JOHN PAUL COLLEGE

MG Andaya Compound, Odiong, Roxas, Oriental Mindoro

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCES

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

GROUP 1:
FABREGAS, JANSHEN G.
MAYOR, KHATE CINDY G.
SATO, ABEGAIL
YAP, REIN NATASHA F.
 Table of Contents
What this module is about ............................................................................................................. 1

Lesson 1: Structural Effects of Earthquakes..................................................................................... 2

What’s in ..................................................................................................................................... 3

What I need to know .................................................................................................................... 3

What’s new .................................................................................................................................. 3

What is it ..................................................................................................................................... 3

What’s more................................................................................................................................. 3

Lesson 2: Types of Earthquakes ..................................................................................................... 8

What’s in ..................................................................................................................................... 9

What I need to know .................................................................................................................... 9

What’s new .................................................................................................................................. 9

What is it ..................................................................................................................................... 9

What’s more................................................................................................................................ 11

Lesson 3: History of the Development of Mitigation Strategies for the Effects of Seismic Hazards ....... 12

What’s in .................................................................................................................................... 13

What I need to know ................................................................................................................... 13

What’s new ................................................................................................................................. 13

What is it .................................................................................................................................... 13

What’s more................................................................................................................................ 15

Summary .................................................................................................................................... 16

References .................................................................................................................................. 16

What this module is about

This module is about Seismic Design and Earthquake Engineering, focusing on how earthquakes affect infrastructure and
how structural systems can be designed to withstand seismic forces. It explores the fundamentals of earthquakes, including their
causes, sources, and types, as well as their impact on buildings, bridges, and other structures. Emphasizing the relationship
between seismic activity and structural response, the module highlights the importance of designing resilient infrastructure to
minimize damage. By examining historical earthquakes and lessons learned, this module provides a comprehensive introduction to
the essentials of seismic design, preparing learners to understand and address the challenges posed by earthquakes in the built
environment.

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Lesson 1:
Structural
Effects of
Earthquakes

Reporters:
Fabregas, Janshen Gabayno
Mayor, Khate Cindy Gado

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What’s in
Generally, effects of earthquakes can be divided into several categories. In this section, we present three categories: ground
failure, indirect effects, and ground shaking, the latter being the main topic covered in the book. Ground failure can be further
subdivided into surface rupture, ground subsidence, ground cracking, soil liquefaction, and landslides. Indirect effects include
tsunamis (tidal waves in the oceans), seiches (tidal waves in an enclosed body of water, such as a lake), and fires, all of which can
result in damage comparable to, or even larger than, ground shaking.
What I Need to Know:
By the end of this topic, you will have a deeper understanding of the structural effects caused by earthquakes, including
how seismic forces affect different materials and building designs. You will also recognize the importance of studying past
earthquakes and the lessons they offer, which help improve the resilience and safety of structures in earthquake-prone areas.
What’s New: Activity 1.1 FINDING YOU. Discover the words which relate to Earthquake Engineering.

A F T E R S H O C K
F A U N R P E C I E
S U T Q C D K V V M
O L X D B M D Q A W
I T K V U Y T I O W
L L A N D S L I D E
J I N J R H I X G S
V N N F G R S E Z B
C E R O S A W J Y G
What is it
1.1.1 Ground Failures
Ground failures are generally considered part of geotechnical earthquake engineering, and they involve the movement of
the ground surface at a location where geological fissures or zones of weakness in the crust of the earth (faults) slip slowly or
suddenly. Usually, sudden movement is much more damaging because of the associated ground shaking. Surface faulting occurs
when the relative movement of rocks on the two sides of a fault takes place deep within the earth and breaks through to the surface;
this can occur as slow movement in the form of fault creep or suddenly resulting in an earthquake. This type of ground failure typically
follows a preexisting fault line.

FIGURE 1.1 Surface rupture: (a) slow (creep) and (b) caused by the 1992 Landers earthquake in San Bernardino County.
(http://www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs/rghm/ap/Pages/main.aspx)
This location experienced over 16 inches (400 mm) of fault creep over a 40-year period as indicated by a graph of fault slip
displayed at the winery. Since the winery building straddles the surface of the fault, this movement has been splitting it into two,
which is clear by the large crack on the concrete floor. The San Andreas Fault, however, can produce large earthquakes near this
site, such as the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, which caused widespread damage throughout the San Francisco Bay Area, but did
not break through to the surface.
Ground subsidence occurs as loose soils rearrange and settle into a denser state during vibrations caused by earthquakes.
In some cases, the compaction effect may amount to substantial settlement of the ground surface. Liquefaction, which will be
discussed later in this section, can also trigger significant subsidence of unconsolidated sediment. For example, it is believed that
Big Lake and St. Francis Lake in Northeast Arkansas formed during the 1811 and 1812 New Madrid earthquakes in areas where

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liquefaction resulted in significant lowering of the land surface, causing it to flood. Uniform settlement over large tracks of land causes
few problems for infrastructure (except for long horizontal structures, such as roads and pipelines). However, systems along the
boundaries can experience differential settlement that can be extremely damaging, as was experienced in Anchorage, Alaska along
Fourth Avenue during the Good Friday earthquake in 1964; see Figure 1.2.

FIGURE 1.2 Surface subsidence. (Courtesy of USGS.)

Ground cracking is usually observed along the edges of ground subsidence as shown in Figure 1.2; it may also be the
result of slope failure or liquefaction, all of which cause the ground to lose its support and sink, with the ground surface breaking up
into fissures, scarps, horsts, and grabens (Figure 1.2). The most damaging effect of ground subsidence is differential settlement,
which can severely disrupt the function of any infrastructure system near the vicinity of cracking locations, particularly those with long
foundations that straddle the cracks.
Soil liquefaction occurs when loose, saturated granular soils temporarily change from a solid to a liquid state, losing their
shear strength, which corresponds to a loss in effective stress between soil particles. Loose saturated (or moderately saturated)
sands and non-plastic silts are most susceptible to this ground failure; however, in rare cases, gravel and clay can also experience
liquefaction. In all cases, poor drainage within the loose soil causes an increase in the pore water pressure as the soil is compressed
by the vibratory effect of seismic waves. As the load is transferred from soil to pore water pressure, the effective stress between
particles is temporarily reduced, or eliminated, causing a corresponding decrease in shear strength. In some cases, the pore water
pressure increases rapidly and a slurry (soil water mixture) form that flows vertically to the surface, which can result in craters and
sand boils as shown in Figure 1.3a. Liquefaction is responsible for some of the most spectacular failures caused by earthquakes as
shown in Figure 1.3b. Following the 1964 Niigata, Japan earthquake, several apartment buildings experienced severe tilting and
settlement. Fortuitously, the tilted buildings did not suffer major structural damage, and thus minimal human injury.

FIGURE 1.3 (a) Sand boils that erupted following the 2011 Christchurch Earthquake and (b) Tilting and settlement of buildings
caused by liquefaction following the 1964 Niigata Earthquake. (Courtesy of USGS.)
Landslides caused by earthquakes are uncommon. Consequently, for a structure to experience damage during the event,
it must be located at the top or bottom of the soil mass that slides down; for this reason, damage resulting from earthquake-induced
landslides is rare. Sloped land that is marginally stable under static conditions is most susceptible to sliding during the intense shaking
of strong earthquakes. For the most severe cases, debris (soil, boulders, and other materials) flow can move at avalanche speeds
and can travel long distances depending on the slope from which the landslide was formed. Furthermore, earthquake-induced
landslides can be sudden and unpredictable, producing the destruction of communities in the path of the debris flow. Some
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devastating landslides have occurred around the world. One of the worst cases happened in Peru during the 1970 Ancash (or Great
Peruvian) earthquake (magnitude 7.9) off the Pacific Ocean coast, which produced what is considered the world’s deadliest
earthquake-induced landslide (20,000 fatalities). During the earthquake, the northern wall of Mount Huascaran, 130 km (70 miles)
from the epicenter, was loosened, mobilizing rock, ice, and snow into a massive landslide that buried the towns of Ranrahirca and
Yongay; see Figure 1.4.

FIGURE 1.4 (a) Partial view of Yungay City, Peru in 1966 and (b) after being buried by the 1970 Great Peruvian earthquake-induced
landslide. (Courtesy of EERC, University of California.)
1.1.2 Indirect Effects of Earthquakes
These include some of the most devastating and frightening impacts of earthquakes, such as tsunamis and fires. Designing
structural systems to withstand the large magnitude forces resulting from water waves generated by a tsunami is challenging.
Tsunamis are long-period sea waves that are generated when an earthquake causes the vertical movement of the seafloor.
Tsunamis travel far, at high speeds (over 500 mph) in the open ocean and are difficult to detect because of their small crest-to-trough
height, and long wavelengths, which typically, are hundreds of miles long. Unobstructed, these waves can travel around the world
and dissipate all their energy without causing damage. However, as they approach a shore, the water depth decreases causing an
increase in wave speed and wave amplitude (height of wave run-ups). Wave run-ups of 75 feet have been observed at several
locations. Wave run-ups can push water that rushes far inland and have created devastating damage to infrastructure and great loss
of life. One of the most devastating tsunami events occurred in the Indian Ocean on December 26, 2004, which killed over 230,000
people in 14 different countries; the furthest fatality was in Port Elizabeth, South Africa, over 8000 km away (see Figure 1.5). In some
flat areas, such as Aceh on the northwest tip of Sumatra Island in Indonesia, the wave run-ups pushed water as far as 2 km inland,
with wave heights of over 25 m. The wave forces generated by these types of events are nearly impossible to design against.

FIGURE 1.5 Countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. (From Wikipedia.)
Seiches are earthquake-induced waves in an enclosed body of water, such as a lake or a reservoir, or one that is partially
enclosed, such as a bay. Seiches are caused when long-period seismic waves resonate with oscillations of the enclosed water and
cause standing waves. Earthquakes may happen within or far outside the perimeter of the body of water. Although this type of wave
has been observed during most earthquakes (even in swimming pools), related damage to infrastructure has been minimal.
Fire is probably the most terrifying indirect effect of earthquakes, particularly considering that people who survived in
collapsed buildings, but were trapped in the debris, were burnt alive as the fire consumed everything in its path. Traditional firefighting
methods are often ineffective against earthquake-induced fires because most water mains that supply water hydrants break.
Earthquake-induced fires are started by ruptured combustible substance conduits (such as gas mains) or destroyed combustible
substance storage containers (such as oil tanks) and then ignited by sparks from sources such as downed powerlines. Earthquake-
induced fires are most common in regions where timber construction is prevalent. One of the most devastating earthquake-induced
fires happened after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Over a four-day period, the fire burned nearly 25,000 buildings on 508 city
blocks (see Figure 1.6), which constituted about 80% of the city at the time.

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FIGURE 1.6 Extent of San Francisco fire following the 1906 Earthquake. (Courtesy of USGS.
1.1.3 Ground Shaking
Ground shaking causes most of the earthquake damage; additionally, most of the effects are caused by shaking. In fact,
where the shaking intensity is low, the hazard of other effects can be minimal. Consequently, shaking is the only effect experienced
by everyone within an afflicted area, and intense shaking can produce widespread damage from various seismic hazards. For this
reason, ground shaking is the focus of earthquake engineering.
Although earthquakes are caused by numerous natural and human-induced phenomena, the events posing the highest
seismic risks are caused by the relative deformation of crustal tectonic plates. Most frequently, earthquakes happen at the
boundaries, but in rare occasions they occur far from the boundaries. The most spectacular examples of these are the New Madrid
earthquakes. The boundary interface of adjacent plates is generally rough, with friction resisting the relative deformation of these
plates. This friction induces shear stress in the rock, which eventually exceeds the inherent rock strength, resulting in slip that releases
elastic strain energy in the form of shock waves. These seismic waves propagate throughout the earth, and when they reach the
earth’s surface move the ground vertically and horizontally. This ground movement causes accelerations that result in the inertial
response of structures, which in turn, causes significant damage or collapse of countless structures. There are also segments of the
plate boundaries that experience smooth continuous relative deformation, or creep, such as the segment of the San Andreas Fault
along the Cienega Valley near Hollister, California (Figure 1.1a).
Seismic waves that radiate from the location where a fault ruptures (the focus) quickly travel throughout the earth’s crust,
producing ground shaking when they reach the ground surface. The intensity and duration of shaking experienced at a particular site
during an earthquake are primarily because of three factors:

 Earthquake size (magnitude): It can be measured objectively, or subjectively larger earthquakes cause stronger shaking.
A strong earthquake can cause ground shaking over widespread areas, suddenly affecting large numbers of structures.
Even relatively small earthquakes can have a significant impact on large numbers of buildings. The 2014 South Napa
earthquake (magnitude 6), as shown in Figure 1.7, caused extensive damage to buildings in the town of Napa, as well as
to the many wineries in the region, with a total estimated loss of approximately one billion US dollars. Fortuitously, the
quake struck early in the morning when businesses were closed, and sidewalks were empty; only one fatality was attributed
to the quake.

FIGURE 1.7 Intensity and extent of 2014 South Napa Earthquake. (Courtesy of USGS.)

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  Location (distance from the focus or epicenter): Generally, the closer to the epicenter, the stronger the shaking.
Structures near the epicenter of a strong earthquake can experience extensive damage, in some cases partial or total
collapse; see Figure 1.

 The subsurface materials beneath the structure:

Soft soils amplify the shaking, while rocks do not. This is the most insidious of the three factors because the site can be
located at a long S distance from the epicenter and still experience extensive ground shaking due to local soil conditions.
Seismic waves travel through rock for most of their trip from the focus to the surface; however, at many sites, the final part
of the trip is through soil, the geological characteristics of which have a major influence on the nature of ground shaking.
Some soils act as seismic wave filters, attenuating shaking at some frequencies while amplifying it at others.
The most peculiar example of distant seismic wave amplification is that of the Valley of Mexico, where Mexico City
is located. The origin of these waves (earthquake focus) is approximately 350–400 km away, along the Pacific cost in
Michoacán. Parts of this valley are situated in a dry lake, Lake Texcoco, which was emptied to make way for the expansion
of Mexico City. The near-surface geology of the city center consists of an alluvial deposit, a thick layer of a very soft, high-
water-content mixture of clay and sand that was deposited there by streams before the lake was drained (so that the Aztecs
could build the island city of Tenochtitlan).

FIGURE 1.8 Intensity of 1985 Mexico City Earthquake. (Courtesy of USGS.)

As shown in Figure 1.8, rock shakes at the same frequency as the seismic waves, which attenuate as they move further
from the epicenter. However, the unconsolidated alluvial soil has a dominant influence, and magnifies the intensity of ground shaking
(10-fold) near certain periods, resulting in near harmonic motion with a period of 2 s. During the 1985 Mexico City earthquake
(magnitude 8), peak horizontal accelerations were first attenuated from 150 cm/s2 along the Pacific coast near the epicenter to 35
cm/s2 at higher elevations with firm subsurface materials; these waves were then amplified fivefold to 170 cm/s2 near the center of
Mexico City. The shaking intensity was further amplified by resonant vibration properties of certain buildings, those with natural
periods of about 2 s, which correspond to buildings between 10 and 20 stories, most of which experienced large displacements and
extensive structural damage, or collapse.

What’s more: Activity 1.2. Add it up.

Direction: The first member adds a response on the given question and then passes the paper along to gather more
response. Multiple contributions help build a more complete understanding.

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Lesson 2:
Types of
Earthquakes

Reporter:
Sato, Abegail

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What’s in?
This module covers three main types of earthquakes: man-made, volcanic, and tectonic. Understanding the
differences between these types is crucial for mitigating the risks associated with seismic events.
What I Need to Know?
Earthquakes can be triggered by various factors, including human activities, volcanic activity, and tectonic plate
movement. Man-made earthquakes are becoming more frequent due to increased human activities such as the injection
of fluids into the ground. Volcanic earthquakes can provide valuable insights into volcanic activity and potential eruptions.
Tectonic plate movement is the primary cause of earthquakes.
What’s new?
Activity 2.1 Earthquake Charades
Objective: To understand and identify the different types of earthquakes.
Instructions:
1. Divide the class into two teams.
2. Each team must guess the earthquake-related word given by the presenters.
3. Each team takes turns acting out the word without speaking.
4. The team that correctly guesses the word earns a point.
5. The team with the most points after 5 rounds wins.
*Twist: * To make it more challenging, we a "disaster" element to the game. If a team incorrectly guesses the word,
they have to do a fun task, such as doing a silly dance or singing a funny song.
What is it?
The majority of damaging earthquakes are produced by surface fault ruptures caused by the relative movement of the
tectonic plates. However, several other sources, including man-made and volcanic, can produce measurable earthquakes.
Volcanic earthquakes can be attributed to the same forces that are responsible for tectonic earthquakes. In this section,
we present a brief description of these three types of earthquakes.

FIGURE: Intensity of 1985 Mexico City Earthquake. (Courtesy of USGS.)

Man-made Earthquakes
These generally have a much smaller magnitude than the other two types of earthquakes and thus have a lesser
impact on infrastructure. However, man-made earthquakes can lead to earlier fault ruptures (tectonic earthquakes)
because the shaking can increase critical stresses at the plate boundaries. One of the most intense cases is due to
explosions from conventional and nuclear weapons.
Industrial activities such as geothermal energy production, fracking for oil and natural gas, and wastewater
disposal can all lead to increased seismic activity that commonly takes the form of earthquakes.

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Volcanic Earthquakes
These are caused by the same energy source as tectonic earthquakes, which is the heat from the earth’s core.
Volcanic seismicity affects limited areas near volcanic regions. For example, Hawaii’s big island has a very active volcano
that has caused several earthquakes, none of which have been felt by the entire island. These occasionally serve as a
warning sign of impending volcanic eruptions. The movement of magma through tubes below the volcanic vents creates
pressure changes in the surrounding rock that can rupture, releasing elastic strain energy as seismic waves. These
seismic waves have been successfully used to predict eruptions of volcanos such as Mount St. Helen in 1980 and
Pinatubo in 1991. Other seismic waves can be induced by sudden, irregular movement of magma whose path has been
obstructed, or by steady magma movement deep in the mantle. Damage from all these earthquakes is relatively minor
compared with that produced by tectonic earthquakes.
Tectonic Earthquakes
As discussed previously, these are caused by a sudden dislocation of segments of the earth’s crust, the structure of
which is composed of plates (large and small) known as tectonic plates that float on a liquid layer, the mantle. This
arrangement resulted from the formation of planet Earth five billion years ago when hot gasses cooled into a semi-solid
mass. It is estimated that after one to two billion years of cooling, the crust solidified and cracked forming tectonic plates
(different ones than those that exist today).
From the beginning, the plates have been in constant motion forming and breaking up continents over time, including
the formation of supercontinents that contained most of the landmass. The latest supercontinent, Pangea, started
separating approximately 200 million years ago, and its parts have drifted apart to the current configuration of the earth’s
surface. This process was originally proposed by Alfred Wegener in the early 1900s. He noted several different pieces of
evidence to support his theory of the continental drift, including
1. How the current shape of some continents appears to fit together, particularly the east coast of South America
and the west coast of Africa.
2. The significant similarities between fossil records (both flora and fauna) found in several continents could only
have occurred if the continents were attached.
3. The similarity in geology across several continents, including grooves carved by glaciers and the sediments
deposited by these glaciers.

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The Earth’s lithosphere, which includes the crust and upper mantle, is made up of a series of pieces, or tectonic plates,
that move slowly over time.
A divergent boundary occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other. Along these boundaries,
earthquakes are common, and magma (molten rock) rises from the Earth’s mantle to the surface, solidifying to create a
new oceanic crust. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an example of divergent plate boundaries.
When two plates come together, it is known as a convergent boundary. The impact of the colliding plates can cause the
edges of one or both plates to buckle up into mountain ranges or one of the plates may bend down into a deep seafloor
trench. At convergent plate boundaries where an oceanic plate meets a continental plate, the oceanic crust is forced down
into the Earth’s mantle and begins to melt. The melted rock rises into and through the overlying plate as magma, often
forming a chain of volcanoes parallel to the plate boundary. Powerful earthquakes are common along these boundaries.
The Pacific Ring of Fire is an example of a convergent plate boundary.
Two plates sliding past each other form a transform plate boundary. One of the most famous transform plate boundaries
occurs at the San Andreas fault zone, which extends underwater. Natural or human-made structures that cross a transform
boundary are offset — split into pieces and carried in opposite directions. Rocks that line the boundary are pulverized as
the plates grind along, creating a linear fault valley or undersea canyon. Earthquakes are common along these faults. In
contrast to convergent and divergent boundaries, the crust is cracked and broken at transform margins but is not created
or destroyed.

What's More?
Activity 2.2 Tumapakners: Earthquake Edition
Objective: To understand and identify the lesson and enjoy it. Instruction will be announced right before the activity
starts.

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Lesson 3:
History of the Development
of Mitigation Strategies for
the Effects of Seismic
Hazards

Reporter:
Yap, Rein Natasha Falla

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What’s in
We just got through the groundbreaking introductory of earthquakes. You now have an idea regarding the main structural
effects of earthquake and its types. This time, we will shake our way to the history of the development of mitigation of earthquakes.
Let’s go back in time, reminisce, remember, relapse, or what you may call it, and identify the events that transpired for the
earthquake engineers to come up with the current earthquake mitigation systems.

What I need to know

At the end of this topic, you will be knowledgeable about how modern earthquake mitigation were developed. You will also
realize how important it is to know the past and learn from the experiences compiled by our predecessors.

What’s new
Activity 3.1. Identify the chronological order of the events related to the development of mitigation strategies for effects of
seismic hazards. Put the letter in the box in its correct chronological order.
a. The development of the response spectrum theory marked a major step forward.
b. Development of construction practices to mitigate the effects of shaking.
c. This stage has implicitly been included in building codes since the 1970s and deals with performance-based design
d. Focused on characterizing the effect of shaking using lateral forces.
e. Concept of structural dynamics were incorporated into design practice.

What is it
HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF MITIGATION STRATEGIES FOR THE EFFECTS OF SEISMIC HAZARDS
Until the middle of the last century, humans did not fully understand the process that causes earthquakes. To make up for
this, they developed construction practices to reduce the structural damages caused by ground shaking. Studies of pre-historic
buildings showed that there are two main strategies that were followed:
increase the strength or change the stiffness of the lateral force-resisting
systems. These practices were often applied to important buildings, while
ordinary structures remained vulnerable.

INCAN ENGINEERING
The Incas are renowned for their advanced building techniques,
particularly in Machu Picchu, where they used interlocking stones without
mortar (ashlar masonry). This method increased friction between the stones,
allowing them to shift slightly during seismic activity without collapsing,
effectively providing a form of passive energy dissipation and enhancing the
structures' earthquake resistance.
Source: https://incatrailmachupicchu.org/important-temples-machu-picchu/

Inca construction followed prescriptive specifications based on historical experience with successful designs, a practice
still used in modern engineering. In contrast, engineered seismic-resistant design, which relies on scientific principles and rational
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methods, developed more recently. The understanding of seismic effects on structures began to take shape in Europe after major
earthquakes in the 18th century, particularly the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, which led to new building regulations. Subsequent
studies, including those on the Calabria earthquake in Italy, laid the foundation for future research and the development of
seismology.

LATERAL FORCES IN SEISMIC DESIGN

Seismic-resistant design evolved in response to major earthquakes worldwide. After the 1881 Nobi earthquake, Japan
introduced the concept of lateral force calculations based on Newton’s second law. Similarly, following the 1908 Messina-Reggio
earthquake, Italy developed early seismic design guidelines, laying the foundation for the equivalent static procedure used today.
In the U.S., the 1906 San Francisco earthquake led to indirect seismic considerations in building codes, while the 1933 Long
Beach earthquake resulted in stricter regulations like the Field Act (for public schools) and the Riley Act (for most buildings in
California). By the 1940s, U.S. building codes (1943 City of Los Angeles building code and the 1947 San Francisco building code)
began incorporating building mass, height, and soil conditions into seismic force calculations.

While local building codes have existed for centuries, including the Hammurabi Code from ancient Babylon (which
enforced good construction through penalties rather than specifications), regional model codes were first introduced with the
Uniform Building Code (UBC) in 1927. The 1930 edition of the UBC included seismic provisions and recommended their adoption
in earthquake-prone cities. These provisions were based on two key observations: (1) most damage in earthquakes was caused
by lateral shaking, and (2) buildings on soft soil suffered more structural damage—making the UBC likely the first to
recognize soil effects in seismic design. The code required buildings to withstand a lateral force equal to 10% of the dead plus
design live loads, reducible to 3% for structures on firm soil. Later UBC editions introduced seismic risk maps for the U.S.,
identifying regions at risk for large-magnitude earthquakes and improving earthquake-resistant construction guidelines. These
advancements shaped modern seismic design standards worldwide.

RESPONSE SPECTRUM THEORY

In 1948, a joint committee in California proposed model lateral-force provisions for building codes, marking a major
advancement in seismic design. A key innovation was the introduction of the earthquake-response spectrum concept, originally
developed by Maurice A. Biot in 1943 and later refined by George W. Housner as a design tool. This concept considers both
ground motion and the building’s dynamic properties, particularly its period, making building period an explicit factor in seismic
force calculations. The development of the response spectrum was made possible by strong-motion recordings from newly
deployed accelerographs.

In 1952, a second committee, now involving the Structural Engineers Association of California (SEAOC), created a
comprehensive guide called the Recommended Lateral Force Requirements and Commentary (known as the SEAOC Blue Book),
first published in 1959. This guide explicitly related lateral forces to building periods using the design response spectrum, shaping
modern seismic-resistant building codes.

STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS

In the 1960s, structural dynamic concepts were further developed and incorporated into seismic codes, especially after
the 1971 San Fernando earthquake. The inclusion of response spectrum theory in the design of hospitals and other critical facilities
marked a significant step in applying structural dynamics to seismic design. These concepts, however, are computationally
intensive, and their application advanced alongside the development of computers. Despite significant progress in mitigating
earthquake-induced ground shaking, structures designed with modern seismic principles have still experienced much larger forces
during major earthquakes than anticipated by design codes, sometimes leading to substantial damage or even collapse.

This has led researchers to conclude that while buildings can survive intense shaking without collapsing, they can still suffer
damage if the lateral force-resisting systems are tough enough to absorb seismic energy and provide a continuous path for forces
to transfer to the ground. Additionally, engineers now recognize that the static analysis principles used for gravity loads don’t fully
account for the dynamic forces structures experience during earthquakes. Modern seismic design focuses on ensuring that
buildings can deform without overstressing from load reversals and have adequate ductility, strong connections, and resilient
structures to meet specific performance goals:

 Resist minor earthquakes without damage.

 Resist moderate earthquakes without structural damage, though with some nonstructural damage.
 Resist major earthquakes without collapse, though with both structural and nonstructural damage.

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 This approach aims to enhance a building’s ability to withstand earthquakes of varying magnitudes while minimizing risks to
human life.

EVOLUTION OF PERFORMANCE-BASED SEISMIC DESIGN

Since the 1970s, seismic performance criteria have remained largely unchanged, focusing on ensuring that buildings can
resist different levels of earthquake intensity with varying degrees of damage. However, a more flexible approach has recently
emerged, allowing real estate owners to determine the desired level of structural performance and safety based on their priorities—
whether prioritizing occupant protection or capital investment. This new approach, called performance-based design (PBD),
provides more customized seismic resilience options rather than a one-size-fits-all standard. PBD is expected to be included in
future standards, such as the 2010 ANSI/ASCE "Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures", to guide engineers in
designing buildings that meet specific performance goals based on the owner's needs.

What’s more

Activity 3.2. Identify the chronological order of the events related to the development of mitigation strategies for effects of
seismic hazards. Put the event in the box in its correct chronological order. Other instructions will be presented face-to-face for a
more exciting set-up.

a. Response Spectrum Development

b. Incorporation of Structural Dynamics
c. Incan Engineering (Ashlar masonry)
d. Uses the approach called performance-based design.
e. The Uniform Building Code (UBC) was introduced.
f. Humans did not understand the phenomenon of the ground shaking.
g. Lisbon and Calabria Earthquake
h. Nobi Earthquake
i. San Fernando Earthquake
j. SEAOC Blue Book
k. Uniform Building Code was introduced
l. Stricter regulations are implemented (Riley Act and Field Act)
m. Uses the approach called Performance-Based Design (PBD)

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 Summary:
 Ground failures are generally considered part of geotechnical earthquake engineering, and they involve the movement of
the ground surface at a location where geological fissures or zones of weakness in the crust of the earth (faults) slip slowly
or suddenly.
 Ground cracking is usually observed along the edges of ground subsidence.
 Soil liquefaction occurs when loose, saturated granular soils temporarily change from a solid to a liquid state, losing their
shear strength, which corresponds to a loss in effective stress between soil particles.
 Landslides from earthquakes are rare, so damage to structures typically occurs only if they're at the top or bottom of the
sliding soil mass.
 Tsunamis are long-period sea waves that are generated when an earthquake causes the vertical movement of the seafloor.
 Seiches are earthquake-induced waves in an enclosed body of water, such as a lake or a reservoir, or one that is partially
enclosed, such as a bay.
 Fire is probably the most terrifying indirect effect of earthquakes.
 Ground shaking causes most of the earthquake damage; additionally, most of the effects are caused by shaking.
 Earthquake size (magnitude): It can be measured objectively, or subjectively larger earthquakes cause stronger shaking
 Location (distance from the focus or epicenter): Generally, the closer to the epicenter, the stronger the shaking.
 The subsurface materials beneath the structure: Soft soils amplify the shaking, while rocks do not.
 Tectonic Earthquakes: Caused by movement of tectonic plates, resulting in stress buildup and release. There are three
main types:
 Divergent Earthquakes: Occur at mid-ocean ridges where plates are moving apart.

 Convergent Earthquakes: Occur at subduction zones where plates are colliding and one plate is being forced beneath
another.
 Transform Earthquakes: Occur at transform faults where plates are sliding past each other horizontally.
 Volcanic Earthquakes: Triggered by volcanic activity, such as movement of magma or gas beneath the volcano.
 Man-made Earthquakes: Induced by human activities, including:
Injection of fluids into the ground (e.g., fracking, wastewater disposal)
Mining and quarrying
Construction and excavation
Reservoir construction
 Tectonic earthquakes are the most common type.
 Volcanic earthquakes can provide valuable insights into volcanic activity.
 Man-made earthquakes are becoming more frequent due to increased human activities.
 Development of construction practices to mitigate the effects of shaking.
 The first half of the twentieth century focused on characterizing the effect of shaking using lateral forces.
 In the 1940s, the development of the response spectrum theory marked a major step forward.
 In the 1960s, concepts of structural dynamics were incorporated into design practice.
 The last stage has implicitly been included in building codes since the 1970s and deals with performance-based design.
References
Estrada H., Lee, L.S., 2017, Introduction to Earthquake Engineering
https://incatrailmachupicchu.org/important-temples-machu-picchu/
United States Geological Survey

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