SAINT MARY’S ANGELS COLLEGE OF PAMPANGA

Olongapo-Gapan Road, Sta. Ana, 2022, Pampanga

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
IN EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
CE PC 413 A

1st SEMESTER
A.Y. 2024-2025

REFERENCES:

1. PHIVOLCS. (2004). Earthquake portfolio. Manila, Philippines.

2. Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines. (2003). Earthquake design manual, Volume 1
— Code Provisions for Lateral Forces. Manila.
3. Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines. (2003). Earthquake design manual, Volume 2
— Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures. Manila.
4. Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines. (2015). The national structural code of the
Philippines (2015). Manila.
5. Rotterdam, B. (2001). Dynamic analysis and earthquake resistant design. Mc Graw-Hill.
6. Hart, G. & Kai Fai Wong, K. (2000). Structural dynamics for structural engineers. Wiley and Sons.
Unit 1: Introduction to Earthquake Engineering
OBJECTIVE

• To know what is earthquake

• Learn the types of earthquake
• Learn the plate tectonics theory
• Learn earthquake faults
• Know the measurements of earthquake

INTRODUCTION

Ever since human beings first felt the earth shake, they have had the desire to know why that happens
and developed, as a result, numerous explanations for it. An early attempt for a scientific explanation was
made by Aristotle, who found an explanation for the cause of earthquakes in the interior of the earth.
Aristotle theorized that the winds of the atmosphere were drawn into the caverns and passageways in
the interior of the earth and that earthquakes and the eruption of volcanoes were caused by these winds
as they were agitated by fire and moved about trying to escape.

Today, after the numerous scientific developments of the twentieth century and the many years of
geological and seismological studies, there seems to be a clear understanding of what causes
earthquakes, and where and how often they may occur. This chapter, thus, introduces the modern
theories that explain the mechanisms that give birth to earthquakes and the phenomena that are
deemed responsible for these mechanisms. It will also describe the observed correlation between such
earthquake-generating mechanisms and some prominent features on the earth’s surface, the locations
where earthquakes occur, and the frequency of earthquake occurrence. Additionally, a brief account will
be given of the efforts being made to use the current understanding of the earthquake-generating
mechanism to develop techniques for the near-term prediction of the size, time, and location of future
earthquakes.

WHAT IS EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

Earthquake engineering may thus be considered the branch of civil engineering that provides the
principles and procedures for the planning, analysis, and design of structures and facilities that are
capable of resisting, to a preselected extent, the effects of earthquakes.

More specifically, earthquake engineering provides the principles and procedures for:

(a) the selection of the proper location of structures to minimize their exposure to earthquake hazards.
(b) the estimation of the earthquake forces that may affect structures and their surrounding
environment in a given time interval.
(c) the analysis of structures and the surrounding environment under the effect of such forces to
determine the maximum stresses and deformations that may be imposed upon them.
(d) the configuration, proportioning, and detailing of structures to make them resist such stresses and
deformations without the collapse or failure of any of their components.
(e) the improvement of soils and the stabilization of natural slopes to guarantee the stability of
structures supported on weak soils or slopes.

It is based on concepts from seismology, geology, probability theory, geotechnical engineering, structural
engineering, and structural dynamics.
EARTHQUAKE FORCES

For structural engineers and from a conceptual point of view, earthquakes represent just another force
for which structures need to be designed. Earthquake forces, however, possess several characteristics
that make them unique in comparison with any other forces, such as gravity, wind, or thermal forces.

Earthquake forces, the result of a back and forth, and up and down, motion of the ground that supports a
structure, can be exceptionally large in magnitude, can change rapidly and erratically during the duration
of the earthquake, and may be radically different from earthquake to earthquake, from one site to
another, from one type of foundation soil to another, and from one structure to another.

Furthermore, earthquake forces depend on the properties of the structure. This means that if one
modifies such properties, one also modifies the earthquake forces that will affect the structure. It also
means that they can—and usually do—change if the earthquake damages the structure. Most
importantly, earthquake forces are unpredictable. The reason is that little is known today about the
mechanism that generates earthquakes, and not much more is known about the factors that shape the
earthquake–generated ground shaking that gives rise to earthquake forces.

As a result, the magnitude and characteristics of earthquake forces can only be, at best, roughly
estimated.

Earthquake forces are also distinct from other forces in the sense that they affect the strength and
behavior of structural materials. That is, the properties of structural materials under earthquake loads
are different from the properties that are considered when designing, for example, for gravity loads. This
is owed to the fact that earthquake forces are applied suddenly, are relatively short, and change in
direction many times during the earthquake. Thus, the magnitude of the earthquake forces is only part of
the information a structural engineer needs to know to properly design a structure against these forces.

DESIGN OF EARTHQUAKE FORCES

Because of the unpredictability of earthquake forces, the uncertainty of their occurrence, and the
devastating effects they may produce, the design of an earthquake-resistant structure is an elaborate
process that requires the participation of architects, seismologists, geologists, soil engineers, foundation
engineers, and structural engineers. In general, it involves many of the following steps:

(a) Identification of the sources where future earthquakes are likely to occur with the aid of historical
information, seismological data, and geological studies
(b) Determination of the probable size of future earthquakes based on the attributes of the identified
seismic sources
(c) Definition of the distance and orientation of each seismic source concerning the structure’s location
(d) Establishment of semi-empirical equations that correlate ground motion characteristics with
earthquake size, seismic source orientation and distance, and site soil conditions with the help of
instrumental and observational records from previous earthquakes
(e) Dynamic analysis of the soil deposits at the structure’s site to quantify the ground motion
amplification that may be induced as a result of their flexibility
(f) Selection or modification of structural configuration, structural system, and structural materials to
minimize undesirable structural responses and best resist the expected earthquake forces
(g) Dynamic analysis of the structure and its components to estimate the maximum values of the
internal forces and deformations that may be generated by a ground motion with the established
characteristics
(h) Analysis of foundation soil to assess its susceptibility to earthquake effects
(i) Verification of analytical results using laboratory tests of scaled models using shaking tables, or field
tests of full-scale models using artificial means to generate ground vibrations
(j) Configuration, proportioning, and detailing of the members and connections of the structure by the
estimated maximum internal forces and deformations
(k) Improvement of foundation soil properties to reduce soil’s susceptibility to earthquake effects

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Robert Mallet, an Irish civil engineer, is often cited as the first earthquake engineer, and his report on the
1857 Naples earthquake is considered to be the first scientific investigation that included observations of
the seismological, geological, and engineering aspects of an earthquake.

Modern research on earthquake-resistant structures, however, began in Japan in 1891, the year of the
Nobi earthquake (7000 deaths; also known as the Mino-Owari earthquake), with the formation of an
earthquake investigation committee set up by the Japanese government. It was this committee that first
proposed the use of a lateral force equal to a fraction of the total weight of a building to account for the
forces exerted on buildings by earthquakes.

Similar developments in Italy after the devastating Messina earthquake in 1908 (58,000 deaths) led to the
appointment of a committee composed of practicing and academic engineers to study the earthquake
and the formulation of practical recommendations for the seismic design of buildings. In its report, this
committee recommended that the first story of a building is designed for a horizontal force equal to 1/12
of the building weight above and that its second and third stories be designed for a horizontal force equal
to 1/8 of the building weight above.

These Japanese and Italian disasters thus gave birth to practical considerations for the earthquake design
of structures and earthquake engineering as a new branch of engineering.

In the United States, interest in earthquakes and earthquake engineering began after the 1906
earthquake in San Francisco, California (1000 deaths), which caused great damage and loss of lives. At
that time, however, California was still sparsely populated and, therefore, the interest generated by this
earthquake was not enough to motivate public officials to develop earthquake design regulations. It was
only after the 1933 earthquake in Long Beach, California, that American engineers became fully aware of
the dangers of earthquakes, and a great impetus was given to the study of seismology and earthquake-
resistant designs. As they became fully interested, the first inquiry was to find out the nature of the
motion of the ground during an earthquake. Special instruments were designed and deployed at various
areas of high seismicity to record such a motion permanently. Congress charged the U.S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey with the responsibility to study and report strong earthquake motions. At about the
same time, new building codes were drawn up and enforced. The California Legislature passed the Field
Act, which made it mandatory for all school buildings to be designed and built to resist earthquakes.

Shortly after, the State of California adopted the Riley Act, which made it mandatory to design most
buildings in the state for a lateral load equal to 2% of the sum of their dead and live loads. The Pacific
Coast Building Officials (to become later the International Conference of Building Officials) published the
nation’s first seismic design provisions in 1927 in its Uniform Building Code.

Ever since earthquake engineering has unfolded at a steady pace and its principles spread all over the
world. It has rapidly evolved into a science-based discipline, with a large body of knowledge and
institutionalized research and educational programs. Although learning takes place at a very slow pace
due to the infrequency of large earthquakes, advances in methods of dynamic analysis and experimental
research have provided engineers with valuable data to gain, year after year, a further understanding of
earthquakes and the effects of earthquakes in civil engineering structures and facilities, and to develop
new devices and techniques to protect these structures and facilities from such effects. As a result, cities
around the world and the people living in them are little by little becoming less vulnerable to the
devastating effect of earthquakes.
TYPES OF EARTHQUAKE

In the most general sense of the word, an earthquake is nothing else but a phenomenon that involves the
motion or shaking of the earth’s crust. In this general sense, an earthquake may be, therefore, caused by:

(a) tectonic forces (the forces involved in the formation of the earth’s features),
(b) volcanic activity,
(c) conventional and nuclear explosions,
(d) the sliding or fall of a large soil or rock mass (such as in the case of landslides and the collapse of
mines and caverns),
(e) a meteorite impact,
(f) the filling of reservoirs and wells

The earthquakes produced by volcanic activity, a soil or rock mass collapse, a conventional explosion, a
meteorite impact, or the filling of reservoirs and wells are, for the most part, of a relatively small size and
affect only an area of limited extent.

Earthquakes generated by a nuclear explosion may be strong, but the factors that generate these
earthquakes are known and may be controlled.

Earthquakes generated by tectonic forces may be exceptionally large and may affect a large geographical
region at once. Most of the catastrophic earthquakes that have occurred through historical times have
been of the tectonic type.

EARTH STRUCTURE

The earth is roughly spherical, with an equatorial diameter of 12,740 km and a polar diameter of 12,700
km, the higher equatorial diameter caused by the higher velocities at the equator due to the earth’s
rotation. Its mass is ∼4.9 × 1021 kg, which implies an average specific gravity of 5.5. As the specific
gravity of the rocks at the surface of the earth is between 2.7 and 3, it may be, thus, inferred that the
materials in the interior have higher specific gravities.

In a macroscopic scale, the interior of the earth is divided into four concentric layers:

(a) inner core - lies at the center of the earth with a radius of ∼1216 km. It is thought to be solid, is
composed of nickel and iron, and has a specific gravity of ∼15.
(b) outer core - further toward the surface is the outer core with a thickness of ∼2270 km. It appears to
be in a liquid state and is composed mainly of iron, oxygen, and silicon. Its specific gravity is
estimated to be between 9 and 12
(c) mantle - mantle extends from the base of the crust to a depth of 2885 km and is composed of dense
granitic and basaltic rocks in a viscous, semi-molten state, the result of temperatures as high as
2000°C (for comparison steel melts at 1500°C). It has a specific gravity between 4 and 5 and is
divided into the upper mantle and the lower mantle to reflect the existence of a discontinuity in the
properties of its composting materials.
(d) crust - the crust thickness ranges between 25 and 60 km under the continents and between 4 and 6
km under the oceans. In addition to being thinner, the oceanic crust is also, in general, more uniform
and denser than the continental crust. The crust is composed of granitic and basaltic rocks.
 Internal structure of the earth.

Cross-section of the earth’s crust under the oceans and continents.

THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS

The theory of plate tectonics postulates that the earth’s crust is fractured and thus divided into a small
number of large and rigid pieces, referred to as plates. The size of these plates varies from a few hundred
to many thousands of kilometers. Their location, as well as their given names, is shown below:
 Major tectonic plates of the earth and their general direction of movement.

The theory of plate tectonics also postulates that these plates float on the semimolten asthenosphere
and that they move relative to one another. At some locations, these plates are moving apart (diverge)
and at others, the plates are moving toward each other (converge) or sliding past each other, as shown
above.

Plate tectonics theory also asserts that plate motion is responsible for the long-term, large-scale
formation and changes occurring on the earth’s surface and for most of the seismic and volcanic activity
around the world. It claims, further, that earthquakes take place near these plate boundaries as a result
of the stresses that build up in the earth’s crust as the plates tend to move and interact with one another.

The theory of plate tectonics has evolved from the theory of continental drift originally proposed by the
German scientist Alfred Wegener in 1915. Wegener’s theory of continental drift proclaimed that the
earth’s surface was not static, but dynamic, and that the oceans and continents are in constant motion.
He based his assertion on the similarity between the coastlines, geology, and life forms of eastern South
America and western Africa, and the southern part of India and the northern part of Australia. He
believed that 200 million years ago the earth had only one large continent that he called Pangaea (see
below) and that this large continent broke into pieces that slowly drifted toward the current position of
the current continents.
Although the theory of continental drift was received with contempt when it was originally proposed,
today this theory and that of plate tectonics have become widely accepted and acknowledged as one of
the greatest advances in the earth sciences. Their acceptance has come as a result of studies conducted
after the 1960s, which, with the help of a modern worldwide network of earthquake-recording
instruments, the developing of new techniques such as deep-water echo sounding, and a detailed
exploration of the ocean floor, have provided a strong supporting evidence of the historical movement of
the continents postulated by the theory of continental drift.

Moreover, precise geodetic measurements have shown that the plates identified by the plate tectonics
theory are indeed moving relative to one another and that this motion is between 1 and 13 cm/year.

PLATE INTERACTION, FORMATION OF EARTH’S SURFACE FEATURES, AND EARTHQUAKE GENERATION

When two plates diverge, a rift is developed, creating a condition where molten basaltic magma from the
asthenosphere rises to lift the plate edges and create new crust. Most of the known plate divergence
occurs in what is now the ocean area. This process of plate divergence, known as sea-floor spreading, has
been responsible for the formation of the mid-oceanic ridges and rises (submarine mountain chains) as
well as the deep valleys in between. Earthquake and volcano activity is involved along the boundaries of
these diverging plates, although the earthquakes that occur there are usually of low magnitude.
Earthquakes are triggered when the tensional forces that produce the plate divergence fracture the
newly formed crust. Spreading ridges may protrude above the ocean as in the case of the island of
Iceland, where, with its 150 volcanoes, volcanic activity is nearly continuous

When two plates converge, the plates either collide head-on or one dives beneath the other. Where an
oceanic plate and a continental plate converge, the oceanic plate, being thinner and heavier, tends to be
pushed below the continental plate (dips) to form what is known as a subduction zone. In this process,
the edge of the oceanic plate below the continental one melts and becomes part of the asthenosphere.
The creation of new crust where plates diverge is thus balanced by an equivalent loss at a subduction
zone, which together complete a continuous cycle that replaces the ocean floor every 200 million years
or so.
Where plate edges slide past each other, the crust is neither created nor destroyed, nor do changes occur
on the surface of the earth. The boundaries where this type of interaction occurs are often called
transform faults. A transform fault develops where the axis of a spreading ridge or a subduction zone has
been offset. As it may be observed from the jagged lines and erratic curves that identify the spreading
ridges and subduction zones, transform faults are a rather common occurrence, a condition brought
about by the irregular fracturing of the lithosphere. The sliding of one plate against another generates
earthquake activity but no volcanism. Earthquakes in these boundaries typically occur at shallow depths,
that is, between 5 and 40 km below the surface.
The overall interrelationship between the relative motions of the tectonic plates, together with some of
the most important features on the earth’s surface, is illustrated below:

FAULTS

From the Civil engineering point of view, faults are the most unfavorable and undesirable geological
structures at the site for any given purpose, i.e. for location of reservoir; as foundations site for
construction of dams, importance bridges or huge buildings, for tunneling; for laying roads, railways
tracks, etc.

This is because faults considerably weaken the rocks and render the sites in which they occur as
unfavorable places for all constructional purposes.

Further, as long as the faults are active, the site is unstable and susceptible to upward, downward or
sideward movement along the fault plane, thereby making the places highly hazardous for foundation
purposes. Thus, by virtue of the harm they are capable of causing, faults are necessarily investigated with
special care in dealing with any major construction.

Magnitude of Faults

Faults have considerable range in their magnitude. Some occur for short distance, while other can be
traced for very long distances. In some cases displacement may be less than a centimeter while in other it
may be many or even kilometers. The magnitude of faulting obviously depends on the intensity and the
nature of shearing stresses involved.
Nature of Fault Plane

Rarely the displacement during faulting occurs along a single fault plane. In many cases, faulting takes
place along a number of parallel fractures, Such a zone which contains a number of closely spaced sub-
parallel fractures along which the relative displacement has taken place is called shear zone or fault zone.

A fault plane may be plain or straight or may be curved or irregular, it may be horizontal or inclined or
vertical.

PARTS OF A FAULT

Fault Plane

This is the plane along which the adjacent blocks were relatively displaced. In other words, this is the
fracture surface on either side of which the rocks had moved past one another. Its intersection with the
horizontal plane gives the strike direction of the fault. The direction along which the fault plane has the
maximum slope is its true dip direction.
Foot Wall and Hanging Wall

When the fault plane is inclined, the faulted block which lies below the fault plane is called the “foot
wall” and the other block which rests above the fault plane is called “hanging wall”. In this case of vertical
faults, naturally the faulted blocks cannot be described as foot wall or hanging wall.

Slip

The displacement that occurs during faulting is called the slip. The total displacement is known as the
next slip. This may be along the strike direction or the dip direction or along both.

Heave and Throw

The horizontal component of displacement is called “heave” and the vertical component of displacement
is called “throw”. In vertical faults, there is only throw, but no heave. In horizontal faults, there is only
heave, but no throw.
To determine the focal mechanism we need three parameters:

Two for the fault plane and one for the slip direction:

𝝓𝒇 → the strike of the fault: Fault strike is the direction of a line created by the intersection of a fault
plane and a horizontal surface, 0° to 360°, relative to North. Strike is always defined such that a fault dips
to the right side of the trace when moving along the trace in the strike direction. The hanging-wall block
of a fault is therefore always to the right, and the footwall block on the left. This is important because
rake (which gives the slip direction) is defined as the movement of the hanging wall relative to the
footwall block

𝜹→ dip angle: Fault dip is the angle between the fault and a horizontal plane, 0° to 90°

𝝀 → Rake is the direction a hanging wall block moves during rupture, as measured on the plane of the
fault. It is measured relative to fault strike, ±180°. For an observer standing on a fault and looking in the
strike direction, a rake of 0° means the hanging wall, or the right side of a vertical fault, moved away from
the observer in the strike direction (left lateral motion). A rake of ±180° means the hanging wall moved
toward the observer (right lateral motion). For any rake>0, the hanging wall moved up, indicating thrust
or reverse motion on the fault; for any rake

For rake there usually are used two conventions:

1) −180° < 𝜆 < 180° by Aki & Richards, 1980

2) 0° < 𝜆 < 360° by Panza et al, 1973

Reverse Fault Normal Fault Strike-Slip Fault

0°< λ<180° -180°< λ λ=0° left – lateral
0°< λ<180° 180°< λ<360° λ=180° right - lateral
PROBLEM 1

Determine the source mechanism of faults with a dip δ = 60 ° and rake λ = 45 °.

Solution:

Assume that the vertical throw = 1 unit, calculate the magnitude of dip slip
𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑤 1
sin 60 = = ;
𝑑𝑖𝑝 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑑𝑖𝑝 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝
1
𝑑𝑖𝑝 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = = 1.1547
sin 60
We can now calculate the value of the net slip
𝑑𝑖𝑝 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 1.1547 1.1547
cos 45 = = ; 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = = 1.633
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 cos 45
Finally, we can now calculate the direction of source mechanism from the horizontal
1
sin 𝜃 = ; 𝜃 = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟕𝟔°
1.633
SEISMIC WAVES

Body waves travel through the Earth’s interior layers. They include longitudinal or primary waves (also
known as ‘P-waves’) and transverse or secondary waves (also called ‘S-waves’). P- and S-waves are also
termed ‘preliminary tremors’ because in most earthquakes they are felt first (Kanai, 1983 ).

P-waves cause alternate push (or compression) and pull (or tension) in the rock as shown

S - wave propagation, by contrast, causes vertical and horizontal side-to-side motion. Such waves
introduce shear stresses in the rock along their paths as displayed in Figure below.
Travel path mechanisms of body waves: primary (left) and secondary waves (right) (adapted from Bolt,
1999)

Body waves (P and S) were named after their arrival time as measured by seismographs at observation
sites. P-waves travel faster, at speeds between 1.5 and 8 kilometers per second while S-waves are slower,
usually travelling at 50% to 60% of the speed of P-waves. The actual speed of body waves depends upon
the density and elastic properties of the rock and soil through which they pass.

Body waves may be described by Navier’s equation for an infinite, homogeneous, isotropic, elastic
medium in the absence of body forces (e.g. Udias, 1999 ). The propagation velocities of P- and S-waves
within an isotropic elastic medium with density 𝜌, denoted as 𝑣𝑃 and 𝑣𝑆 respectively, are as follows:
(Eq. 1.1)

𝐸(1 − 𝑣)
𝑣𝑃 = √
𝜌(1 + 𝑣)(1 − 2𝑣)

(Eq. 1.2)

𝐸
𝑣𝑆 = √
2𝜌(1 + 𝑣)

in which 𝜈 is Poisson’s ratio and E is Young’s modulus of the elastic medium.

The ratio of P - and S - wave velocities is as follows:

(Eq. 1.3)

𝑣𝑆 1 − 2𝑣
=√
𝑣𝑃 2(1 − 𝑣)

Assuming homogenous soil profiles between earthquake foci and observation sites, the focal distance 𝛥𝑥
is linearly dependent on the time-lag 𝛥𝑡 between the P- and S-waves as follows:
(Eq. 1.4)
𝑣𝑃 𝑣𝑆
Δ𝑥 = Δ𝑡
𝑣𝑃 − 𝑣𝑆
with 𝛥𝑥 and 𝛥𝑡 expressed in kilometers and seconds, respectively.

The procedure to locate an earthquake epicenter and origin time, i.e. time of initiating of fault rupture, is
as follows:

(a) Obtain seismogram records for a given observation site.

(b) Select the arrival time of the body waves on the record traces.
(c) Compute the time delay 𝛥𝑡 in the arrival of P- and S- waves.
(d) Use equation (1.4) to evaluate the distance 𝛥𝑥 between the seismic station and the epicenter.
(e) Draw a circle on a map around the station location (or center) with a radius equal to 𝛥𝑥. The curve
plotted shows a series of possible locations for the earthquake epicenter.
(f) Repeat steps (a) to (e) for a second seismic station. A new circle is drawn; the latter intersects the
circle of the first station at two points.
(g) Repeat steps (a) to (e) for a third seismic station. It identifies which of the two previous possible
points is acceptable and corresponds to the earthquake source.

Surface waves propagate across the outer layers of the Earth’s crust. They are generated by constructive
interference of body waves travelling parallel to the ground surface and various underlying boundaries.
Surface waves include Love (indicated as ‘L- or LQ-waves’) and Rayleigh (indicated as ‘R- or LR-waves’)
waves. These waves induce generally large displacements and hence are also called ‘principal motion’
(Kanai, 1983).

LQ-waves are generated by constructive interference of SH body waves and hence cannot travel across
fluids. Their motion is horizontal and perpendicular to the direction of their propagation, which is parallel
to the Earth’s surface as illustrated pictorially in Figure below. LQ-waves of long period (60 – 300
seconds) are also called ‘G-waves’, after Gutenberg (Richter, 1958). For these periods, the waves travel
with a velocity of about 4.0 km/sec and are pulse-like.

Travel path mechanisms of surface waves: Love (left) and Rayleigh waves (right) (adapted from Bolt,
1999)

LR-waves are slower than S-waves. As an approximation, it may be assumed that the velocity of LR -
waves 𝑣𝐿𝑅 is given by the equation (Bolt, 1999):
(Eq. 1.5)

𝑣𝐿𝑅 ≈ 0.92𝑣𝑆
For a layered solid, LQ - wave velocity 𝑣𝐿𝑄 generally obeys the following relationship:
(Eq. 1.6)

𝑣𝑆1 < 𝑣𝐿𝑄 < 𝑣𝑆2

with 𝑣𝑆1 and 𝑣𝑆2 as the velocities of S-waves in the surface and deeper layers, respectively.

Surface waves are slower than body waves and LQ-waves are generally faster than LR-waves

The phenomenon known as the ‘Moho bounce’ is due to the simultaneous arrival at the surface of direct
S - waves and S - waves reflected by the so-called ‘Mohorovicic discontinuity’ – or ‘Moho’ in short – at the
boundary between the crust and the underlying mantle in the internal structure of the Earth. The latter
discontinuity may be responsible for significant strong motions leading to damage far from the source.
PROBLEM 2

Locate and mark on the map provided in Figure 1.12 the epicenter of an earthquake that was recorded in
Italy by three observation sites with a time delay between P - and S - waves of 5.0, 7.5 and 6.0 seconds,
respectively. The body wave velocities are 8.5 km/sec and 4.30 km/sec; it is up to the reader to
determine which of these values refer to P- and S-waves.

Solution:

Determine the distances of each station on the epicenter

𝑣𝑃 𝑣𝑆
Δ𝑥 = Δ𝑡
𝑣𝑃 − 𝑣𝑆
Station #1:
(8.5)(4.3)
Δ𝑥 = (5.0) = 43.51 𝑘𝑚
8,5 − 4.3
Station #2:
(8.5)(4.3)
Δ𝑥 = (7.5) = 65.27 𝑘𝑚
8,5 − 4.3
Station #3:
(8.5)(4.3)
Δ𝑥 = (6.0) = 52.21 𝑘𝑚
8,5 − 4.3
MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKES

Magnitude

An individual earthquake is a unique release of strain energy — quantification of this energy has formed
the basis for measuring the earthquake event. Richter (1935) was the first to define earthquake
magnitude, as
(Eq. 1.7)

𝑀𝐿 = log 𝐴 − log 𝐴0
where

𝑀𝐿 = the local magnitude (which Richter only defined for Southern California),
𝐴 = the maximum trace amplitude in micrometers recorded on a standard Wood–Anderson short-period
torsion seismometer,3 at a site 100 km from the epicenter,
log 𝐴0 = a standard value as a function of distance for instruments located at distances other than 100
km and less than 600 km.

PROBLEM 3 (Calculation of earthquake magnitude)

The seismogram from an earthquake recorded by a seismograph located exactly at 100 km from the
earthquake epicenter exhibits a peak amplitude of 1 mm. Determine the magnitude of the earthquake.

Solution:

𝐴 = 1 𝑚𝑚 = 1000 𝜇𝑚; 𝐴0 = 1 𝜇𝑚
𝐴 1000
𝑀𝐿 = log = log ( )=3
𝐴0 1
PROBLEM 4 (Ground displacement induced by the magnitude 9.0 earthquake)

Determine the peak ground displacement induced by an earthquake with a magnitude of 9.0 at a
distance of 100 km from the earthquake epicenter.

Solution:

𝑀 = 9.0; 𝐴0 = 1 𝜇𝑚
𝐴
9 = log ; 𝐴 = 109 𝜇𝑚 = 1000 𝑚
𝐴0
Subsequently, a number of other magnitudes have been defined, the most important of which are
surface wave magnitude 𝑀𝑆 , body wave magnitude 𝑚𝑏 , and moment magnitude 𝑀𝑊 . Magnitude, which
is defined on the basis of the amplitude of ground displacements, can be related to the total energy in
the expanding wave front generated by an earthquake, and thus to the total energy release — an
empirical relation by Richter is
(Eq. 1.8)

log 𝐸𝑆 = 11.8 + 1.5𝑀𝑆

where 𝐸𝑆 is the total energy in ergs.

erg = unit of work equal to 1 dyne acting through a distance of 1 cm.

erg = 1 dyne-cm. erg = 3.722 × 10−4 horsepower – hrs.
erg = 1 × 10−7 joules.
joule = 1 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚.
dyne = force needed to accelerate a freestanding mass 1 cm/sec.
dyne = 1 𝑔𝑚 − 𝑐𝑚/sec 2
dyne = 1 × 10−5 𝑁.
1 horsepower = 746 watts.

PROBLEM 5

According to Richter, the World War II type of an atomic bomb released about 8 × 1020 ergs of energy
(20,000 tons of TNT). The number of bombs needed to produce a 6.5 magnitude is nearest to (Ans. 4.40)

Solution:

log 𝐸𝑆 = 11.8 + 1.5𝑀𝑆

log 𝐸𝑆 = 11.8 + 1.5(6.5) = 21.55

𝐸𝑆 = 1021.55 = 35.48 × 1020

we can now determine the number of bombs needed
𝐸𝑆 35.48
𝑛= = = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒 ≈ 𝟓 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒃𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒔
8 × 1020 8

Subsequently, due to the observation that deep-focus earthquakes commonly do not register measurable
surface waves with periods near 20 s, a body wave magnitude 𝑚𝑏 was defined (Gutenberg and Richter
1954), which can be related to 𝑀𝑆 (Darragh et al. 1994):
(Eq. 1.9)

𝑚𝑏 = 2.5 + 0.63𝑀𝑠
Body wave magnitude (𝒎𝒃 ): measures the amplitude of P - waves with a period of about 1.0 second, i.e.
less than 10 - km wavelengths. This scale is suitable for deep earthquakes that have few surface waves.
Moreover, mb can measure distant events, e.g. epicentral distances not less than 600 km. Furthermore, P
- waves are not affected by the depth of energy source. Magnitude 𝑚𝑏 is related to the amplitude 𝐴 and
period 𝑇 of P - waves as follows:
(Eq. 1.10)
𝐴
𝑚𝑏 = log ( ) + 𝜎(Δ)
𝑇
in which 𝜎(𝛥) is a function of the epicentre distance 𝛥 (in degrees). For example, if 𝛥 = 45 ° then 𝜎 =
6.80; other values can be found in the literature (e.g. Udias, 1999 ).

More recently, seismic moment has been employed to define a moment magnitude 𝑀𝑊 (Hanks and
Kanamori 1979; also denoted as boldface 𝑴), which is finding increased and widespread use
(Eq. 1.11)

log 𝑀𝑂 = 1.5𝑀𝑊 + 16.0

where seismic moment 𝑀0 (dyne cm)
(Eq. 1.12)

log 𝑀𝑂 = 1.5𝑀𝑊 + 9.81

where seismic moment 𝑀0 (N-m)
𝑀0 (dyne cm) is defined as (Lomnitz 1974) as
(Eq. 1.13)

𝑀𝑂 = 𝜇𝐴𝑢̅
where 𝜇 is the material shear modulus, A is the area of fault plane rupture, and 𝑢̅ is the mean relative
displacement between the two sides of the fault (the averaged fault slip). The modulus 𝜇 can be assumed
to be 32,000 MPa (3.2 × 1011 dyne/cm2) in the crust and 75,000 MPa (7.5 × 1011 dyne/cm2) in the
mantle.

PROBLEM 6

A chunk of rock on a laboratory bench was measured with a fault area of 10 cm x 10 cm on a slip distance
of 1 cm. The rock rigidity is μ = 3.2 × 1011 dyne/cm2.

a) What should be the seismic moment for this particular earthquake in dyne-cm? (Ans 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑 dyne
– cm)

Solution:

𝑀𝑂 = 𝜇𝐴𝑢̅ = (3 × 1011 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒/𝑐𝑚2 )(10 𝑐𝑚)2 (1 𝑐𝑚) = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑 𝒅𝒚𝒏𝒆 ∙ 𝒄𝒎

b) What should be the magnitude of this particular earthquake? (Ans. -1.7)

Solution:

log 𝑀𝑂 = 1.5𝑀𝑊 + 16.0

log(3 × 1013 ) = 1.5𝑀𝑊 + 16.0
13.477 = 1.5𝑀𝑊 + 16
13.477 − 16
𝑀𝑊 = = −𝟏. 𝟔𝟖𝟐
1.5
c) How much energy in ergs must be released by this earthquake activity? (Ans. 𝟏. 𝟖𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 ergs)

Solution:

log 𝐸𝑆 = 11.8 + 1.5𝑀𝑆

log 𝐸𝑆 = 11.8 + 1.5(−1.682) = 9.277

𝑬𝑺 = 𝟏𝟎𝟗.𝟐𝟕𝟕 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟗𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒔

Properties of major magnitude scales.
 INTENSITY

Intensity is a non - instrumental perceptibility measure of damage to structures, ground surface effects,
e.g. fractures, cracks and landslides, and human reactions to earthquake shaking. It is a descriptive
method which has been traditionally used to establish earthquake size, especially for pre - instrumental
events. It is a subjective damage evaluation metric because of its qualitative nature, related to population
density, familiarity with earthquake and type of constructions.

Discrete scales are used to quantify seismic intensity; the levels are represented by Roman numerals and
each degree of intensity provides a qualitative description of earthquake effects. Some of the most
common intensity scales are listed below:

i. Mercalli – Cancani–Seiberg (MCS): 12 - level scale used in southern Europe;

ii. Modified Mercalli (MM): 12 - level scale proposed in 1931 by Wood and Neumann, who adapted
the MCS scale to the California data set. It is used in North America and several other countries;
iii. Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik (MSK): 12 - level scale developed in Central and Eastern Europe and
used in several other countries;
iv. European Macroseismic Scale (EMS): 12 - level scale adopted since 1998 in Europe. It is a
development of the MM scale;
v. Japanese Meteorological Agency (JMA): 7 - level scale used in Japan. It has been revised over the
years and has recently been correlated to maximum horizontal acceleration of the ground.

Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale of 1931 (after Wood and Neumann 1931)

I Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable circumstances

II Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings. Delicately
suspended objects may swing
III Felt quite noticeably indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings, but many people
do not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Vibration
like passing track. Duration estimated
IV During the day felt indoors by many, outdoors by few. At night some awakened.
Dishes, windows, and doors disturbed; walls make creaking sound. Sensation like
heavy truck striking building. Standing motorcars rock noticeably
V Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes, windows, etc., broken; a few
instances of cracked plaster; unstable objects overturned. Disturbance of trees,
poles, and other tall objects sometimes noticed. Pendulum clocks may stop
VI Felt by all; many frightened and run outdoors. Some heavy furniture moved; a few
instances of fallen plaster or damaged chimneys. Damage slight
VII Everybody runs outdoors. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and
construction slight to moderate in well-built ordinary structures; considerable in
poorly built or badly designed structures. Some chimneys broken. Noticed by persons
driving motor cars
VIII Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable in ordinary substantial
buildings, with partial collapse; great in poorly built structures. Panel walls thrown
out of frame structures. Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls.
Heavy furniture overturned. Sand and mud ejected in small amounts. Changes in well
water. Persons driving motor cars disturbed
IX Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well designed frame structures
thrown out of plumb; great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings
shifted off foundations. Ground cracked conspicuously. Underground pipes broken
X Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures
destroyed with foundations; ground badly cracked. Rails bent. Landslides
 considerable from river banks and steep slopes. Shifted sand and mud. Water
splashed over banks
XI Few, if any (masonry), structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Broad fissures
in ground. Underground pipelines completely out of service. Earth slumps and land
slips in soft ground. Rails bent greatly
XII Damage total. Waves seen on ground surfaces. Lines of sight and level distorted.
Objects thrown upward into the air

Other intensity scales are defined analogously, Table shown below, which also contains an approximate
conversion from MMI to acceleration a (PGA, in cm/s2 or gals). The conversion is due to Richter (1935)
(Eq. 1.14)
𝑀𝑀𝐼 1
log 𝑎 = −
3 2

PHIVOLCS EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY SCALE

Intensity Scale Description

Scarcely Perceptible - Perceptible to people under favorable circumstances. Delicately balanced

I
objects are disturbed slightly. Still Water in containers oscillates slowly.

Slightly Felt - Felt by few individuals at rest indoors. Hanging objects swing slightly. Still Water in
II
containers oscillates noticeably.

Weak - Felt by many people indoors especially in upper floors of buildings. Vibration is felt like
III one passing of a light truck. Dizziness and nausea are experienced by some people. Hanging
objects swing moderately. Still water in containers oscillates moderately.

Moderately Strong - Felt generally by people indoors and by some people outdoors. Light
sleepers are awakened. Vibration is felt like a passing of heavy truck. Hanging objectsswing
IV considerably. Dinner, plates, glasses, windows and doors rattle. Floors and walls of wood framed
buildings creak. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Liquids in containers are slightly disturbed.
Water in containers oscillate strongly. Rumbling sound may sometimes be heard.

Strong - Generally felt by most people indoors and outdoors. Many sleeping people are
V
awakened. Some are frightened, some run outdoors. Strong shaking and rocking felt throughout
 building. Hanging objects swing violently. Dining utensils clatter and clink; some are broken.
Small, light and unstable objects may fall or overturn. Liquids spill from filled open containers.
Standing vehicles rock noticeably. Shaking of leaves and twigs of trees are noticeable.

Very Strong - Many people are frightened; many run outdoors. Some people lose their balance.
motorists feel like driving in flat tires. Heavy objects or furniture move or may be shifted. Small
church bells may ring. Wall plaster may crack. Very old or poorly built houses and man-made
VI
structures are slightly damaged though well-built structures are not affected. Limited rockfalls
and rolling boulders occur in hilly to mountainous areas and escarpments. Trees are noticeably
shaken.

Destructive - Most people are frightened and run outdoors. People find it difficult to stand in
upper floors. Heavy objects and furniture overturn or topple. Big church bells may ring. Old or
poorly-built structures suffer considerably damage. Some well-built structures are slightly
VII damaged. Some cracks may appear on dikes, fish ponds, road surface, or concrete hollow block
walls. Limited liquefaction, lateral spreading and landslides are observed. Trees are shaken
strongly. (Liquefaction is a process by which loose saturated sand lose strength during an
earthquake and behave like liquid).

Very Destructive - People panicky. People find it difficult to stand even outdoors. Many well-built
buildings are considerably damaged. Concrete dikes and foundation of bridges are destroyed by
ground settling or toppling. Railway tracks are bent or broken. Tombstones may be displaced,
twisted or overturned. Utility posts, towers and monuments mat tilt or topple. Water and sewer
VIII pipes may be bent, twisted or broken. Liquefaction and lateral spreading cause man- made
structure to sink, tilt or topple. Numerous landslides and rockfalls occur in mountainous and hilly
areas. Boulders are thrown out from their positions particularly near the epicenter. Fissures and
faults rapture may be observed. Trees are violently shaken. Water splash or stop over dikes or
banks of rivers.

Devastating - People are forcibly thrown to ground. Many cry and shake with fear. Most buildings
are totally damaged. bridges and elevated concrete structures are toppled or destroyed.
Numerous utility posts, towers and monument are tilted, toppled or broken. Water sewer pipes
IX are bent, twisted or broken. Landslides and liquefaction with lateral spreadings and sandboils are
widespread. the ground is distorted into undulations. Trees are shaken very violently with some
toppled or broken. Boulders are commonly thrown out. River water splashes violently on slops
over dikes and banks.

Completely Devastating - Practically all man-made structures are destroyed. Massive landslides
and liquefaction, large scale subsidence and uplifting of land forms and many ground fissures are
X
observed. Changes in river courses and destructive seiches in large lakes occur. Many trees are
toppled, broken and uprooted.

INTENSITY-MAGNITUDE RELATIONSHIP

Intensity–magnitude relationships are essential for the use of historical earthquakes for which no
instrumental records exist. Several simple methods to convert intensity into magnitude have been
proposed (e.g. Lee et al., 2003); most of which exhibit large scatter because of the inevitable bias present
in the definition of intensity (Ambraseys and Melville, 1982). Gutenberg and Richter (1956) proposed a
linear relationship between local magnitude ML and epicentral intensity I0 for southern California, given
by:
(Eq. 1.15)

𝑀𝐿 = 0.67𝐼0 + 1.0
in which the intensity 𝐼0 is expressed in the 𝑀𝑀 scale. The above equation shows, for example, that the
epicentral intensity 𝐼0 of 𝑉𝐼 corresponds to 𝑀𝐿 = 5.02 indicating that the earthquake is likely to cause
significant damage.

Street and Turcotte (1977) related mb magnitude to the intensity 𝐼0 (in the 𝑀𝑀 scale) as follows:
(Eq. 1.16)

𝑚𝑏 = 0.49𝐼0 + 1.66
which is useful in converting earthquake data in the central and eastern USA. The above equation relates
to an intensity of 𝑉𝐼 in the 𝑀𝑀 scale to a magnitude mb of 4.60, which contradicts the observation that
𝑀𝐿 should be systematically lower than 𝑚𝑏 for short‐period waves.

Intensity–magnitude relationships were proposed by Ambraseys (1985, 1989) for European regions as
follows:
(Eq. 1.17)

𝑀𝑆 = −1.10 + 0.62𝐼𝑖 + 1.30 ∙ 10−3 𝑟𝑖 + 1.62 log(𝑟𝑖 )

which is applicable for north - west Europe, and
(Eq. 1.18)

𝑀𝑆 = −0.90 + 0.58𝐼𝑖 + 1.10 ∙ 10−3 𝑟𝑖 + 2.11 log(𝑟𝑖 )

for the Alpine zone, where 𝐼𝑖 is the MM intensity of the 𝑖th isoseismal and 𝑟𝑖 is the radius of the
equivalent area enclosed by the 𝑖th isoseismal, in kilometers.

Local geological conditions and focal depths can significantly affect the intensity of earthquake ground
motion. Semi‐empirical formulations accounting for focal depths are available (e.g. Kanai, 1983).
Sponheuer (1960) proposed to calculate 𝑀 from the epicentral intensity 𝐼0 as follows:
(Eq. 1.19)

𝑀𝑆 = 0.66𝐼0 + 1.7 log(ℎ) − 1.4

where the focal depth ℎ is in kilometers and the intensity 𝐼0 is in the 𝑀𝑀 scale.

Attenuation relationships (relationships between a ground‐shaking parameter, magnitude, distance, and

soil condition) for different ground‐motion parameters can be derived from intensity and magnitude;
they may account for distance, travel path, and site effects.

PROBLEM 7

Calculate the surface wave magnitude 𝑀𝑆 for an earthquake with 𝐼𝑀𝑀 of 𝑉𝐼𝐼 in an area that can be
approximated by a circle with radius 20 km for a site at the borders of the given isoseismal. This site is
located in the Western United States but you may use Eq. (1.17).

Solution:

𝑀𝑆 = −1.10 + 0.62𝐼𝑖 + 1.30 ∙ 10−3 𝑟𝑖 + 1.62 log(𝑟𝑖 )

𝑀𝑆 = −1.10 + 0.62(7) + 1.30 ∙ 10−3 (20) + 1.62 log(20)
𝑀𝑆 = 𝟓. 𝟒