Sensors and Actuators

Prof. Abid Yahya

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Introduction to Sensors and Actuators

Definition:
Sensors: Devices that detect changes in the environment and convert
them into electrical signals.
Actuators: Devices that convert electrical signals into physical actions.
Importance:
Used in automation, robotics, and IoT.
Essential for real-time monitoring and control.

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Types of Sensors

Temperature Sensors: Thermocouples, RTDs, Thermistors.

Pressure Sensors: Strain gauges, Piezoelectric sensors.
Proximity Sensors: Infrared, Ultrasonic, Capacitive sensors.
Optical Sensors: Photodiodes, LDR, CMOS sensors.

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Types of Actuators

Electric Actuators: Servo motors, Stepper motors.

Hydraulic Actuators: Pistons, Hydraulic motors.
Pneumatic Actuators: Air cylinders, Air motors.
Thermal Actuators: Shape memory alloys.

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Working Principle of Sensors

Sensors detect changes in physical parameters (temperature, pressure,

etc.).
They convert physical signals into electrical signals.
Example: A thermocouple generates a voltage proportional to
temperature.

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Working Principle of Actuators

Actuators receive electrical signals and produce movement or force.

Example: A stepper motor rotates by receiving electrical pulses.
Types of control: Open-loop, Closed-loop control systems.

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Problem 1: Temperature Sensor

Problem: A thermocouple has a sensitivity of 50 µV/°C. If the output

voltage is 2.5 mV, find the temperature it measures. Solution:

V 2.5 × 10−3
T = = = 50◦ C (1)
S 50 × 10−6

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Sensor Characteristics

Sensitivity: Change in output per unit input.

Accuracy: Closeness to the true value.
Resolution: Smallest detectable change.
Linearity: Output proportional to input.

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Actuator Performance Parameters

Torque or Force: The ability to move a load.

Speed: Response time to input signals.
Efficiency: Energy utilization.
Precision: Ability to reach the desired position accurately.

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Problem 2: Stepper Motor Calculation

Problem: A stepper motor moves 1.8° per step. How many steps are
needed to complete a full rotation? Solution:
360◦
N= = 200 steps (2)
1.8◦

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Applications of Sensors and Actuators

Automation: Industrial robots, Smart factories.

Medical Devices: Pacemakers, Prosthetics.
Automotive: ABS, Airbag deployment.
IoT: Smart home systems, Environmental monitoring.

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Signal Conditioning in Sensors

Definition: Signal conditioning improves sensor output for accurate

measurement. Types:
Amplification: Boosting weak signals.
Filtering: Removing noise.
Linearization: Adjusting non-linear response.
Example: An operational amplifier enhances the weak voltage signal from
a thermocouple.

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Noise Reduction Techniques

Methods:
Shielding: Protects signals from electromagnetic interference.
Averaging: Reduces random noise by averaging multiple readings.
Low-pass filters: Eliminates high-frequency noise.
Example: A capacitor-based low-pass filter smooths the output of a
pressure sensor.

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Problem 3: Noise Reduction

Problem: A sensor output has a high-frequency noise component of 5

kHz. Design a low-pass filter to eliminate noise while retaining useful
signals below 1 kHz. Solution:
Step 1: Choose cutoff frequency fc = 1 kHz.
Step 2: Apply filter equation:
1
fc = (3)
2πRC
Step 3: Solve for component values:

R = 10kΩ, C = 15.9nF (4)

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Actuator Control Methods

Types of Control:
Open-loop: No feedback, suitable for simple systems.
Closed-loop: Uses sensors for feedback control.
PID Control: Proportional, Integral, and Derivative components
adjust actuator response.
Example: A DC motor uses closed-loop control to maintain a constant
speed.

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Robotics and Automation

Role of Sensors and Actuators:

Sensors provide environmental feedback.
Actuators perform physical tasks.
Control algorithms process sensor data to drive actuators.
Example: An autonomous robot uses LIDAR sensors and stepper motors
for navigation.

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Problem 4: Robot Motion Control

Problem: A robotic arm requires precise control for pick-and-place

operations. A stepper motor with 200 steps per revolution is used.
Determine the angle moved per step. Solution:
Step 1: Use formula:
360◦
θ= (5)
N
Step 2: Compute:
360
θ= = 1.8◦ (6)
200

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Emerging Technologies in Sensors and Actuators

Trends:
MEMS sensors: Miniaturized high-performance sensors.
Smart actuators: AI-driven adaptive actuation.
Wireless sensor networks: Remote monitoring applications.
Example: Wearable biosensors monitor health metrics in real time.

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Problem 5: Wireless Sensor Power Consumption

Problem: A wireless sensor consumes 2 mW of power and is powered by a

3.7V battery. Estimate its operating time with a 1000 mAh battery.
Solution:
Step 1: Compute current draw:
P 2mW
I = = = 0.54mA (7)
V 3.7V
Step 2: Compute battery life:
1000mAh
T = = 1851 hours (8)
0.54mA

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Future Directions

Advancements:
AI integration for predictive maintenance.
Self-powered sensors using energy harvesting.
Flexible and biodegradable sensors for biomedical use.
Example: AI-driven sensor networks optimize industrial automation.

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Problem 6: Pressure Sensor Calibration

Problem: A pressure sensor outputs 0.5V at 50 kPa and 4.5V at 500 kPa.
Find the sensor’s sensitivity in V/kPa and estimate the pressure at an
output of 2.5V. Solution:
Step 1: Compute sensitivity:
Vmax − Vmin 4.5V − 0.5V 4V
S= = = = 0.0089V /kPa
Pmax − Pmin 500kPa − 50kPa 450kPa
(9)
Step 2: Solve for pressure:
V − Vmin 2.5V − 0.5V
P= = = 225kPa (10)
S 0.0089V /kPa

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Problem 7: Thermistor Resistance Calculation
Problem: A thermistor has a resistance of 10 k at 25°C and follows the
equation:  
1
β − T1
R(T ) = R0 e T 0 (11)
where T0 = 298K , R0 = 10k, and β = 3950K . Find R at T = 50C .
Solution:
Step 1: Convert temperature to Kelvin:
T = 50 + 273 = 323K (12)
Step 2: Apply formula:
1 1
R(323) = 10k × e 3950( 323 − 298 ) (13)
Step 3: Compute exponent:
e 3950×(−0.000335) ≈ e −1.32 ≈ 0.267 (14)
Step 4: Compute resistance:
R(323) = 10k × 0.267 ≈ 2.67k (15)
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Problem 8: Actuator Force Calculation

Problem: A linear actuator applies a force of 500N and moves a load over
a distance of 0.5m. Calculate the work done and power required if the
operation takes 5 seconds. Solution:
Step 1: Compute work done:

W = F × d = 500N × 0.5m = 250J (16)

Step 2: Compute power:

W 250J
P= = = 50W (17)
t 5s

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Problem 9: Capacitive Sensor Calculation

Problem: A parallel-plate capacitive sensor has plate area A = 5cm2 ,

plate separation d = 1mm, and dielectric constant εr = 2.5. Find its
capacitance. Solution:
Step 1: Compute capacitance formula:
ε0 εr A
C= (18)
d
Step 2: Use values (ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F /m):

(8.85 × 10−12 F /m)(2.5)(5 × 10−4 m2 )

C= (19)
1 × 10−3 m
Step 3: Compute capacitance:

C ≈ 1.1pF (20)

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Problem 10: Servo Motor Torque Calculation

Problem: A servo motor applies a torque of 2.5Nm to rotate a robotic

joint at 30rad/s. Find the power output. Solution:
Step 1: Use power formula:

P = τω (21)

Step 2: Compute power:

P = (2.5Nm) × (30rad/s) = 75W (22)

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Conclusion

Key Takeaways:
Sensors and actuators are essential in modern technology.
Advanced control techniques improve system efficiency.
Emerging technologies enhance capabilities for future applications.
Final Thought: The synergy between sensors, actuators, and AI will drive
the next generation of intelligent systems.

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