cards for payments with just a tap.

LoRa

1. What is LoRa?
o LoRa (Long Range) is a patented wireless technology for
communication.
o Developed by Cycleo in Grenoble, France, aimed at M2M
(Machine to Machine) and IoT (Internet of Things) solutions.
2. Frequency Bands:
 o Operates in sub-GHz frequencies: 169 MHz, 433 MHz, 868 MHz, and
915 MHz.
3. Communication:
o Uses bi-directional links and a spread spectrum.
o Typical range is 15 to 20 kilometers.
o Supports communication for millions of devices.
4. Applications:
o Suitable for applications like electric grid monitoring and asset
tracking.
5. Technical Features:
o Achieves high sensitivity using frequency-modulated chirp coding.
o Provides excellent mobility support.
6. Comparison with Other Technologies:
o Longer battery life than NB-IoT.
o Lower data rates (27 to 50 kbps) and longer latency times compared
to some alternatives.
7. LoRaWAN:
o LoRaWAN is the network protocol that allows LoRa
devices to communicate.
o Sends messages through gateways to their destination.
o More spectrum results in potential interference, but chirp coding
mitigates this.
8. Network Structure:
o Operates on a star topology withfour main components:
End Nodes: Responsible for sensing and control.
Gateways: Forward messages from nodes to the network.
Network Server: Manages data rates, message
acknowledgments, and redundancy.
Remote Computers: Control nodes and collect data.
9. Security:
o Uses various mechanisms for security:
Unique network keys for network security.
Unique application keys for end-to-end security.
Device-specific keys for additional protection.

Wi-Fi
 1. What is Wi-Fi?
o Wi-Fi is a technology for connecting devices wirelessly in local areas,
like homes or offices.
o It is based on standards known as IEEE 802.11.
2. Frequency Bands:
o Wi-Fi uses radio frequency bands:
2.4 GHz (Ultra High Frequency - UHF)
5.8 GHz (Super High Frequency - SHF)
3. Channels and Communication:
o These frequency bands are divided into multiple channels for communication.
o Devices communicate on these channels using a method called Time
Division Multiple Access (TDMA).
4. Channel Access Method:
o Wi-Fi uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance (CSMA/CA) to manage how devices access the network.
5. Wi-Fi Standards:
o There are several versions of the IEEE 802.11 standard, including:
802.11a:
Data rate of 54 Mbps
Operates on the 5 GHz band
802.11b:
Data rate of 11 Mbps
Operates on the 2.4 GHz band
802.11g:
Data rate of 54 Mbps
Operates on the 2.4 GHz band
802.11n:
Data rate up to 140 Mbps
Can operate on both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands
6. Connecting to Wi-Fi:
o Wi-Fi devices connect to a wireless access point.
o The access point connects the device to a Wireless Local Area
Network (WLAN).
7. Role of WLAN:
o The WLAN forwards messages between connected devices and the
Internet, allowing them to communicate and access online resources.

Bluetooth
 1. Definition:
o Bluetooth is a short-range wireless communication technology defined
by the IEEE 802.15.1 standard.
o It enables communication between Bluetooth-enabled devices
like smartphones and laptops.
2. Purpose:
o Originally developed as a cable replacement technology for
data communication.
o Supports both data transmission and voice communication at short distances.
3. Operating Frequency:
o Functions on the 2.4 GHz ISM band with atypical range of about 10 meters.
4. Data Transmission:
o Uses frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) to reduce
interference from other devices.
o Divides data into packets for transmission across 79 designated
channels (each 1 MHz wide).
o Employs Adaptive Frequency Hopping (AFH) for efficient channel
usage, performing 800 hops per second.
5. Modulation Schemes:
o Initial versions used Gaussian frequency shift keying (GFSK) with data
rates up to 1 Mbps.
o Newer versions use π/4 DQPSK and 8-DPSK, allowing data rates of 2
Mbps and 3 Mbps respectively.
6. Network Structure:
o Follows a master–slave architecture, forming small networks called piconets.
o A single master can connect with up to seven slave devices at a time.
o Piconets can link together to form a scatternet.
7. Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE):
o An advanced variant that uses 2 MHz wide bands, with 40 channels.
o Focuses on low energy consumption, low cost, and compatibility
between different devices.
8. Security Features:
o Bluetooth connections are encrypted to prevent eavesdropping.
o Service-level security restricts device features and activities for
added protection.
9. Bluetooth Protocols:
o The Bluetooth standard includes:
1. Core Protocols
2. Cable Replacement Protocols
3. Telephony Control Protocols
 4. Adopted Protocols
o Key protocols include:
Link Manager Protocol (LMP): Manages connections and
authentications.
Host Controller Interface (HCI): Connects the controller with the
link manager and helps discover nearby devices.
Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP):
Manages connections, data segmentation, flow control, and
integrity checks.
Service Discovery Protocol (SDP): Finds services offered by
other Bluetooth devices.
Radio Frequency Communications (RFCOMM): Virtual serial
data stream for cable replacement, supporting telephony
profiles.
Telephony Control Protocol - Binary (TCS BIN): Handles call
signalling for voice and data communications.