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 Petroleum
Italiano 7 – 10 November
System 24 hr
Domenico 2022
ENI Seminar modelling

2022 Petrophysics &

well Bore Log 18 hr
Balossino 28 November –
1 December 2022
Piero
interpretation

From Monday to Thursday. Other Lectures will be

suspended during the Seminars

Reservoir Geology, coming next.....

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY - University of Perugia, 2022/2023

Mod 1 – Petrophysics and well log interpretations

M. Porreca

Rock properties
(Lecture VI)

- Compaction curves
- Physical and chemical compactions
- Compaction, cementetation and dissolution

- Fractured reservoirs
- Fracture permeability and porosity
 2. Rock properties (VI)
• Factors affecting porosity, k and density: Compaction and cementation

The processes by which sediments are

changed into rock are complex, but can be
simplified into two processes, compaction
and cementation.

- Compaction: sediments are deeply

buried, placing them under pressure
because of the weight of overlying layers.
This squashes the grains together more
tightly (physical compaction), with
temperature increase (chemical reaction)

- Cementation: new minerals stick the

grains together – just as cement (from a
bag) binds sand grains in a bricklayer’s
mortar (Diagenesis).

4
 2. Rock properties (VI)
• Factors affecting porosity, k and density: Compaction and cementation

water

Compaction
Squeezing sediment making it more dense and compact. To form clastic sedimentary rock sediment must
be deposited, buried, compacted, and cemented together. As it is buried deeper and deeper, the weight
of the material above squeezes the sediment and removes water from between the particles. 5
 2. Rock properties (VI)
• Factors affecting porosity, k and density: Compaction and cementation

Compaction vs. Porosity (Compaction curve!)

The reduction in porosity (compaction) may be

mechanical in response to increased effectVe stress
from the overburden, or chemical as a result of the
Starting of dissolution and precipitation of minerals.
diagenetic
processes

6
 2. Rock properties (VI)
• Porosity and compaction Porosity decrease with Compaction!
(Compaction curve)

Average clay-rock density and porosity values

During mechanical compaction

the solids, mainly minerals, remain constant so that the
North, F.K. (1985) Petroleum Geology, Allen & Unwin
reduction in bulk volume is equal to the porosity loss. 7
 2. Rock properties (VI)

• Porosity and compaction

Shale porosities from various regions

(Compaction curves)

The Dickinson curve is from undercompacted shales in

the Gulf Coast.
The Athy curve from Paleozoic shales in compaction
equilibrium.

Smectite curves are from the Gulf Coast and indicate

progressive, stepwise transformation to mixed layer clays
and illite.
This releases more water into the rock, therefore the
slower compaction of smectite-rich rocks.
Hunt, J.M. (1995) Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology, 2nd edition.
8
2. Rock properties (VI)
• Porosity and compaction

The compaction (porosity loss) as a function of burial depth varies

greatly because each primary lithology has a different compaction
curve

Compaction is particularly strong in rocks with lower grain fractions (the

amount that grains constitute of the total solid volume, shown here in
fractions of unity, with the rest being
fine-grained matrix minerals).
Clays and other matrix minerals move under pressure into the pore
spaces.
The softer grains in greywackes crumble and dislocate to clog the pores.
Cementation additionally leads to porosity reduction.

9
 2. Rock properties (VI)
• Porosity and compaction

Shale Pore Size with Depth

Concurrent with the decrease of porosity with depth, the
pore size decreases in an almost linear relationship.

The diameter of many molecules may be too large to form

globules and migrate through the shale pores, particularly
since structured water on the clay surfaces further restricts
the pathways.
3 km
This is why a number of migration mechanisms are
4 km
postulated.

10
 2. Rock properties (VI)
Compaction and other physical properties

Mechanically the compaction is a strain due to

effective stress. Chemical compaction resulting
from dissolution and precipitation of minerals is
controlled in siliceous rocks by thermodynamics
and kinetics and is therefore a function of
temperature and time.

The porosity/depth trends will be different for

different lithologies (primary mineralogical and
textural composition).

A simple exponential function may be rather far

off from the real porosity/depth function.

Bjørlykke (2010) Petroleum Geoscience: From Sedimentary Environments to Rock Physics

11
 2. Rock properties (VI)
• Compaction and other physical properties

Realistic case

Principal aspects of sediment compaction (burial

diagenesis). During burial, sediments are subjected
to changes in physical properties as a function of
increasing stress and temperature.

From an initial sediment composition the porosity is

reduced and the density and velocity are increased.

12
Bjørlykke (2010) Petroleum Geoscience: From Sedimentary Environments to Rock Physics
 2. Rock properties (VI)
• Compaction and other physical properties

Compaction curves

single points measured at different depths

(well logs)

13
 2. Rock properties (VI)
Real examples
Compaction of clastic rocks Compaction of carbonate rocks

3 km depth

stylolites
14
http://www.geol.umd.edu/~jmerck/geol342/lectures/22.html
 2. Rock properties (VI)
• Compaction of clastic rocks (shale)

The composition of mudstones and

shales changes during progressive burial
due to diagenesis, which includes both
mechanical and chemical compaction.

Bjørlykke (2010)

Jurassic mudstone from the North Sea basin buried to 2.5 km depth.
Note that many of the grains are of siltsized quartz and that mica grains have a parallel orientation (scale=0.06 mm).
The white spherical structures are framboidal pyrite. The velocity in this shale is about 3 km/s (Vp 3,019–Vs 1,665 m/s)

15
 2. Rock properties (VI)

• Compaction of clastic rocks (shale)

The composition of mudstones and

shales with respect to their clay
mineralogy and their content of silt
and sand can provide not only
important information about the
environment both in and around the
basin, but also about the rock
properties controlling
compressibility,
Density and seismic velocity.

Compaction trends are a function of burial depth and primary (initial) composition (from Storvoll et al. 2005).
The poorly sorted glacially influenced Pliocene and Pleistocene sediments (1 W) compact readily,
while the Eocene and Oligocene smectite-rich sediments of volcanic origin (4–3 W) have low compressibility.
The underlying Cretaceous and Jurassic sediments (5 W) show increases in density and velocity which probably are caused mostly by chemical
compaction 16
 2. Rock properties (VI)
• Compaction of clastic rocks (sandstone)
Experimental compaction of loose sand grains (Chuhan et
al. 2002).

Coarse-grained sand is more compressible than fine-

grained sand. This is because there are fewer grain contacts
and more stress per grain contact in coarse-grained sand,
resulting in more grain fracturing

17
 2. Rock properties (VI)
• Compaction of clastic rocks (sandstone)

Porosity/Depth Trends in Sedimentary Basins (due to compaction)

Density/depth and velocity/depth trends

for the Etive Fm (Brent Group) showing
that a single lithology has a nearly linear
trend with depth, based on Marcussen
et al. (2009).

The calculated porosities show that the

compaction down to about 2 km depth
are mechanical and similar to
experimental data inserted from Chuhan
Bjorlykke et al. (2002).
(2010) At greater depth, compaction is mostly
chemical and higher compared with
mechanical compaction.

18
 2. Rock properties (VI)

• Compaction of carbonate rocks

Compaction in carbonates can cause significant

restructuring within the rock. In grain-rich rocks,
the grains may be flattened, broken or dissolved
at grain contacts. Pre-burial cements may be
similarly affected, resulting in a change of the
porosity and permeability patterns in the rock.
Stylolites and other pressure solution features are
commonly formed during burial or tectonic stress of
mudstones and wackestones. The formation of
such features is important because vertical
permeability patterns are created and pore fluids
are displaced.

19
 2. Rock properties (VI)
• Compaction of carbonate rocks

Compaction trends for carbonates and sandstones

(from Ehrenberg and Nadeau 2005). Average porosity
versus top depth for global petroleum reservoirs.

P90, P50, and P10 indicate that 90, 50 and 10% of the
reservoirs’ values have higher porosity than this value.

20
 2. Rock properties (VI)
• Dissolution and Cementation affecting porosity and k
Compaction and cementation after deposition will also reduce the absolute porosity.
At greater depths where temperatures are higher (>70–100°C), it is mainly chemical compaction that contributes to the
volume change and to the hydromechanical properties through the effects of dissolution, precipitation and
cementation.

21
 2. Rock properties (VI)
• Dissolution, precipitation and cementation in sandstone (diagenesis)

Generalized paragenetic sequence of the Sussex "B" sandstone.

Red lines indicate cementation and precipitation. Dashed lines indicate times of dissolution of cements or grains.
Yellow zone is period of sediment compaction.
Medium blue zone is period of migration of hydrocarbons from shale source rocks.
Dark blue zone is time of oil emplacement into the House Creek and Porcupine fields.
22

http://pubs.usgs.gov/dds/dds-033/USGS_3D/ssx_txt/figur27.htm
 2. Rock properties (VI)
• Dissolution, precipitation and cementation in carbonate rocks

The stylolite just below the 1 - cent coin is

typical of these features that are formed
by the combination of pressure and
dissolution. Most of them are filled with
insoluble material, commonly including or
limited to bituminous residue and most
stylolites are baffles or barriers to flow.
A few may remain open, or become
opened during later dissolution, in which
case they may provide access for fluid
migration.
Stylolites have a thin layer of clay and
other minerals that are not soluble and
may present a barrier during oil migration
and production

stylolites 23
 2. Rock properties (VI)
• Dissolution, precipitation and cementation in carbonate rocks

Large-Scale Dissolution
These large-scale dissolution
features are called karst and
are caused by meteoric water.
The dissolution generally
follows preexisting cracks or
other weaknesses.
The large-scale porosity thus
formed is very difficult to
evaluate from wells.

Fields in Turkey, among

others, are known to produce
from such porosity.
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