Learning Module 02

Shear Strength
of Soil
Course Packet 02
Direct
Shear Test

Knowledge Area Code : BSCE

Course Code : CEPC1403
Learning Module Code : LM02-CEPC1403
Course Module Code : LM02-CEPC1403-02

Learning Module: Foundation Engineering

 Course Packet 02
Direct Shear Test
Course Packet 02

Introduction

There are several laboratory methods available to determine the shear strength
parameters (i.e., 𝑐, 𝜙, 𝑐 ′ , 𝜙 ′ ) of various soil specimens in the laboratory. They are as follows:

• Direct shear test

• Triaxial test
• Direct simple shear test
• Plain strain triaxial test
• Torsional ring shear test

The direct shear test and the triaxial test are the two commonly used techniques for
determining the shear strength parameters. These two tests will be described in detail in the
sections that follow.

Objectives

After the discussion, the learners shall be able to:

• explain the purpose and significance of the direct shear test in determining the shear
strength parameters of soil.
• describe the procedure for conducting a direct shear test, including sample
preparation, equipment setup, and test execution.
• analyze and interpret the results of a direct shear test to calculate soil cohesion and
angle of internal friction for use in geotechnical design.

Duration

Topic 1: Failure Criteria = 0.5 hour

Topic 2: Direct Shear Test = 0.5 hour
Topic 3: Unconfined Compression Test = 0.5 hour

Delivery Mode
Hybrid (online, onsite, asynchronous)

Readings
• Braja M. Das, Khaled Sobhan, Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (9 th Edition),
2018.
• DIT Gillesania, Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering.
• G.N. Smith, Ian G.N. Smith, Elements of Soil Mechanics (7th Edition), 1988
• Braja M. Das, Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (3rd Edition), 2000
• Muni Budhu, Soil Mechanics and Foundations (3rd Edition), 2011
• Isao Ishibashi, Hemanta Hazarika, Soil Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications
(2nd Edition), 2015
• Cheng Liu, Jack B. Evett, Soils and Foundations (7th Edition), 2008

Learning Module: Foundation Engineering

Pre-Assessment Questions:
1. What is the purpose of the direct shear test in soil mechanics?
2. What equipment is used in a direct shear test, and how is the soil sample prepared for testing?
3. How do normal stress and shear stress relate in the context of a direct shear test?

Cohesion

It is possible to make a vertical cut in silts and clays and for this cut to remain standing,
unsupported, for some time. This cannot be done with a dry sand which, on removal of the
cutting implement, will slump until its slope is equal to an angle known as the angle of repose.
In silts and clays, therefore, some other factor must contribute to shear strength. This factor is
called cohesion and results from the mutual attraction existing between fine particles that tends
to hold them together in a solid mass without the application of external forces. In terms of the
Mohr diagram, this means that the strength envelope for the soil, for undrained conditions, no
longer goes through the origin but intercepts the shear stress axis (see Fig. 3.9). The value of
the intercept, to the same scale as on, gives a measure of the unit cohesion available and is given
the symbols c or cu.

Failure Criteria

Soil strength may be attributed to two distinctly different mechanisms of materials: one
is its frictional resistance and the other is cohesive resistance along the shearing zone. As seen in
Figure 2.9, shearing of a soil assemblage in (a), which is subjected to normal stress and shear
stress, is modeled with a block on a solid plate with a rough surface as seen in (b). In the model,
shear stress τ is resisted by a frictional mechanism and cohesive resistance between the interface
of the block and the solid plate. Frictional resistance 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 follows Coulomb’s friction law
(𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜎 tan 𝜙), where 𝜎 is the normal stress and 𝜙 is called the angle of internal friction of
soil. The angle 𝜙 can be interpreted as the friction angle between facing soil elements along the
shear surface. Cohesion resistance c is called cohesion of soil. In the block model, it could be
simulated by heavy grease coated between the block and the plate, and thus it is independent
of the applied normal stress 𝜎. In soils, normal stress-independent cohesion comes from
particle-to-particle close-range interactive forces, and it is a material property of fine particles
(clays or cohesive soils).

Accordingly, the total shear stress at failure 𝜏𝑓 is expressed as

𝝉𝒇 = 𝒄 + 𝝈 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝓 (Eq 2.12)

where 𝑐 = cohesion
𝜙 = angle of internal friction
𝜎 = normal stress
𝜏𝑓 = shear strength

Equation (2.12) is a linear relationship between 𝜎 and 𝜏𝑓 and plotted as a straight line
in Figure 2.10(a). The line defined by Equation (2.12) is called the failure envelope, which implies
that if any stress combination of 𝜎 and 𝜏 on any arbitrary plane (as shown in Figure 2.10(b)
plots below the failure envelope line, there is no failure.

Learning Module: Foundation Engineering

 Figure 2.9: Shearing in soil mass.

Figure 2.10: Failure criteria

On the other hand, if the stress combination of 𝜎 and 𝜏 goes above the envelope, the
failure occurs on that plane. In practice, combinations of 𝜎 and 𝜏 cannot go beyond the
envelope, and thus the envelope defines the upper limit of stress combination on any plane of
an element. Figure 2.10(a) also plots a mirror image of the failure envelope in the negative
domain of the shear stress with a dotted line, since the negative shear stress merely changes its
direction, and thus these two failure envelopes define the safe limits of the stress combination
of 𝜎 and 𝜏. In the figure, two Mohr’s circles at failure are drawn that make tangent at the failure
envelopes as seen. In other words, Mohr’s circles cannot cross the failure envelopes.

Equation (2.12) is called the Mohr–Coulomb failure criteria, which is attributed to

Coulomb’s contribution on frictional law and linear representation of its relation and Mohr’s
contribution on defining failure with a unique combination of normal stress 𝜎 and shear stress
𝜏.

Learning Module: Foundation Engineering

 Figure 2.10 also suggests the importance of shear stress rather than normal stress in
failure of soils. As an example, imagine a soil element in deep earth such as in a deep salt mine
(e.g., 1000 m deep). The vertical normal stress of the dry soil element at 1000 m deep is very
high (𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 ∙ 𝑧 ≈ 20.0 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 × 1000 𝑚 = 20,000 𝑘𝑃𝑎). How can that soil element survive
under such high normal stress? At that element, lateral normal stress 𝜎ℎ is about a half of 𝜎𝑣 ,
and thus 𝜎ℎ ≈ 10,000 𝑘𝑃𝑎. A Mohr’s circle is drawn in Figure 2.11 for this soil element. Even
though the circle has large 𝜎 values, it is still below the failure envelope, and thus it is safe in
any plane directions. Increasing normal stress is not a critical factor for failure as seen in the
preceding example. However, if shear stress 𝜏 is increased, it will easily touch the failure
envelope, and thus shear stress is critically important in the failure of soils. This is the reason
why soil strength is often referred to as shear strength.

Terzaghi (1925) modified the Mohr–Coulomb equation to include his effective stress
concept as,

𝝉𝒇 = 𝒄′ + 𝝈′ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝓′ = 𝒄′ + (𝝈 − 𝒖) 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝓′ (Eq 2.13)

where all strength parameters 𝑐 ′ and 𝜙 ′ are expressed in terms of the effective normal stress 𝜎 ′
(= 𝜎 − 𝑢). His concept is that soil strength is controlled by the effective stress (stresses in the
soil’s skeleton) rather than the total stress. It is found to govern the failure mechanism of soils,
which is examined in detail later in this chapter. There are many different soil testing devices
to determine c and 𝜙 or 𝑐 ′ and 𝜙 ′ in the laboratory as well as in the field. Commonly used shear
testing devices and their interpretation of results are discussed in the following sections.

Figure 2.11: Deep earth and high normal stress problem.

Direct Shear Test

This is the earliest and simplest device to determine soil strength parameters.
As seen in Figure 2.12, it consists of upper and lower shear boxes, and a soil specimen is placed
inside the box. Vertical normal force 𝐹𝑦 and hence the normal stress 𝜎 (= 𝐹𝑦 /specimen area) is
applied and kept constant. In most devices, the upper box is fixed, and the lower box is movable
on low-friction rollers at the base. Also, special care is taken to minimize friction at contacting
surfaces between the upper and the lower shear boxes such as with low-friction Teflon push
bolts. The lower box is pulled or pushed to apply shear force T, and hence the shear stress 𝜏 (=
T/specimen area) is induced along the middle plane of the specimen.

Learning Module: Foundation Engineering

 In this device, shear failure surface is forced to develop in a near-horizontal direction.
Measurements during the test are constant 𝜎, and changes in 𝜏, vertical deformation δv, and
horizontal shear deformation 𝛿ℎ . The change in 𝛿𝑦 measurement is directly proportional to the
volume change of the specimen ∆𝑉 (∆𝛿𝑦 ∙ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎) since the cross-sectional area of the
specimen remains the same. Thus, under a given normal stress 𝜎, 𝜏 versus ∆𝛿ℎ and ∆𝑉 versus
∆𝛿ℎ are plotted as seen in Figure 11.5.

Figure 2.13(a) defines the peak shear strength and the residual shear strength. The former
is generally used as the shear strength of the soil 𝜏𝑓 . The latter is the strength after a large
deformation, and it may be used to evaluate the stability of earth structures when large
deformation is allowed beyond its peak strength.

Figure 2.12: Direct shear test setup.

Figure 2.13: Direct shear test result.

Soil may contract or dilate during shearing, as seen in Figure 2.13(b), mostly depending
on its initial density. It is interesting to notice that soil is a very unique material, which increases
its volume upon application of shear stress (dilatancy), particularly for dense sands and heavily
overconsolidated clays. It is because densely packed grains or particles have to move or roll
over neighboring grains to change their relative positions during shearing, as seen in
Figure 2.14.

Accordingly, shear stress–deformation relations and their volume change

characteristics during shear are largely influenced by initial density of specimens. Figure 2.15

Learning Module: Foundation Engineering

shows these for dense, medium dense, and loose soils. As seen in the figure, the shear stress–
deformation curves emerge to the residual shear strength at a large shear deformation. The
void ratios also emerge to a certain value at a large shear deformation. When soil assemblage
is sheared at large deformation, certain zones within the specimen (shear zone) are subjected to
large shear deformation. Along these shear zones, where shear failure is taking place, particles
are oriented to a preferred direction, which changes from their original loose or dense
configurations, and a steady-state flow (failure) mechanism is created. This is the reason why
all strengths emerge to the residual strength and all void ratios become a certain value at large
shear deformation, regardless of their original denseness. In Figure 2.15(b), initial dense soils
undergo initial contraction and then dilation. On the other hand, loose soils contract all the way
till failure.

Figure 2.14: Dilatancy model.

Figure 2.15: Shear stress-deformation and void ratio for loose to dense soils.

Figure 2.16: Determination of j and c from direct shear tests.

Learning Module: Foundation Engineering

 For a specimen in between dense and loose, there is a specimen of which the void ratio
remains nearly the same during the shear. That void ratio is called critical void ratio and this
specimen does not contract or dilate during shear.

For a given soil with a similar density, several direct shear tests are conducted under
different normal stresses. Peak shear strength values 𝜏𝑓 are measured for each test. Then σ and
𝜏𝑓 relations are plotted as in Figure 2.16. A linear relation is obtained through the data points
and the intersection on the 𝜏𝑓 axis gives the cohesion component 𝑐; the slope of the line makes
the internal friction angle 𝜙. For different soils and different densities, lines are different, so
different 𝑐 and 𝜙 values are obtained.

EXAMPLE 2.5
A series of undrained shear box test (area of box = 400 mm 2) were carried out on soil with
the following results:

Normal Load (N) Shear Force at Failure (N)

95 72
188 96
270 120
300 128

a. Determine the cohesion with respect to total stresses.

b. Determine the angle of internal friction.
c. If 500 N of normal load is used, what shear force is needed to cause failure?

Unconfined Compression Test

This rather simple test is used for cohesive specimens only, which can stand alone
without any lateral confinement of the specimen during the test. As seen in Figure 2.17, a
specimen is trimmed to have a cylindrical shape and placed on a loading platform. The
specimen height-to-diameter ratio should be at least 2.0 or more to avoid the end boundary
effect during the shear. Axial compressive force 𝐹𝑣 is gradually increased until failure with a
measurement of axial deformation 𝛿𝑦 .

In general, the test is completed within 10 to 20 minutes, so during this process the
water content of the specimen remains nearly constant. Pore-water pressure may build up
inside the specimen, but it will not have enough time to dissipate during a short period of
shearing time. This process is called an undrained shear test and is discussed later in this
chapter.

Learning Module: Foundation Engineering

 Figure 2.17: Unconfined compression test setup.

Figure 2.18: Unconfined compression test result.

Figure 2.19: Determination of 𝐶𝑢 from unconfined compression test.

Learning Module: Foundation Engineering

 Axial normal stress 𝜎𝑣 (= 𝐹𝑣 /𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎) and axial strain 𝜀𝑣 (= 𝛿𝑣 /
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) are plotted in Figure 2.18. Two curves for typical soils are seen:
(a) heavily overconsolidated or dense soils with a clear peak value, and (b) normally
consolidated or loose soils without a clear peak value. The peak σv values or σv values at a
certain defined failure strain 𝜀𝑣 (e.g., at 𝜀𝑣 = 10% 𝑜𝑟 15% strain, etc.) are taken as unconfined
compression strength qu. In this experiment, qu is the major principal stress at failure. Lateral
normal stress is the minor principal stress and is zero with no lateral confinement (unconfined).
Accordingly, Mohr’s circle is drawn as in Figure 2.19. A horizontal failure envelope (𝜙 = 0) is
drawn to contact the failure Mohr’s circle. Thus, the maximum shear stress at failure Cu is equal
to

𝑞𝑢
𝐶𝑢 = (Eq 2.14)
2

In Figure 2.19, a horizontal failure envelope is drawn and is called the 𝜙 = 0 concept
in determining shear strength of cohesive soils. It will be discussed later in the section on
unconsolidated undrained tests in this chapter.

EXAMPLE 2.6
A cylindrical specimen of a saturated soil fails under a stress of 150 kPa in an unconfined
compression test. The failure plane makes an angle of 52 with the horizontal.

a. Compute the angle of internal friction of the soil.

b. Compute the cohesion of the soil.
c. Compute the shearing stress at the failure plane.

EXAMPLE 2.7
An unconfined compression test was carried out on a saturated clay sample. The maximum
load on the clay sustained was 130 N. The size of the soil sample was 38 mm diameter and
80 mm. long. The resulting undrained shear strength of clay was 56.4 kPa.

a. Compute the major principal stress at failure.

b. Compute the sample area at failure in m2.
c. Compute the vertical displacement of the soil sample in mm.

Learning Module: Foundation Engineering