Language and literacy

Introduction:

The unit discusses the definition and the distinction between language and a language.
The unit also talks about the characteristics of language which, include arbitrariness,
language as vocal sounds, language as symbolic, language as structured, language as
systematic and language as a system of communication. The distinction between dialect
and idiolect and criteria used for the distinction are also discussed in the unit.

 Definition of Language

Humans dominate life on earth because we possess some features that help us to extend
our capabilities, our complex social structure with its hierarchies and our abilities to
conceptualize, to learn and to solve problems (Poole, 1999). This is possible because
of our use of language. Because of language, we are able to plan and cooperate with
others. Language allows us as humans to learn and adapt to changing circumstances.
The question is what language.
As Poole (1999) states, our initial reaction to the term language is that language relates
to communication and not between animals but between humans. The term language
is difficult to define in a precise way. Some authors avoid defining the term by just
talking about its features. However, many attempts have been made to define the word.
From the linguistic process point of view, language is the cognitive processes involved
in producing and understanding linguistic communication. NIDCD Information
Clearinghouse (2002) defines language as the expression of human communication
through which knowledge, beliefs, and behavior can be experienced and shared. O’Neil
(2006) defines language as an arbitrarily symbolic communication system that is
learned instead of biologically inherited. Language is infinitely flexible. Other
definitions of Language are:
 Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating
ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced
symbols (Sapir, 1921, cited in Poole, 1999).
  A structured system of arbitrary vocal conventional symbols by means of which
members of a social group interact (Bram, 1967)
 Language is a system of vocal-auditory communication, interacting with the
experiences of its users, employing conventional signs composed of arbitrary
patterned sound units and assembled according to set rules (Bolinger & Sears,
1981)
 Language is human vocal noise (or the graphic representation of this noise in
writing) used systematically and unconventionally by a community for
purposes of communication (Crystal, 1989)
 A human communication system that is usually distinguished by mutual
understanding or political boundaries (O’Grady, Dobrovolsky & Aronoff,
1996)
 Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols
principally transmitted by vocal sounds (Poole, 1999)
 Language is the expression of human communication through which
knowledge, beliefs and behavior can be experienced, explained and shared
(National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorder - NIDCD,
2002)
 Language is a system of conventional spoken or written symbols by means of
which human beings, as members of a social group and participants in its
culture; communicate (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2002).
 Language is the expression of ideas by means of speech-sounds combined into
words. Words combine into sentences, this combination answering to that of
ideas into thoughts (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2008).
 A system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group
cooperates (Bloch & Trager, 2009).
From the above definitions, language can be defined as a systematic creation and usage
of systems of symbols to express human thought. The definitions above, no matter how
shallow or deep they might be, contain some properties, which make human language
distinct and good for communication. A language therefore is a medium of
communication specific to a society (Poole, 1996). It forms part of the culture of the
society. As Poole indicates, language is inherited genetically, whereas we acquire “a
language” from the society in which we spend our first years. A language refers to a
particular language like English, French, Swahili, Akan, Ewe, Dagaare, Nzema and
many more. In another sense, it is a set of conventions shared by a speech community.
So one will say I speak a language and not I speak language.

 Characteristics of human language

Human language possesses some characteristics or properties that make it distinct from
other forms of language. The characteristics identified from the definitions above
include the following: language is vocal sounds or symbols (oral), language is arbitrary,
language is a means of communication, language is symbolic, language is
conventional, language is structured, language is dynamic, and language is hierarchical.

 Language is arbitrary: Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no logical

relationship between the sounds of words and their meanings. As Crystal (2003)
indicates, there is nothing in the word table, which reflects the shape of the
thing. What is the relationship between the word/utterance mattress to the
physical object mattress? The sounds used by humans to form words have
nothing to do with the meaning expressed by the words. This also makes
language conventional in nature.
 Language as vocal sounds or symbols (oral): Sounds in the language take
meaning only when combined in certain ways. Sounds used in human speech
are vocal because they are produced by the interaction of various organs
associated with the respiratory tract, which are represented by symbols of
writing.
 Language is dynamic: Language changes to conform to the changing needs of
society. It is open. It allows for creation of new words. It changes constantly;
words and meanings may vary from one generation to the other.
 Language is symbolic: Language is symbolic because it involves signs. The
units or entities stand for other units or entities. For example, the sign (?) stands
for an English/Akan language punctuation marker (question). In the same way
the sign (=), stands for a certain mathematical operation. These signs represent
words and meanings. The symbols used in language are conventional because
there is no relation between the sound sequence and their meaning. There is
nothing perceived in the physical structure of the nature of the symbol that could
be interpreted as matching up to any characteristics of the thing symbolized.
For example, there is no natural connection between the sound sequence b-o-x
(box) and the object.
 Language is structured: Language study usually begins with an utterance,
which is a stretch of talk by a speaker. Utterances can be a word or an entire
discourse. Utterances are made up of a combination of sound units. These sound
units are known linguistically as phonemes. Phonemes combine to make
meaning, and this is the morpheme. Morphemes combine into phrases, phrases
into clauses and then into sentences, paragraphs and discourse. Each of these
units functions in the unit above it in the structure. For example, phoneme t
combines with other phoneme(s) to make a morpheme. Note that sometimes a
phoneme can be a morpheme without combining with others e.g. the article a.
 Language is systematic: Language is systematic because it is made up of a
network of patterned relationships constituting its organization. It is
characterized as a system and often as a hierarchically ordered arrangement of
systems (Crystal, 2007). One view holds that language as a system is made up
of phonological, grammatical and semantic systems. The phonological system
consist the segmental and suprasegmental systems. The segmental system
comprises the vowel and consonant systems. The suprasegemental involves the
tones, pitch, nasalization etc. Language is made up of connected systems. For
example, sound made by humans combine to make words or part of words e.g.
dis- and –less, come and these are joined together in a systematic way to form
larger units in a meaningful sequential order like complex words (dis-respect-
 ful-ness), phrases (in the bathroom) or sentences (The disrespectful man is
dead). The combination of these units into acceptable structures is rule-
governed. For example in English the combination of the units
disrespectfulness (dis-respect-ful-ness) will not be acceptable when combined
this way *respectfuldisness. In the same way the noun phrase the rich man will
not be acceptable in English if the units are combined this way *man rich the
and the sentence The man in the bathroom is tall becomes meaningless and
unacceptable if the units are patterned this way in *the bathroom tall the man
is. The combination of units into acceptable systems differs from language to
language.
 Language is a system of communication: The main function of human language
is communication. A people who speak the same language belong to the same
speech community. People of a speech community use language to pass on or
exchange information. Language is used to transmit their culture to younger
members of the community and to people who will want to integrate into the
culture. Language as a system of communication is also used to establish or
maintain social relations.

 Distinction between dialect and idiolect

The word dialect comes from the Greek word dialektos, which means talk,
conversation or speech. From a layman’s point of view, a dialect is the form of a
language spoken by people in a particular region or group. For example, a Fante speaks
a dialect of Akan. Simply defined, a dialect is a variant of a language. Dialects are
subdivisions of language. The Columbia Encyclopedia (2008) defines a dialect as a
variety of a language used by a group of speakers within a particular speech
community. A dialect is a regional or social variety of a language, which are
distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary (American Heritage
Dictionary of English Language, 2000). It can also be defined that a dialect as a
variation of a given language spoken in a particular place or by a particular group of
people. By this definition, American, British, Canadian, and Australian are all dialects
of the English language and Fante, Asante Twi and Akwapim Twi are all dialects of
Akan and that none of them is any better than the other. Crystal (2007) indicates that
any language with a large population of speakers will develop dialects and that one
dialect may predominate as the official or standard form of the language, which is the
variety that comes to be written. But can a dialect become a language? Yes, when a
large group of speakers of a language speaks it, it often acquires prestige, which leads
to the development of a standard language. The definition indicates that everybody
speaks a variety of his/her language.
Dialects exist in a continuum in which adjacent dialects are mutually intelligible yet
with increasing isolation between noncontiguous dialects, differences may accumulate
to the point of mutual unintelligibility. For example, in the Akan speech community
there is a continuous area of intelligibility from Fante to Asante Twi and to Cherepong
(Guan) but with Fante and Cherepong, the dialects are mutually unintelligible.
Adjacent dialects usually differ more in pronunciation than in grammar or vocabulary.
A dialect, which is associated with a geographically isolated speech community is a
regional dialect (regiolect or topolect) (Have you thought of how Ghanaians from the
different regions of Ghana speak English? Is that regional dialects of Ghanaian
English?). On the other hand, if a dialect is spoken by a speech community that is
merely socially isolated, it is social dialect (sociolect). The study of all forms of dialects
is termed dialectology (also called linguistic geography); and the person who studies
dialect is a dialectologist.
Another issue related to language study is idiolect. An idiolect is defined as the
language or speech of one individual at a particular period in life, a variety of a
language unique to an individual, the form of language spoken by an individual as
distinct from a group, a class or nation. Parker (1986) sees idiolect as the specific
linguistic system of a particular speaker defines an idiolect. Penco (2004) defines an
idiolect as a variety of a language unique to an individual, which is manifested by
patterns of word selection, vocabulary and word lexicon, grammar, or words, phrases,
idioms, or pronunciation. Idiolect refers to a system of an individual speaker – one’s
personal dialect (Crystal, 2007). The definitions above stress on the individualistic
nature of idiolect. Idiolects culminate into dialects and dialects into a language. This is
explained in the diagram below
Fig1.: Language and dialect

Language Universals

Language Language Language (mutually unintelligible

Dialect Dialect Dialect (mutually intelligible)

Idiolect Idiolect Idiolect

Fig. 2: A practical example

Language Universals

Akan Ewe Kasem (mutually unintelligible)

Fante Asante Twi Akuapem Twi (mutually intelligible)

Gomua Oguaa Agona

 Criteria for distinguishing between Language and Dialect

So far we have been looking at what constitute language, a language, a dialect and an
idiolect. It is therefore essential to draw the distinction between language and dialect.
The distinction between language and dialect is sometimes difficult to establish.
Notwithstanding, two criteria has been established to distinguish between language and
dialect. These are linguistic criteria and social or political criteria.
 Linguistic criteria: The overlapping sets of linguistic conventions associated with
two different speech communities e.g. American English and British English or
Fante and Twi. How do we decide whether they should be regarded as two dialects
or two separate languages? One way by which we can make the choice is the degree
of overlap (Gasser, 2007). How similar are the vocabulary, the pronunciation, the
grammar, and the usage. Interestingly, one way to have the sense of overlap is
mutual intelligibility. Mutual intelligibility is the extent to which speakers of the
two or more speech communities understand each other. Mutual intelligibility is
also difficult to measure and most of the time based on the impression of speakers
and hearers. Based on mutual intelligibility, American English and British English
or Fante and Twi are dialects of English and Akan respectively.
 Social or political criteria: Politics plays a role in deciding what dialect will be
called a language. As Childs (2004) puts it, Powerful or historically significant
groups have “languages” and smaller or weaker ones have “dialects”. Sometime, an
individual or a government can arbitrarily determine the status of a speech
community. For example, in South Africa, a missionary declared three separate
languages to be one language called Tsonga. On the other hand, the government of
South Africa arbitrarily declared Zulu and Xhosa as separate languages even though
there is no clear boundary between them. The following are basic facts to know
about language and dialects:
Language is a continuum of dialects (Language = a continuum of dialects)
Dialect is a continuum of idiolects (Dialect = a continuum of idiolects)
Dialect is not substandard.
Dialect is not slang.
Everyone speaks a dialect.
Unit 2: Language and Literacy

Introduction

The unit deals with the definitions of language and literacy. It also discusses the
similarities and differences between language and literacy. The misconception about
language and literacy in relation to language learning is also discussed.

 Definition of Language and Literacy

 Language
Language as indicated in unit one is seen as a system of communication that a group
of people use to express their thoughts, feelings, ideas and to talk about themselves and
the world at large (see unit one).

 Literacy
Literacy, generally is the proficiency or the expertise or having extensive knowledge
of doing something (Mkandawire, Simooya-Mudenda & Cheelo (2017). As a result,
we have digital literacy, financial literacy, language literacy, cultural literacy, critical
literacy, mathematical literacy, etc. According to Mkandawire and Daka (2017), there
are two major types of literacy. The first one is conventional literacy that has to do with
reading and writing skills while the second one, is a body of knowledge and skills in a
field” In this book, literacy in language is the focus. It is the ability to read and write
(The Zambian Government National Literacy Framework, 2013). National Literacy
Trust (2012) which stated that, “Literacy is the ability to read, write, speak and listen
well. Language literacy falls under functional literacy. Literacy skills require time,
effort, and encouragement to develop and the development of literacy skills at early life
makes one an independent person in the future. Language literacy (ability to read and
write) effectively improves the future of learners in education. Literacy, which involves
reading and writing, is implied in language learning.
UNESCO (2006) indicates that the most common understanding of literacy is that it is
a set of tangible skills, particularly the cognitive skills of reading and writing.
According to Miller (1973), Literacy is subdivided into three categories; Basic literacy,
Comprehension and Functional or practical literacy. Basic literacy, according to Miller
(1973), means the ability to use correspondences of visual shapes, to spoken sounds, in
order to decode written materials, and to translate them into oral language.
Comprehension literacy, in the view of Miller means having ability to understand the
meaning of verbal materials. On the other hand, Functional or practical literacy means
ability to read (decode and comprehend) materials needed to perform everyday tasks.
These definitions are centered on conventional skills of reading and writing. In this
book, literacy is the ability to read, write, speak and listen effectively.

 Similarities between language and Literacy

The concepts of Literacy and Language are closely related to the extent that it is literary
impossible to discuss reading and writing (speaking and listening) literacy skills
without implying the existence of language. The following are some similarities
(Mkandawire, 2018):
 Literacy (reading and writing) is a symbolic representation of spoken language.
Reading and writing skills and language are so intertwined that the former, is
embedded in the later and vice versa. For example, one can only read and write
(literacy) meaningfully, in a language that they understand well. Similarly,
when we talk about written language, literacy is implied. In other words, there
is no such a thing as written language without involving literacy.
 Both literacy and language are important skills to be acquired for a child to
succeed and proceed in a conventional education system. In other words, both
oral and written forms of literacy and language are necessary skills for a learner
to succeed in conventional education systems.
  Both literacy and some languages, especially second, might be learnt in an artificial
environment such as a classroom at a school set up. This implies that both literacy
and language (except for naturally acquired languages) are artificially learned.
 Both literacy and language can both be transported in written and recorded form
respectively.
 In terms of orality, literacy and language are similar in the sense that, as children’s
oral literacy (oracy) increases in one language, their knowledge of that language
also increases.
 In order to acquire language and literacy competencies, one needs a facility in a
brain that can accommodate and process the craft of both literacy and language in
totality. This facility is Language Acquisition Device (LAD).
 People think of both language and literacy as having the same purpose. Language
is a tool for humans to communicate, socialize, interact and cooperate orally with
one another, oral literacy (oracy) also serves the same purpose.
 Differences between Literacy and Language
The differences between literacy and language are as follows:
 The concept of Literacy, including reading and writing matters are more recent
than language; language has been there before literacy.
 The skills of reading and writing (literacy) have always been treated with much
respect as compared to language.
 A literate person can decode and understand messages from both oral and
written form of language, while an illiterate person can only understand
messages in spoken or oral form.
 In this modern world, conventional literacy helps one to participate in social events
on social media such as WhatsApp, LinkedIn, Twitter, Facebook, Instagram,
Pinterest and Snapchat but an illiterate person who knows only the language
cannot.
 Literacy as knowledge and specialized skills in specific areas is applied in all
domains of the society, while language is a tool for communication.
 Literacy is earned with training and experience this is not the case in first language
acquisition.
  First language is naturally acquired from the environment with parents/adults
and siblings, while basic conventional literacy on reading and writing, as
technical skills, are artificially learnt in organized settings (Mkandawire, 2018)

MISCONCEPTIONS AND BIASIS ABOUT LANGUAGE AND LITERACY

Language: Language is a method by which a person expresses himself in such a way that
they may be understood by others.

Literacy: Literacy is one’s ability to read and write.

MISCONCEPTIONS AND BIASES ABOUT LANGUAGE AND LITERACY

Wrong ideas about language and literacy influences the attitudes of an individual or a group
leading to prejudice/ predisposition

Misconception # 1

 Language is for females.

 Biases:
o This discourages males from showing interest in language and literacy.
o On the other hand, it may encourage females to easily develop interest in
language and literacy
 Solution: There should be holistic education in unearthing the truth that both males and
females have equal capabilities in understanding and assimilating language and literacy.

Misconception # 2
o Learning to Read is a natural process. Even if children are immersed in a literacy-
rich environment, learning to read is learned and not acquired. It is a secondary
language skills.
 Biases:
o This may cause parents and children to make less effort in learning to read, having
in mind that the ability will be acquired naturally.
 Solution: Through education on the fact that learning to read demands conscious effort.

Misconception # 3:

 We can learn how to spell words from reading.

Reading and spelling are two quite different processes. While some words are pronounced
the way they are spelt, other words are pronounced differently from the way they are spelt.
 Biases:
o This makes learners put in little effort in learning to spell.
  Solution: Education about the distinction between reading and spelling and the different
skills needed to aid spelling. Skills that aid spelling may include phonics, spelling rules and
visual memory.

Misconception # 4

 If the whole language method works for some children and the phonics method for others, a
combined approach should work for all children:
Every child is unique and thus, requires a peculiar method to aid s/he develop his or her
language and literacy adequately.

 Biases: Teachers may ignore using the appropriate method a particular child may need in
building up his/her language and literacy.
 Solution: Teachers must be conscientized about the uniqueness of each child and the diverse
methods each child may need to build up their language and literacy.

Misconception #5

 Some people are just genetically “Dyslexic”.

Reading and writing has not been long enough to become genetic. It is a matter of using
appropriate method to teach/learn.

 Biasis: Others who struggle more with reading might easily give up, assuming it is a genetic
cause. On the other hand, teachers might give up on children who struggle more in reading,
assuming it is a genetic challenge.
 Solution: Education on the fact that reading is learned, not acquired. In addition, everyone is
capable of reading.

Misconception # 6

 If it is in the curriculum, then the children will learn it and a balanced reading curriculum is
ideal
Children will always be willing to learn anything that interests them even if it is not in the
curriculum
 Biasis: This may influence the percentage of reading lists added to curriculum. These reading
lists may not even be the interest of the children.
 Solution: The interest of the children must be a factor in adding reading lists to curriculum.

 Misconceptions about functional literacy

 Misconceptions about reading

There are some misconceptions about literacy (reading and writing), which impedes its
teaching in schools. The following are some misconceptions:
 Misconception # 1
If a child seems to struggle with reading in the first three years, we should not
worry because the child will catch up later to the other children. This is a myth
because research has shown that 88% of children struggling with reading in
year one will still be struggling in year three. Children who do not make
good progress, or completely fail, to learn to read in the first 2 years of school
are likely to continue to struggle. They will gradually fall further and further
behind the other students, and unless rescued by intensive intervention, they
will leave primary school with poor reading skills. These children may
eventually drop out of school or be disadvantaged in the rest of their school
career. Year 1 is the ideal time for children to learn to read (.
Misconception # 2
Children can learn to read the same way that they learn to talk, by
immersion. This is a misconception because children learn to talk by instinct.
They imitate the speech they hear from parents, adults, siblings and other people
in the speech community as they interact with them. Unfortunately, literacy
(reading and writing) is not acquired by instinct; they must be taught. Every
child should learn how to read and write to a certain level to be able to
communicate in this modern world.
Misconception # 3
If the whole language approach to teaching reading works for some children, and
the phonic approach works for other children, then a combined approach should
work for all children. This is a myth and must be treated as thus. These two
approaches to teaching reading are far apart; the oppose to each other so they cannot
be combined to teach reading. Whole language is a top-down approach to teaching
reading, while the phonic approach is bottom-up. Language is learned top-down,
by instinct but literacy, as a skill is not by instinct, and must therefore be learned
using bottom-up approach.

Misconception # 4
Children should use strategies to learn to read according to their natural strengths
and weaknesses. This is also a misconception. Activities like music, sports, and art
rely on talents plus skill practice and guidance. People without such natural talents
avoid such disciplines but reading involves complex tasks involving sub-skills,
which have to be coordinated automatically to make one a frequent reader. Brain
research has shown that every individual uses the same skills in the same order for
accuracy and fluency in reading. Reading begins with identification of sounds,
linked to letter sounds, and followed by phonetic synthesis of the word, which
results in word recognition. This is then linked to the meaning for the word. By not
going through these sub-skills for every child will result in disastrous effect.

Misconception # 5

The main determinant of a child’s success in reading is the home environment. This
is not true because some children from poor socio-economic background and
having low vocabularies, general knowledge and had limited exposure with books
and rhymes can be helped by skillful teachers to overcome such limitations. Skillful
teachers, at the preschool help such disadvantaged children to develop language
and phonemic awareness skills and become good readers.

Misconception # 6

There will always be a percentage of children who do not learn to read irrespective
of the teaching methods used. This statement is not true. If children are given the
right reading teaching/instruction i.e. systematic phonic and a conducive classroom
environment created, almost all children can read to a functional level. It must be
noted that some children will need extra instruction, practice and encouragement
and a few will need one-to-one teaching outside class time, but all children must be
able to master the needed skills to be able to read during primary school years.
 Misconception # 7

Failure to learn to read is associated with low intelligence. This assertion is also
not true. Some children with high intelligence sometimes have difficulties in
reading especially if they did not master the basic reading skills like phonics, which
help with decoding unfamiliar words.

Misconception # 8

Reading to children at home or in class can cease once children are learning to
read. This is false. Reading books, rhymes and poems to children should continue
as long as children enjoy them. From this experience, children will learn vocabulary
and their love for reading and books.
Misconception # 9

Children can learn how to spell words from reading them. This is false because
children can read certain words several times but still have difficulty remembering
the spelling of those words. We must realize spelling and reading are two different
processes. Children need to learn how to spell words by using phonic skills and
spelling rules as well as visual memory.

Misconception # 10

The best way to learn the spelling of a word is to write the word several times.
Writing the same word repeatedly, means simply copying the word without
recalling the word from memory or sounding out the word, if not already stored in
memory. Just copying does not help the child to recall the word and know how to
spell it. The child gets to know how to spell a word when he is asked to write from
memory or by sounding it out with immediate feedback.

Misconception # 11

That all children will acquire sufficient literacy skills through play. This is
misguided and a dangerous misconception. This misconception stems from the
 misunderstanding of literacy instruction as didactic and teacher-centered
instruction. It must be noted that literacy instruction can assume several forms
ranging on a continuum from a play-based approach to a direct, teacher-led
approach, whereas, didactic instruction is more narrowly defined as teacher-
centered with students as passive learners. The provision of explicit and systematic
phonics instruction helps children to read better than just play-based.
 Misconception about writing and language learning
Learners do not see writing as contributing to language learning.
learners should only write in personal narrative
learners should have several conferences for each piece of writing
Learners should share each piece with the entire class.
learners should own their own writing and never be directed to do
anything with their writing.
Spelling, grammar, and punctuation are unimportant in language
learning (writing).
Writing does not improve reading.

THE LINGUISTIC NATURE OF GHANA

Introduction

The unit takes a look at the linguistic situation of Ghana. The various authors’ classification in
relation to the number of languages in the country are discussed. The unit also talks about
types of language groups in Ghana and why there is controversy about the exact number of
languages in Ghana.

 Languages of Ghana
Ghana has a total landmass of about 238,305 kilometers (92,660sq. miles) and has a population
of about 24 million (World FactBook, 2010) but was estimated that the population was
28.83 million in 2017 (Ghana Statistical Service, 2017). Ghana, though small in terms of
landmass, it is made up of numerous and divergent ethnic groups and languages. Over forty
languages are mutually unintelligible. The precise number of languages spoken within the
borders of Ghana is not known yet. There is controversy among writers over the definite
number. The following are estimates made by authors so far:
 Denny (1963) indicates that between forty-seven and sixty-two languages are
identifiable in Ghana.
 Boadi (1971) and Andoh-Kumi (1994) estimate that there are forty (40) languages.
 Hall (1983) say there are forty-four (44) mutually unintelligible languages.
 Dolphyne and Dakubu (1988) estimates that there are between forty-five and fifty
languages exist Ghana.
 Melchers (1992) says there are forty-two (42) languages in Ghana.
 Bamgbose (2000) indicates that there are fifty-seven (47) mutually unintelligible
speech forms in Ghana
 The Ghana Statistical Service (2002) and Gordon (2005) indicate that 83 languages are
spoken within the borders of Ghana.
 Ghanaweb (2008) notes that thirty-five (35) indigenous languages exist in Ghana.
The indigenous languages of Ghana are classified broadly under Niger-Congo language family
and subdivided further into Kwa and Gur.

Niger Congo

Kwa Languages Gur Languages

According to Andoh-Kumi (1994), the southern languages of Ghana belong to the Kwa group,
while the northern languages are classified as the Gur group. Added to the indigenous
languages are English (the unofficial official language of Ghana) and Hausa (Chadic – Afro-
Asiatic), which is spoken widely in the northern part of the country. Besides, two pockets of
Mande language group – Lighi and Bisa are found in Ghana.
The above phenomenon creates a complex picture of the linguistic nature of Ghana.

 Why differences in exact number of languages in Ghana

The differences in the identification of the exact number of languages in the country have come
about as a result of the following factors and perceptions:
 There is difficulty in distinguishing between languages and dialects. This
phenomenon influences taxonomy and classification of languages worldwide (Lupke
& Jagger, 2008). For instance, some writers see Akan as one language with three major
dialects; Fante, Asante Twi and Akuapem Twi, but others indicate that Fante, Asante
Twi, and Akuapem Twi are separate languages because they have their own literary
materials (Obeng-Gyasi, 1997).
 Another factor is that ethnic and linguistic identities are not clear-cut. Ethnic groups
overlap and are easily modified or transformed in areas of high cultural convergence.
This is the result of the colonial administration.
 There is also limited and outdated or unreliable data on many Ghanaian languages,
except the major ones (Andoh-Kumi, 1994). In the view of Andoh-Kumi, the result of
this is that names for given languages vary. Language can have several names, which
are sometimes confusing.
 The problem is compounded because of attitude. Speakers of minority languages may
want to identify themselves with some larger and prestigious groups, while others
consider their languages or dialects to be superior and would not want to have anything
to do with another dialect or language though they are mutually intelligible (Dolphyne
& Dakubu, 1988).
Language map of Ghana
LANGUAGE PLANNING AND LANGUAGE POLICY
Introduction
The multilingual nature of the country demands that there should be the need to plan language
use in the country to ensure effective communication and to avoid chaos in the society. This
unit therefore deals with the definition of language planning and language policy. It looks at
the types of language planning, which includes corpus planning, status planning and
acquisition planning. The steps in language planning are also discussed. The last section of
the unit discusses the types of language policy and problems associated with the
implementation of language policy.

1. Language Planning
This section of the unit discusses the definition of language planning, types of language
planning, steps in language planning and factors that influence language planning.
 What is Language Planning?
The success of bilingual education in multilingual settings demands careful planning,
execution and evaluation. There should be planning on which language(s) to use in education
and at what point in time. In addition, there should be proper planning and effective policy
guidelines on how the plans must be implemented. These are referred to as language planning
and language policy. Language planning does not have a unified agreed upon definition nor
a coherent theory but notwithstanding the following attempts have been made by authorities
in the discipline to define the concept:
 Cooper (1989, p. 41) sees language planning in real life contexts as “a messy affair-
ad hoc, hap-hazard, and emotionally driven”.
 Weinstein (1980, p. 55) defines language planning as “a government authorized, long
term, sustained, and conscious effort to alter a language’s function in a society for
the purpose of solving communication problems”.
 According to Eastman (1983), language planning is a branch of sociolinguistics,
which focuses on the decision-making that goes into determining what language use
is appropriate in particular speech communities.
 Wardhaugh (1986, p. 336) also looks at language planning as “an attempt to interfere
deliberately with a language or one of its varieties”.
  Fishman (1973, p. 23) defines language planning as “the organized pursuit of
solutions to language problems which include choice of language for specific
purposes in a multilingual situation, expansion of vocabulary, or orthographic
reforms”.
 Karam (1974) sees language planning as any activity which aims at solving problems
of language, usually on a national scale, and which focuses on either language form
or language use or both.
 Rubin and Jernudd (1971, cited in Eastman 1983, p. 3) define language planning as
involving data collection to help make decisions about which language(s) are best in
certain situations; it also concerns itself with the development of the technical tools
for the choice among other alternatives.
From the above definitions, it can be seen that language planning has the following
characteristics:
It is direct and deliberate government interference.
It is geared towards solving communication problems.
It involves status change of a language or its variety, development of a
language or its variety, or design to encourage language spread.
It is future-oriented.
 Types of Language planning
Cooper (1989) has identified three main types of language planning. These are corpus
planning, status planning and acquisition planning.
 Corpus planning involves new word coinage, developing writing systems,
reforming spelling conventions and grammar standardization.
There are three traditionally recognized types of corpus planning:
Graphization: It refers to development, selection and modification of scripts and
orthographic conventions for a language.
Standardization: It involves one variety of a language taking precedence over other
social and regional dialects of a language. It generally involves increasing the
uniformity of the norm.
 Modernization: It occurs when a language needs to expand its resources to meet
functions and when a language undergoes a shift in status.
 Status planning is government recognition and allocation of specific functions of
language- official language, medium of instruction, and vehicle of mass
communication.
 Acquisition planning is designed to encourage language spread among the people.
A situation in which a national, state or local government system aims to influence
aspects of language, such as language status, distribution and literacy through
education. It is also used by non-governmental organizations, but it is more
commonly associated with government planning. In education, acquisition panning
involves deciding on what languages should be taught within the curriculum,
determining the amount and quality of teacher training, involving
local communities, determining what materials will be used and how they will be
incorporated into syllabi, establishing a local and state assessment system to
monitor progress and determining financial costs.
 Steps in language planning
Haugen (1983, 1987, cited in Corson 1999, p. 13) indicates that the starting point for language
planning is selecting a norm by deciding what is to be the norm. It also involves codifying the
norm by giving it styles and spheres of usage, implementing its function by spreading the
newly codified norm, and elaborating its function to meet evolving language needs of the
culture. For language planning to be successful, certain steps must be followed. Rubin (1971
cited in Rubin 1983) suggests four major steps in language planning. These steps include fact-
finding, establishment of goals, implementation and feedback (evaluation). This is what
Bamgbose (2000) describes as a bottom-up approach in language planning. In the bottom-up
approach to language planning, the following stages are identified:
 Stage 1 – Fact-finding: In the fact-finding stage, language planners are expected to look
for information about the situation in which the plan is to be implemented. Planners
must look for information about the sociolinguistic situation in which the plan is to be
effected. The planners should know the pattern of usage and how the planning will
affect the socio-economic and political conditions of the society. The planners must
 sought information about the existing model and alternative ones to help them make
informed decisions when planning.
 Stage 2 – Goal establishment: At this stage the policy maker identifies some problems,
which require attention. The problems is then be prioritized and decisions taken. The
decision making process very often depends on the funds available. Sometimes the
decision-making depends on earlier studies and thorough assessment. But in most
cases, decisions are taken without prior studies (Rubin 1983). This often makes the
achievement of stated objectives very difficult. The explanation is that no proper
planning is done in terms of working out strategies, assessing the materials available,
and utilizing human resources. Decision making also involves goal setting, which takes
place at several levels: from the legislature who assigns responsibility to an institution
that modifies the goals taking certain factors like funding into consideration.
 Stage 3 - Implementation: Implementation involves the putting together resources
including funds and personnel management. It also involves motivating the manager of
the program and its target, i.e. teachers and learners, and supervision. Implementation
also encompasses the sequencing and coordination of related aspects of the policy,
which include text preparation and personnel training. This aspect has eluded much
language planning processes in Africa.
 Stage 4 - Evaluation: Evaluation is very essential in language planning. This step
concerns itself with analyzing the trends and monitoring the program. The planners
need to work out a mechanism which will help them to know whether the plan has
achieved its outcome or objective or not, and if not, why not. This will help the planner
to modify strategies to ensure that the goals of the plan are achieved. This step is very
critical in language planning but surprisingly this is the aspect, which has received little
attention.
It must be noted that language planning can be a top-down approach. In this approach, the
planning begins from the government and trickles down to the society in which the language
plan will be effected.

 Factors Influencing Language Planning

Language planning is influenced by certain factors, which include
 Linguistic factors
 Political factors
 Socio-demographic factors
 Socio-psychological factors
 Pedagogical factors
 Financial factors
 The people
 Cultural factors

2. Language Policy
A critical look at the types of language planning discussed earlier shows that status planning
and corpus planning represent policy and implementation phases of language planning
respectively. Decisions on the status of a language are policy decisions, while most corpus
activities are in the realm of implementation. This part of the unit discusses the types of
language policy and problems associated with the implementation of language policy. The
following are some definitions of language policy:
 Bamgbose (1990, p. 1) defines language policy as “a program of action on the role or
status of a language in a given community”.
 Language policy as what governments officially do through legislation, executive
actions or other means to determine how languages are to be used in public contexts,
cultivate language skills needed to meet national priorities or establish rights of
individuals or groups to learn, use, and maintain languages (Schiffman, 1999).

 Types of Language policy

Noss (1971, p.1) identifies three types of language policy: official language policy, educational
language policy, and general language policy.
 Official language policy is concerned with the recognition by the government and the
determination of the function or purposes for which they have been recognized.
  Educational language policy relates to recognition given to some languages by the
government and educational authorities and agencies for use as medium of instruction
in schools.
 General language policy consists of unofficial recognition given to languages that are
used in mass media, business and contacts with foreigners.
Language policy can be explicit or implicit (Andoh-Kumi 1974).
Explicit language policy is stated clearly in a document.
Implicit language policy is inferred from the practices of the people or governmental
bodies or other agencies (without any official)

 Problems of language policy implementation in Ghana:

The use of mother tongue as medium of instruction at the lower primary level (P1-P3) in a
multilingual society where the official language is different from the mother tongue is not
without problems. Eastman (1983, p. 83) thinks “one of the more common LP problems is
deciding what language should be the medium of instruction”. The following are some of the
problems confronting language planning and policy implementation in developing countries
like Ghana:
 Frequent changes in government: Fluctuation in the use of mother tongue as medium
of instruction in most African countries is due to frequent changes in government. Each
change in government meant a change in policy and a subsequent change in teacher
training and materials (Bamgbose 1991).
 Lack of trained teachers: Language policies are not effectively implemented because
teachers have not been trained in the use of the local language for such a purpose. Only
a few teachers can read and write in their local languages.
 Implementation procedure not specified: Implementation procedures of language
policies in Africa are left unspecified in the policy statements. There are no
implementation procedures or mechanisms. Bamgbose (1990) stated that a policy
formulation that does not state whose responsibility it is to enforce the policy and
provide adequate resources to back such implementation amounts to carrying on with
 no existing policy. Also the policies have “escape clauses” built in them. These
effectively provide an alibi for non-implementation. Ouedraogo (2000) says language
policies in Africa do not give a clear indication of how and when they should be
implemented.
 Negative attitudes of officials and some parents: This is severe when the official
language is different from the L1(s). It has been the view of those in authority and even
some educated Africans that any education given through the L1 can only be an inferior
one. Most Ghanaians, especially the elites have the impression that ‘real’ education
can only be obtained in a world language like English or French.
 Lack of enforcement of the policy: Lack of enforcement of language policies in most
countries can be attributed to the fact that most governments think BE would result in
tribalism or racism. In Ghana, the government in general and the Ghana Education
Service in particular do not enforce the use of L1 as medium of instruction at the early
grade level.
 The expensive nature of the policy in multilingual societies: Implementing a language
policy, which calls for the use of the child’s L1 in multilingual societies is seen as being
very expensive. The cost involved in producing materials for the various L1s to be used
in school as mediums of instruction is a great financial venture to be undertaken by
financially handicapped nations like Ghana. The use of indigenous languages in
education as medium of instruction requires resources in terms of teacher training,
developing grammars and orthographies, producing and translating textbooks, and
creating supplementary materials in the numerous mother tongues. Bamgbose (2000)
sees the cost of developing the languages to appreciable levels and training of teachers
to teach them as a very serious problem when one considers the meager resources of
African countries.
 The multilingual nature of some countries has unduly influenced language policy
implementation. Most classrooms in these countries are multilingual in nature and the
many mother tongues make it impossible to use them all as mediums of instruction.
Therefore, in Ghana only eleven officially recognized languages are used out of the 40
or 50 mother tongues. This means that many children would have to learn one of those
 eleven languages studied in school to be able to follow the lessons in the first three
years (Andoh-Kumi 1994). This puts some pupils at a disadvantage because they will
have to learn in a new language. Most people think multilingual classrooms are a
feature of urban centers only, but research has shown that most rural schools are also
multilingual.

 Addressing the Challenges of Language Policy Implementation

The following are suggested ways that the challenges of implementing the language
policy of education can be implemented:
 There should be effective advocacy program to disseminate information on the
language policy of education in Ghana, the benefits of starting the child’s
education using the L1 and studying the L1 in schools.
 There is the need to study indigenous languages and culture in schools.
 There should be provision of adequate resources to ensure compliance of the
language policy of education.
 There should be effective monitoring and evaluation of policy implementation
by the Ghana Education Service/Ministry of Education and concerned
stakeholders.
 Incentives for compliance and deterrent measures for non-compliance of the
language policy in education in schools.
 Schools should be given the power to select a Ghanaian language as medium of
instruction and subject of study.
 Inclusion as alternative language requirement for entry/admission to the next
level of education.
 Expansion of the eleven government sponsored Ghanaian languages as media
of instruction and subjects of study in schools.
 There is the need for governmental support and the will to implement the
language policy of education in Ghana.
 There is the need to produce textbooks in the Ghanaian languages to support
the implementation of the language policy of education in Ghana
  Change of negative attitudes towards the use of L1 as medium of instruction in
schools, especially at the Early Grade and Basic levels.
 There should be adequate training of effective and efficient language teachers
to ensure proper implement of the language policy of education. Ghanaian
language study should be compulsory at the Colleges of Education, especially
Early Grade and Basic Education Specialism.
 To deal with the multilingual nature of the country and its classrooms, there is
the need to do a regular socio-linguistic study of our early grade classrooms.
 The posting of teachers, especially to the early grade classroom should take into
consideration the L1 and L2 (if any) of the teacher to ensure pupil-teacher
language match.

LANGUAGE-IN-EDUCATION POLICY IN GHANA

Introduction

Unit 5 takes a critical look at the chronicle of language-in-education policy in Ghana.

In an expanded form the unit deals with the language policy of education in Ghana
during the pre-colonial era. It also looks at the colonial era and the post-colonial era
language policies of education in Ghana.

 The Chronicle of language-in-education policy in Ghana

The history of bilingual education in Ghana is divided into three broad periods. These divisions
are based on the political and historical developments that occurred in the country. These are
broadly divided into the pre-colonial era (1529- 1925), colonial era (1925-1957), and post-
colonial era (1957-present). The pre-colonial era spans from the castle schools era; when
formal education commenced in the Gold Coast (Ghana), while the colonial era was the period
when the British ruled Ghana and the post-colonial era is the period from when Ghana gained
independence to the present.

 The Pre-Colonial Era

Bilingual education in Ghana started with the inception of formal education in Ghana, which
began with the castle schools and later was continued by the Christian missionaries. This period
is the pre-colonial period (1529-1925). The castles along the coast of Ghana were built
primarily for the slave trade but after the trade, they were used for trading by the European
merchants and later turned into schools. The schools were for children they had with the
natives, and for children of wealthy chiefs and clerks they needed to train to help them with
their trade (Graham 1971). The local languages were not used in the schools because the white
fathers who were the teachers could not speak the local language. They therefore used the
metropolitan languages. Portuguese, Dutch, Danish and English were used as medium of
instruction wherever and whenever the Portuguese, the Dutch, the Danes and the English
respectively were in power. The situation, however, changed with the coming in of the
missionaries, who resorted to the development of the local languages in both their educational
and proselytizing effort. The Basel and Bremen missionaries were more successful in this area
than the Wesleyans (Graham 1971). It can be seen from these developments that the language
policies during this period were as varied as they were independent.

 The Colonial Era

As mentioned earlier, Ghana pursued a dual language policy until 1925. This was the beginning
of the colonial era. The British government used English for its administration; the Wesleyans
used English as medium of instruction in schools they established, while the Basel and Bremen
missionaries used the Ghanaian languages (Twi and Ewe respectively). It must be noted that
formal education during this period was under the administration of the missions. Though the
language policy during this period (1925-1955) was multilingual in outlook, language use was
well defined. Quite significant was the Guggisberg administration (Guggisberg was the British
governor of the Gold Coast, now Ghana, from 1919-1927). During this period a systematic
pattern began to emerge with regard to both education and language use. It was the first time
the colonial government legislated the status of the Ghanaian language (Gbedemah 1975). The
government had taken control of the administration of schools by this time. Guggisberg
maintained that school education should not denationalize the recipients (MacWilliam 1969).
The role of Ghanaian language as a medium of instruction was contained in his 16 principles
of education; the twelfth principle stated that English education must be given but it must be
based solidly on the vernacular. During this period, the 1925 Education Ordinance, which
made the use of Ghanaian language a medium of instruction compulsory at the lower primary
1-3 and English as subject of study was passed. Three educational events helped to shape this
language policy. These are:
The 1920 Educationists Committee set up by Guggisberg to investigate past
educational efforts of the country and to report on the methods, principles and policy
governing the progress of education in the country. Among the 52 recommendations
and 53 suggestions made was the use of Ghanaian language as medium of instruction
and English as subject of study as early as possible (MacWilliam 1969, Graham 1971).
The Phelps-Stokes Commission of 1920 on education in Africa. The commission was
appointed by American missionaries working in Africa to make a thorough re-appraisal
of the educational problems of blacks both in Africa and the USA. The commission
 advocated that education was to relate to the African people and therefore wrote “Tribal
languages should be used in the lower elementary stages while in areas with a degree
of linguistic differentiation a lingua franca of African origin was to be used in the
middle forms. The language of the European nation should begin in the upper standards
only”. (Jones & Jesse 1922, cited in Andoh-Kumi 1994, p.10).
The establishment of a Permanent Advisory Committee in native education in Tropical
Africa by the colonial office in Britain in 1923. The committee also reiterated the view
that education should begin in the mother tongue.
It can be seen from the above that the period before independence saw an encouraging trend
in language use and language learning. Ghanaian languages (Twi, Fante, Ewe and Ga) became
School Certificate Subjects from the 1930/31 academic year. These languages counted towards
exemption from the matriculation examination at the University of London. During this period
Ghanaian language and English received due attention and their proper places in the Ghanaian
education system.

 The Post-Colonial Era

The period between 1920 and 1950 favored the use of Ghanaian language as medium of
instruction but the trend changed from 1955. This was the period when the British government
was gradually handing over power to Kwame Nkrumah and his Convention People’s Party
(CPP) government. Some educated Ghanaians thought that the previous policy was a design
by the British to give an inferior education to the native population. So when Ghana gained
independence in 1957, the 1925 Education Ordinance was reviewed and English made the
medium of instruction from class one. This was done ignoring the recommendations of a
commission set up to investigate the possibilities of adopting English as a medium of
instruction throughout the primary course that Ghanaian language could be used as the medium
of instruction in the first year of primary education. In 1963, the Bannerman Committee set up
by the government to preview pre-university education recommended the use of Ghanaian
language in P1-3 but it was rejected. The reason for this change of trend was that the
government felt the use of L1 would hold the nation’s industrial and economic development
back (Gbedemah 1975).
The period from 1966 to1972 saw another change in policy. The NLC (National Liberation
Council) appointed the Kwarpong Committee in 1967 to look into the use of English as
medium of instruction. The committee recommended that “a Ghanaian language be used as
medium of instruction for the first three years of the primary school course, the change to
English as a medium of instruction should start in the fourth year whilst the Ghanaian language
continues to be a subject of study; in the metropolitan and urban areas, the change to English
as medium of instruction may commence earlier than the fourth year of the course” (Ministry
of Information 1967, p.54). This unique recommendation was rejected and instead the NLC
government proposed that Ghanaian language should be the medium of instruction in primary
class one. In 1969, the Busia government came into power. The Kwarpong Committee’s report
was accepted and in 1970 the Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture made Ghanaian
language the medium of instruction for the first three years of primary education. It further
added that where possible the Ghanaian language could be used for the next three years:
It is now a government policy that the main Ghanaian languages at
present provided for in the curriculum of primary and middle schools
be used as medium of instruction in the first three years of the primary
school course and where the subject makes it possible, in the next three
years as well… (Ministry of Education 1970, p.8)
In addition, the Ministry of Education recommended that every child was to learn an approved
second Ghanaian language form the beginning of 1971. The approved languages were Akan,
Ewe, Nzema and Ga.
The period between 1972 and 1981 saw several changes in government but there were no
significant changes in language policy for education. The National Redemption
Council/Supreme Military Council adopted the language policy of the Busia government and
improved upon it. This was reflected in the “New Structure and Content of Education in
Ghana”. The policy was that at the primary school the child should learn his own Ghanaian
language and in addition, one other Ghanaian language. However, English shall gradually
become the medium of instruction from class four. In the Junior Secondary School, the
Ghanaian language or a modern classical language will be compulsory during the Senior
Secondary level course. In Teacher Training Colleges, teachers were to learn a Ghanaian
language in addition to their own language so that they would be able to cope with the new
policy (Dzobo 1979 P.3). This policy was based on the Report presented by the Dzobo
Committee that was appointed by the NRC government in 1974. The School of Ghana
Languages and the Ghanaian Languages Department of Cape Coast University were
established to train teachers to be Ghanaian language teachers.
In the 1987/88 academic year, the Dzobo Committee Report was implemented and Ghanaian
language became a compulsory subject of study to Senior Secondary School (now Senior High
School-SHS) level, but it was short lived. In 1994, Ghanaian language became an optional
subject in the senior secondary school. The seizure was a result of the 1994 Senior Secondary
School Certificate Examination (SSSCE) fiasco. The educational authorities erroneously
thought the failure was due to the teaching of Ghanaian language in the senior secondary
school. Many were of the opinion that English should be the medium of instruction from the
first year of school while others think otherwise. Because of the intense criticisms of the policy,
it was been changed. Ameyaw-Akumfi (2002) said that the “government has approved the
implementation of a new language policy that would allow the use of English language to
replace vernacular as a medium of instruction during the first three years of primary school”
(Accra Mail, 2002, p. 1). The policy makes the learning of Ghanaian language as a subject of
study compulsory from class one till the Senior High School. The reasons given for the change
of policy were the following:
The reasons given for the change of policy were as follows (source: The Statesman, Thursday
July 16, 2002 cited in Owu-Ewie, 2003):
The previous policy of using a Ghanaian language as medium of instruction in
the lower primary level was abused, especially in rural schools. Teachers never
spoke English in class even in primary six.
Students are unable to speak and write ‘good’ English sentences even by the
time they complete the Senior Secondary School (Senior High School).
The multilingual situation in the country, especially in urban schools has made
instruction in a Ghanaian language very difficult. The source added that a study
conducted by the Ministry of Education showed that 50 to 60 percent of children
in each class in the urban area speak a different language. “It is therefore
 problematic if we insist that all the children be instructed in Ga, Twi, or Dagbani
depending on whether it is Accra, Kumasi or Tamale”.
There is a lack of materials in the Ghanaian languages to be used in teaching.
The Minister of Education declared “Only five, out of the languages that are
spoken by our major ethnic groups, have materials developed on them.
Certainly, we cannot impose these five languages on the entire nation and
people of other ethnic origins”.
There is a lack of Ghanaian language teachers specifically trained to teach
content subjects in the Ghanaian language. The minister added, “merely being
able to speak a Ghanaian language does not mean one can teach in it”.
There are no standard written forms of the Ghanaian languages. He says, “For
nearly all the languages that we have, there is hardly any standard written form”.
The Minister in supporting the claim for the use of English as the medium of
instruction from primary one cited a dated experimental research by Rockwell
(1989) and indicated that children transfer from L2 to L1 better than the other
way round.
The Minister also pointed out that English is the lingua franca of the state and
that all effort must be put in to ensure that children acquire the right level of
competence in both the spoken and written forms of the language.
The new policy was reversed in 2007, a year before the New Patriotic Party ended its second
4-year mandate. It then became lawful to use Ghanaian language as medium of instruction
from Primary One to Primary Three and English studied as a subject of study from Primary
One and as medium of instruction from Primary Four. Currently, the policy mandates the use
of L1 as medium of instruction from KG to Primary 3.
A critical study of the history of bilingual education in Ghana is presented in the table below:
Table 1: A diagrammatic representation of the policy from the pre-colonial era to
the present.
PERIOD KG 1st YEAR 2nd YEAR 3rd YEAR 4th YEAR +
1925-1951 - + + + -
1951- 1955 - + - - -
 1956- 1966 - - - - -
1967- 1969 - + - - -
1970- 1973 + + + +
1974-2002 - + + + -
(Sept)
2002-2007 - - - - -
2007- Present + + + +

Key : + = use of Ghanaian language as medium of instruction.

- = Ghanaian not used
The table above illustrates that: from 1925 to 1951, Ghanaian language was used as medium
of instruction for the first three years; from 1951 to 1956, it was used only for the first year,
from 1957-1966, it was not used at all; from 1967 to 1969 it was used only for the first year,
from 1970 to 1974 it was used for the first three years and where possible beyond. From 1974
to May 2002 the Ghanaian language was used for the first three years. From 2002 to 2007, the
use of L1 as medium of instruction from P1 was outlawed. This policy was criticized so much
that in 2007 it was changed to the use of L1 as medium of instruction from P1 to P3. With the
inclusion of KG in the regular educational system, the use of L1 as medium of instruction now
begins from the Kindergarten (KG).

L1 AND CHILDREN'S
UNIT 22
LITERACY DEVELOPMENT

Introduction

This unit takes a look at L1 (first language) and the development of literacy among
children. It begins with the definition of concepts like L1, home language, and mother
tongue. Besides, the argument for the use of L1 and L2 as medium of instruction is also
discussed. The relevance of using L1 in literacy development among children is also
discussed. The mythical arguments against the use of L1 as medium of instruction are
critically looked at. The challenges of using L1 and ways of improving the use of L1
in schools as medium of instruction, especially in literacy development are discussed.

Definition of Concepts

The concepts mother tongue, first language, home language, L1, and native language
are sometimes misinterpreted. As Olivier (2011) notes, it is difficult to determine which
language used by multilinguals is actually the person's mother tongue. Skutnabb-
Kangas (1988) proposes that when trying to determine a speaker's “mother tongue”, it
is important to distinguish between four aspects: origin (which language was acquired
first), competence (which language the speaker knows the best), function (which
language the speaker uses the most) and identification (which language is used to
associate with or disassociate from others). It is evident that a speaker may have more
than one mother tongue and that the mother tongue can change during the lifetime.
Following this definition, it is obvious that the term first language is insufficient as it
only relates to origin, but the bilinguals' chronological first language may not be their
dominant language. The following are some definitions:

- L1 – It is also referred to as first language. It refers to the language a

person learns from birth.

- Mother tongue – It is one's first language; it is used for the language

that a person learnt at home (usually from his parents)

- Home language is the language acquired by the child through

immersion at

186
 home, usually the language the child knows best before going through child
care or school. In this situation, the home language is seen here as the
first language but currently there are some few homes in Ghana where
the home language is a foreign language (e.g. English).

The relevance of mother tongue in literacy development of Children

There are many educational, social, and affective advantages of developing literacy in
the home language and, conversely, there are detrimental effects of home language-
literacy neglect. Research has shown that alphabet knowledge and phonological
awareness are strong predictors of successful literacy development in children
(Lonigan, Burgess, & Anthony, 2000; Wagner et al., 1997).

- Phonological awareness is the ability to manipulate language at the

phonological level, that is, to reflect on the component sounds of spoken words,
rather than on their meanings (Goswami, 2000). Performance on measures of
phonological awareness in kindergarten has been shown to predict success in
reading, even in the later elementary school years (Anthony & Lonigan, 2004;
Kirby, Parrila, & Pfeiffer, 2003; Schatschneider, Fletcher, Francis, Carlson, &
Foorman, 2004). Research has proven that phonological awareness in the native
language (L1) predicts successful literacy acquisition in both L1 and a second
language (L2) (Gottardo, 2002; Quiroga, Lemos-Britton, Mostafapour, Abbott,
& Berninger, 2001). In other words, phonological awareness skills developed
in L1 transfer to L2 and facilitate L2 literacy development. This is underpinned
by the psychological principle that we learn from known to unknown.
Phonological awareness skills developed in one language can transfer to
another language, even while those skills are still in the process of being
developed (Cisero & Royer, 1995). This becomes more probable when the two
languages are similar phonologically. This is the case of most Ghanaian
languages and English. The strong link between L1 phonological awareness and
L2 reading success suggests that efforts to develop literacy skills in L1 will
 translate into facility with L2 literacy development and that children will benefit
from native language scaffolding as they learn to read in a second language.

- Use of a familiar language (L1) to teach beginning literacy facilitates an

understanding of sound-symbol or meaning-symbol correspondence. Learning
to read is most efficient when children know the language and can employ
psycholinguistic guessing strategies. In contrast, the use of L2 may succeed in
teaching children to decode words in the L2, but it can take years before they
discover meaning in what they are reading.

- Transfer of linguistic and cognitive skills is facilitated in bilingual programs.

Once students have basic literacy skills in the L1 and communicative skills in
the L2, they can begin reading and writing in the L2, efficiently transferring the
literacy skills they have acquired in the familiar language (L1). The pedagogical
principles behind this positive transfer of skills are Cummins' (1991; 1999)
interdependence theory and the concept of common underlying proficiency,
whereby the knowledge of language, literacy and concepts learned in the L1
can be accessed and used in the second language once oral L2 skills are
developed, and no re-learning is required (Benson, 2005).

- The affective domain, involving confidence, self-esteem and identity, is

strengthened by use of the L1, increasing motivation and initiative as well as
creativity. L1 classrooms allow children to be themselves and develop their
personalities as well as their intellects, unlike L2 situations where they are
forced to sit silently or repeat mechanically which leads to frustration and
ultimately repetition, failure and dropout.

Argument for the use L1 as Medium of Instruction

Linguists, psychologists, and educators acknowledge that the use of children's L1 in

education has immense repercussion on their success in education. The use of children's
L1/mother tongue to start their education is seen to be emotionally, psychologically,
linguistically and academically beneficial (UNESCO, 1953).

- Psychosocial Perspective
L1 use at the initial stages of education improves children's psychosocial adjustment
and fosters children's self-confidence and encourages them to be active and competent
learners (Appel, 1988; Cummins, 1990, Wright & Taylor, 1995). L1 use promotes
smooth transition between home and school, enhances emotional and cognitive
stability and makes children learn better and faster and retain knowledge longer (Kioko,
Mutiga, Muthwii, Schroeder, Inyega & Trudell, 2008). Have you ever thought of how
nervous parents are when they initially send their children to school? Do you envisage
how high the nervousness level rises when the teacher speaks a language which is
unfamiliar to the child? Do you also
comprehend the emotional trauma the child goes through because of the new school
environment, the strange nature of the teacher and the strange language the teacher
uses? Such situations destabilize the emotional and psychological nature of the child.
These stressful situations will be mitigated if the language used is familiar to the child
where he can express himself/herself to satisfy his/her needs. If proper mitigation
process is not put in place, children may drop out at the initial stages and this may have
a lasting effect on the child throughout his education.

- Literacy Development

From the perspective of literacy development, recent research has shown that, for
English language learners, phonological awareness in the native language (L1) predicts
successful literacy acquisition in both L1 and a second language (L2) (Gottardo, 2002;
Quiroga, Lemos-Britton, Mostafapour, Abbott, & Berninger, 2001). In other words,
phonological awareness skills developed in the L1 (a language which is familiar to the
child) transfer to L2 and facilitate L2 literacy development.

- Pedagogical Perspective

Again, arguing from the classroom teaching-learning perspective, the use of L1 as

language of instruction increases motivation and initiative as well as creativity
(Benson, 2005). It also promotes active participation and involvement of learners in the
teaching learning process (Andoh-Kumi, 2001; Owu-Ewie & Edu-Buandoh, 2014), and
ensures increased parents participation in their children' education (Cummins 2000;
Dutcher, 1995). It makes the teachers' work at the lower primary level less stressful and
very easy. The cumbersome process of explaining concepts to children in English is
removed. Have you thought of how laborious it is for teachers to explain concepts to
children who have no idea of the language the teacher is using? Have you also thought
of how teachers struggle to explain concepts to children because they (teachers) are not
proficient in the L2 which is the language of instruction? It is pedagogically reasonable
for teachers to use the language they are proficient in and that which is familiar to the
children. The 2002 Anamuah-Mensah Education Review Committee recommended the
use of L1 as Medium of instruction at the lower primary because of its pedagogic
implications. The use of a familiar language in education among others is a factor to
retaining children in school and making them love school.

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 - Cultural/Social Identity perspective

Bialystok (2001a) argues that the language we speak is instrumental in forming our
identity, and being required to speak a language that is not completely natural may
interfere with the child's construction of self (p.5) and may impinge on the child's
ability in establishing ethnic and cultural affiliations. Furthermore, literacy in the home
language enables the home traditions and culture to be accessed, reproduced, and
transmitted (Clyne, 1991; Fishman, 1991; Oriyama, 2011). It may thus encourage in-
group affiliation, positive self-esteem, the vision and worldview of one's heritage
culture, self-identity, and intellectual empathy. High self-esteem may result in better
performance in English in the long run. Studies have shown positive correlations
between self-esteem and academic success (Makin, et al., 1995; Wright

- Taylor, 1995). Conversely, allowing children to develop skills to maintain and

expand their home language and to access the cultural heritage of their parents and
grandparents may enhance community cohesion and may foster acceptance and
understanding of cultural diversity.

People who support a monolingual agenda often base their arguments on the myth of
“one nation–one language,” or, in other terms, in the mistaken belief that
monolingualism is a crucial prerequisite to social cohesion (Lo Bianco, 2003). They
argue that if groups retain their cultures and languages, they will be less likely to
identify with the mainstream culture and thus will become disengaged from the society
and state. As has been noted, however, minority language oracy without literacy can
disempower children and lead to language shift and assimilation. Assimilation, in
addition to eliminating cultural richness in society, can result in lowered self-esteem,
poor self-concept and cultural alienation (Olivier, 2011).

- Human Right Perspective

From the Linguistic Human Right perspective, every child has the inalienable right to
education and that that education should be in the L1 or mother tongue of the child
(The Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights, 1996). It is for these reasons that
UNESCO (1953; 2008) has encouraged the use of mother tongue (L1) instruction in
early childhood and primary education.

It is in line with the pedagogic, literacy, psychosocial and Human Rights implications
that Ghana has a language policy of education which mandates the use of L1 as medium
of instruction (MoI) from KG-P3.

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Argument for L2 use as MoI Instruction

- Research is conclusive on the fact that the use of an unfamiliar language (L2)
in education at the initial stages has negative effects on academic performance
and educational success. When children start school they find themselves in an
environment which is different from their home; the classroom, classmates and
the teacher who is also strange to them (Kioko, 2015). This new and strange
environment of the school destabilizes the child emotionally, socially and
psychologically. The situation becomes even more complex when children are
barred from using the language they are used to in their day-to-day interaction
and then replaced with a foreign/second language as means of instruction and
communication. This results in the suppression of the learners' potential and
right to express themselves freely. This phenomenon kills the enthusiasm of
children to learn, inhibits their creativity, and makes learning intimidating
(Cummins, 2000).

- The use of unfamiliar language in education (at least at the lower level) violates
the structure of thinking and thus serves as a barrier to smooth communication
and discussion in the classroom (Mekonnen, 2009 citing Brock-Utne, 2000). In
a more practical way, the use of L2 at the initial stages of education increases
the burden on teachers (Ball, 2010; Kioko, 2015). Lastly, the use of an
unfamiliar language in education among others is a factor to school dropout
(Ntumwa & Rwambali, 2013; Sabates, Akyeampong, Westbrook & Hunt,
2010; Colclough, et. al., 2000; King & Schielmann, 2004; Brock-Utne &
Halmdottir, 2004; Global Campaign for Education, n.d; O-saki & Obeleagu,
2004).

Mythical arguments against the use of L1 in schools in Ghana

There are mythical arguments against the use of L1 in schools, especially at the lower
primary level. The following are some mythical arguments used against the use of L1
as MoI:

- It is argued that the L1 cannot be used to express modern concepts in education.

It is also argued that the use of L1 and L2 confuses children so the L1 should
 be pushed aside for L2. These assertions are not supported by any empirical
research. Cummins (2000) and Thomas and Collier (2002) are of a contrary
opinion that the more highly developed the L1 skills of the child, the better their
results in the L2.

- It is also argued that parents and teachers want their children to be educated in
the L2 which is supposedly argued to be the best language of education.
However, research

191
 has proven that when parents are educated on the benefits of L1 use in education
and presented with appropriate options to select from, they overwhelming opt
for L1 and L2 rather than an all-L2 (Andoh-Kumi, 2001; CAL, 2001). Recent
data from the 2014 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey indicates that 56%
of parents want their children to be educated in both L1 and English. It must be
noted that the L2 to us is an L1 to someone else. While there are many factors
involved in quality basic education delivery, language is clearly the key to
communication and understanding in the classroom (Benson, 2004) and must
therefore be given the utmost attention in education. There is no doubt that
starting children's education in the L1 enhances academic success and quality
education but implementing policies to bring to the fore the use of L1 as MoI
especially at the lower primary level is strongly impeded by poor
implementation plans.

- The defeatist argument always used against the use of L1 to develop literacy at
least at the lower primary classroom is the multilingual nature of Ghana and its
classrooms. We need as a nation to find various ways of implementing the
current language policy of education in Ghana which uses the child's L1 as
medium of instruction. We need to learn from more multilingual countries that
have succeeded in this endeavor. We need to take a sociolinguistic mapping of
our lower primary classroom and see which languages are represented in which
classroom and in which district.

- It is also argued that when teachers are posted to their language area/locality to
teach at the lower primary level it will bring about divisiveness in the country
which will work against the vision of integrating the various ethnic groups in
Ghana. This assertion too is a myth. Then parents should not be allowed to take
care of their children but be sent to people in other ethnic group to nurture them.
Children need a familiar person at the early stages of education to be able to
adjust to the schooling system. Starting with an unfamiliar person is detrimental
to the child's initial school adjustment. From primary three onwards, the
Ghanaian child encounters many teachers from different languages or ethnic
groups which will ensure the type of integration we need. Starting children's
education in English at the early stages also can make the Ghanaian child have
a negative attitude towards his/her culture and country. We will be teaching our
children to be aliens to their own culture and

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 country.

- There is the myth that foreign (L2) is often seen as necessary for further
education, work and other opportunities, yet as Phillipson (1992) points out this
has not happened in a political vacuum but is the result of deliberate promotion
by powerful countries or groups of their respective languages.

- There is also the myth that bilingualism causes confusion and that the first
language must be pushed aside so that the second language can be learned.
Research evidence to date shows the opposite to be true: the more highly
developed the first language skills, the better the results in the second language,
because language and cognition in the second language builds on the first
language (Cummins 1999, 2000; Ramirez et al. 1991; Thomas & Collier 2002).

Challenges of developing literacy using the L1

The development of literacy in general and in the L1 in particular has challenges. The
following are some challenges:

- Limited or no training of language teachers, especially for early grade level in

direct teaching of literacy
- Lack of literacy materials in the L1, especially at the early grade level (and
even in the L2)
- Insufficient literacy specialists in the country

- Negative attitudes towards the development of literacy in the L1

- Lack of institutional and governmental support

- Children come from homes where literacy development is not a common

practice

- Lack of training in assessing literacy, especially at the early grade level.

Improving the development of Literacy in the L1

Literacy which is a priceless treasure in education is being spilled into the dirt. We need
to salvage it and give it a nice wash and let it take its proper place in language
development in particular and in education in general. We need to make effort in
improving the development of literacy in the L1. The following are some strategies we
can use to develop literacy in the L1:

- Training of teachers at the pre-service level for the early grade should
put emphasis on how to develop the literacy skills of learners in the L1.
The same should be done for practicing teachers.

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 - Literacy in teacher training should be decoupled from language teaching for
much attention. In the current arrangement, the content aspect is emphasized
to the neglect of language teaching pedagogy.

- There is the need to conduct literacy teaching induction programs for

beginning teachers and teacher aides.
- Teachers should be trained in appropriate assessment strategies to track
literacy development of children and provide the necessary remedy.
- Assessment at the early grade level (lower primary) should be conducted in
the L1 and not in the L2 because it does not make any pedagogic sense to teach
a child in one language and assess him in another language.
- Teachers should be trained in using effective approaches to develop literacy
in the L1 at the lower primary level.
- There is the need to develop and implement standards for literacy in the
curriculum.
- We should use the 'flood book' approach to have our children have access to
reading materials. We need to produce more supplementary readers in the L1.
- Provide opportunity for children to read in their L1

- Government should support NGOs in developing literacy in the L1

- There should be intense L1 literacy advocacy to educate parents on the need

to develop children's literacy in the L1.
- Parents should be encouraged to use the L1 at home as a means of promoting
the oracy skills of their children in the L1.
LITERACY
UNIT 19
DEVELOPMENT

Introduction

This chapter deals with literacy development among children. It begins with the
definition of literacy and the various stages of literacy development and the
components of each stage. The chapter also discusses the various components of
literacy and balanced literacy and its components. The chapter ends with the
importance of literacy development.

What is literacy?

Reading and writing are critical skills and a large part of literacy but having these two
skills are not enough to make one literate. Literacy is the ability, confidence, and
willingness to engage with language to acquire, construct and communicate meaning
in daily living. Literacy is traditionally understood as the ability to read, write, and use
arithmetic. So we have literacy in Mathematics as numeracy. In a contemporary and a
more encapsulated way, the key to literacy is reading development, a progression of
skills that begins with the ability to understand spoken words and decode written words,
and ends in the deep understanding of text. Reading development involves a range of
complex language underpinnings including awareness of speech sounds (phonology),
spelling patterns (orthography), word meaning (semantics), grammar (syntax) and
patterns of word formation (morphology), all of which provide a necessary platform
for reading fluency and comprehension. From the academic perspective the definition
of Literacy has evolved from the focus on reading and writing to include competence,
knowledge and skills (Dubin & Kuhlman, 1992).

Literacy stands for know-how and awareness of the first word in the expression. Take,
for example, common expressions such as language literacy, computer literacy, civic
literacy, health literacy, digital literacy, information literacy, visual literacy, cultural
literacy, media literacy, etc. but for this discussion we will see literacy as competency
in reading and writing. This implies that comprehension and use of written text is
central to literacy. To be literate therefore is to be able to gather and to construct
meaning using written language. Foley

157
(1994) indicates that the term 'literacy' refers to the mastery of language, in both its
spoken and written forms, which enables an individual to use language fluently for a
variety of purposes. Literacy is crucial to academic success. It is an every-century skill
that all must possess; literacy is pivotal to all learning. Helping someone to read and
write effectively improves the future of everyone in society. Literacy is critical to
economic development as well as individual and community well-being. In this book,
literacy is seen as the ability to read, comprehend and write fluently.

Stages of Literacy Development

The key to literacy is reading development, a progression of skills that begins with the
ability to understand spoken words and decode written words, and culminates in the
deep understanding of text. Literacy development like first language acquisition is the
same for all children but other children reach some stages before others. The stages are
also not discrete; they overlap. The passage of children through successive stages of
literacy, in each of which the reading and writing tasks change qualitatively and the
role of the instructor has to change accordingly. It is important to know these stages as
language teachers because

- It guides our instruction. It prevents us from wasting our time teaching

something the child has clearly mastered or start working on a concept that is
way above them.

- To make learning meaningful to the child. We want to zone in on what the child
needs to know right now. This means that what we are teaching the children is
a little out of their reach by themselves, but attainable if we step in and guide
them. This is also known as the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) from
Vygotsky.

The stages of literacy development have been described somehow differently by

different authors but the characteristics are virtually the same. Others see the stages as
Stage 1: Emergent Literacy (Readers and spellers), Stage 2: Developing Literacy
(Alphabetic Readers and spellers), Stage 3: Word Pattern Readers and spellers, Stage
4: Intermediate Readers and spellers and Stage 5: Advanced Readers and spellers. Yet
others indicate that the stages are Stage 0 (pre-reading), Stage 1 (Initial reading, writing
and decoding), Stage 2 (Confirmation and fluency), Stage 3 (Reading to learning new
words), Stage 4 (synthesizing information and applying multiple perspectives) and
Stage 5 (critical literacy in work and society). Some other writers refer to the stages as
Beginning literacy, Early Intermediate Literacy, Intermediate Literacy and Early
Advanced Literacy. Though these classifications

158
are seen with different headings/stages, their conceptions are the same. In this book,
the following stages will be used (The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education,
2016):

- Stage 0: Foundation for literacy

- Stage 1: Beginning literacy

- Stage 2: Consolidation/Fluency

- Stage 3: Literacy for growth

- Stage 0: Foundation for literacy: This stage is also referred to as emergent

Literacy (readers and spellers). This stage emerges at Pre-school through
Kindergarten. At the earliest stages of literacy development it is important to
introduce young children to the wonders and power of the printed word –
sharing the delights of books and showing how language can be written down
with letters. This foundational stage normally begins at home and extends into
the earliest years of school. Therefore parents, early childhood educators, and
Pre-KG teachers should do much to prepare young children for reading and
writing through shared book experiences designed to facilitate children's
understanding of the connections between oral language and print. At this stage
children learn that reading and writing are activities in which people engage in.
The components of foundation for literacy are indicated in the diagram below
Culled from:
www.oise.utoronto.ca/balancedliteracydiet/stages_of_literacy_development

159
 The following are some characteristics of children at this stage:

- Show interest in books, print

- Handle books

- Become aware that books have stories

- Listen to stories

- Recites phrases and/or stories

- Begin to prefer certain stories

- Scribble, make letter-like shapes or imitate cursive writing

- Understand that text/pictures convey meaning

- Make the connection between signed or spoken language and print

- Understand picture books

- Recognize and begin to read familiar environmental print

- Begin to read some words, such as their name

- May write letters

Some foundations for literacy (Emergent literacy) activities are as follows:

Foundation for literacy (emergent literacy) lessons may focus on one emergent literacy
skill or blend them. Below are examples of foundation for literacy games and activities
that each focus primarily on one foundation for literacy skill.

- Building vocabulary

Sorting games can help children build vocabulary skills by asking them
to identify defining characteristics of the items being sorted. One such
game can be bag-sorting game in which each child takes his school bag.
The children work together to sort the bags by different characteristics,
thus building vocabulary related to color, types of fasteners, material
used etc. Students will learn new words/vocabulary from the game. For
 example, by color students will learn words like black, pink, gray, red,
green, blue, white, navy-blue etc. and by material used as polyester,
cotton, plastic, sassie etc. This activity can be used for other objects such
as exercise books, shoes etc.

- Letter recognition

Letter recognition games help children learn the letters of the alphabet.
In one simple game, the teacher writes each letter of the alphabet on a
separate card and passes them out to students. The students then have to
arrange

160
 themselves in alphabetical order.

- Phonological awareness

One type of phonological awareness game involves rhyming, which helps

children identify similar sounds in words. In one rhyming game, the teacher
can present three different "consonant-vowel-consonant" words and ask
children which word does not rhyme. For example, cat, log, and dog. Other
activities include: songs and chants; word play, games, rhymes and riddles;

storybooks, poetry, nursery rhymes, Oral Storytelling; Clapping, jumping,

and manipulating letters Everything should be playful, engaging,
interactive, social, deliberate, and purposeful, stimulate curiosity, and
encourage experimentation with language and comprehensive language
and literacy programs.

 Print awareness

Print awareness is a child's understanding of the parts of a book and how a

book works. There can be an activity in which a child shares the parts of a
book with a teacher. For example, the teacher could ask the child to point
out different parts of the book and its contents, such as the front cover; the
title; the first line of the book; a word; a letter; and the back cover.

- Stage 2: Beginning Literacy: This stage is also referred to as developing literacy

or alphabetic readers and spellers. This stage is when children/learners move from
learning about reading and writing to actually doing it. At this point they need to
learn how the system works and must be taught more explicitly and systematically
how individual letters and letter groupings represent a code. This helps learners to
decode (read) words by blending sounds together and to encode (spell) words by
identifying sounds in spoken words and representing them in print. They code to
write down anything they can say (sometimes using “inventive spellings”) and read
 back what they and others have written. They need to be given appropriately
selected “leveled” books that combine decodable and high frequency words. This
makes them confident readers. The following diagram shows the components of
the beginning stage

Culled from:
www.oise.utoronto.ca/balancedliteracydiet/stages_of_literacy_development

At this stage children are (able to)

 Aware that words are made of different sounds

 Decode words (apply knowledge of letter-sound relationships to

correctly pronounce written words)

 Comprehend picture books, short chapter books, information materials

  Begin to have knowledge of sight vocabulary/words

 Put words together to form simple sentences

 Learn to develop ideas in a logical progression

 Write about topics of personal interest in various modes (e.g. letters,

stories, notes, poems)

- Stage 2: Consolidation/Fluency (early elementary/upper primary): This stage

is sometimes referred to as Early Independent Literacy or Word Pattern
Readers and Spellers. This stage is when students must consolidate what they
learned in Stage 1 and be able to apply their skills with less effort. Until they
achieve some fluency, reading and writing represent work for students. Students
should be given opportunities to do extensive reading to build reading fluency
and expression. It is important that what they read is interesting and not too
challenging. At this stage reading aloud to a partner is an effective way to build
fluency. With writing, students
need to have many opportunities to practice: the more they write the easier it gets.
The diagram below shows the various components of the consolidation/fluency
stage.

Components of the consolidation/fluency stage

Learners at this stage

 Begin to read for interest or information

 Write own ideas

  Answer questions about text

 Read independently for extended periods of time

 Use detail and organization in writing

 Record observations; ask and answer open-ended questions in writing

 Produce writing and artwork to reflect personal response

to/understanding of text

- Stage 3: Literacy for Growth (Independent Reading): Stages 0, 1 and 2 build

students' competence and confidence as readers and writers. In Stage 3, they
extend and apply their literacy skills. They use reading and writing as a means
of acquiring new information, conducting research, reflecting on issues and
communicating about deeper thoughts and feelings. At this point, instruction in
more complex reading comprehension and written composition strategies will
advance their sophistication as readers and writers. At this stage, learners use
reading and writing

163
 to grow their intellect. The diagram below shows the components of this stage

At this stage learners exhibit the following characteristics:

Culled from:
www.oise.utoronto.ca/balancedliteracydiet/stages_of_literacy_development

- Decreasing support for new tasks or contexts from teachers and others
- Experience new feelings/attitudes through reading

- Reading for information/acquisition of knowledge

- Increased comprehension

- Self-correct quickly

- Read confidently and independently in multiple modes of text

- Written work is organized, coherent and easily understood

- Expanding Literacy (late elementary and secondary)

- Reading for information/acquisition of knowledge

- Analyze and think critically about ideas presented in text

- Form own opinions based on facts, invent point of view different from
those read

- Read widely, critically and frequently

- Read for a variety of purposes and in a variety of modes

- Can read analytically and thoughtfully

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 - Write for a variety of reasons and in diverse modes

Components of Literacy Development

Literacy development is made of some essential components. Teachers therefore need

to know and understand these components to make use of them in their literacy lessons.
The components are

- Oral Language

- Phonological Awareness

- Phonemic Awareness

- Word Study/Identification

- Phonic

- Composition

- Comprehension

- Vocabulary

- Fluency

- Automaticity

In the order of importance, the components are discussed below:

- Oral Language

A fundamental element of (reading) literacy is the development of oral language.

Teachers encourage students' language development through informal and guided
conversation, by asking questions, and by providing opportunities for students to
explain their learning or thinking. Teachers model and discuss vocabulary and formal
English grammar while reading, writing, or sharing experiences, without correcting or
evaluating students' speech patterns.
 - Phonological Awareness

Developing literacy requires an awareness that the spoken language can be taken apart
in many different ways: sentences broken into words, words divided into syllables
(sis/ter), and syllables divided into smaller, individual sounds (phonemes) such as /b/
/a/ /t/. Words can also be separated into onsets and rimes /b/ /at/. Phonological
awareness includes knowledge of rhyming, alliteration (hearing similarity of sounds,
as in "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers"), and intonation. Assessment of
phonological awareness should focus on

165
student's ability to play with parts of words in the following ways: segmentation,
blending, deleting and substitution. The word play occurs at different levels of
complexity:

•Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness is one small part of phonological awareness. It is the knowledge

of words at the level of individual sounds – how to segment, blend, or manipulates
individual sounds in words. Spoken words are made up of individual sounds
(phonemes) that can be heard and manipulated. For example, the word bat has three
phonemes, and trot has four. Phonemic awareness activities include listening for,
counting, and identifying distinct sounds (not letter names); hearing, matching, adding,
chopping off, or rearranging sounds; and separating or blending sounds to make words
(Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001). Phonemic awareness can be taught explicitly or
indirectly through games, manipulative activities, chanting, and reading and singing
songs and poems.

- Word Study/Identification
Word study or word identification refers to the strategies or skills readers use to figure
out words when reading and spelling. Word identification includes phonic analysis,
structural analysis, context clues, sight word recognition, use of configuration, and
picture clues. Strategies readers use to identify words include the following:

- Recognizing or identifying whole words that follow irregular spelling patterns

(sometimes called "sight words"), like have, their, or of; recognizing high-
frequency words that appear in early texts, like and, for, and this.

- Using configuration clues. Sometimes the distinct shapes of words can help
readers figure them out. Elephant is a long word, and unusual in its shape; up is
a little word. Because many words have the same shape, readers cannot rely
solely on configuration.

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 - Recognizing the formation of words (also called morphology or structural
analysis). Beginning readers need to be taught to identify and understand the
meaning of word parts (roots, prefixes, and suffixes). For example, begin with
simple words such as sing and sing-ing, and then move to more complex words
like respect and dis-respect-ful.

- Using context clues. Good readers think about the meaning of what they are
reading and use their understanding of the surrounding words, sentences, or
even paragraphs to help them read an unfamiliar word.

- For English language learners, using cognates, words that are similar in two
languages. Sometimes this strategy needs to be explicitly encouraged, as
English language learners may not use cognates spontaneously. For example,
skuul in Fante and school in English are cognates.

- Phonics

Phonics is sometimes referred to as sound/symbol connections, or graphophonics.

Phonics is the understanding of how letters or spelling patterns (graphemes) represent
sounds of speech (phonemes). It involves awareness of the sounds of individual letters
or letter combinations (Savage, 2001). Phonics requires the understanding that sounds
can be blended to make a word, and a mastery of some rules about certain sound
patterns (Yopp, & Yopp, 2000). . Phonics can be taught in many ways. All learners do
not require the same amount or sequence of phonics instruction. Phonics should be
balanced with instruction on language and meaning. A student may be able to sound
out a word, but not understand its meaning. In order to read with accuracy and
understanding, words to be read must be part of a student's oral language.

- Composition

It is the process of arranging ideas to form a clear and unified impression and to create
an effective message (Harris & Hodges, 1995). Purposes for writing include describing,
sharing feelings and thoughts, expressing opinions, and creating a story or narrative.

- Comprehension
Finding and constructing meaning in a text is the reason for reading. If readers can read
the words but do not understand what they are reading, they are not really reading.
Comprehension comes from engaging with ideas and constructing a sense of the whole.

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Students who are good at monitoring their comprehension know when they understand
what they read and when they do not. Research shows that instruction, even in the early
grades, can help students become better at monitoring their comprehension and
developing strategies to build understanding. Explicit modeling and instruction can
help students be aware of what they do understand; identify what they do not
understand; and use appropriate strategies to resolve problems in comprehension.
Teachers build students' comprehension by predicting, asking questions, helping
students access background knowledge, and making connections during read-alouds,
shared reading, or in guided-reading groups. (The Partnership for Reading, 2001)

- Vocabulary

Vocabulary encompasses the words we must know to communicate effectively,

including oral or reading vocabulary. Oral vocabulary includes words we use when
speaking or words we recognize when listening. Reading vocabulary includes words
we recognize or use in print. Students learn the meanings of most words indirectly
through their experiences and conversations with each other and adults in school and
their communities. They also develop vocabulary as they read on their own and listen
to adults/teachers read aloud.

- Fluency

Fluency is the ability to read text accurately and quickly. During silent reading, fluent
readers recognize words automatically and group them so they can understand what
they read. Fluent readers do not concentrate on decoding words. Instead they focus
their attention on what the text means. In short, fluent readers recognize and
comprehend words at the same time and their reading is effortless and expressive.
Shared reading with the teacher and classmates, and repeated readings of text help
beginning readers develop fluency (Vacca, Vacca, &. Gove, 2000).

- Automaticity

Fast, effortless and accurate word recognition grows out of repetition and practice.
Automaticity does not refer to reading with expression or evidence of comprehension.
Games and activities using lists of high frequency words, personal word lists, and word
walls help students develop automaticity. Automaticity allows a student to concentrate
more on other aspects of reading, such as comprehension.

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What is Balanced Literacy?

A Balanced literacy program uses both whole language and phonics. It came to the fore in the
1990s as a reaction to the extreme use of Whole language and Phonic approaches to developing
literacy. The components of a balanced literacy approach are as follows: read aloud, guided
reading, shared reading, interactive writing, shared writing, reading workshop, writing workshop
and word study (Mermelstein, 2013). Balanced literacy includes balancing the following 3
important components when teaching reading and writing: 1- teacher models (I do), 2- Teacher
supports learners as they practice it (we do) and 3- Learners work independently (you do). Find
below the components of balanced readingImportance of Early Literacy

Research shows that students who do not read proficiently by the end of third grade are four times
more likely to drop out of high school than their peers who are proficient readers. It is therefore
critical to help young children be ready for school by working with them to develop early literacy
and learning skills. Children who have been read to at home come to school with important early
literacy skills. They are prepared to learn to read and write. Literacy is the gateway to successful
education so all effort must be channeled to promoting literacy at the early grade level.