CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Strength of Materials

In the mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load
without failure or rupture. The field of strength of materials deals with internal forces and
deformations that result from external loads applied on a member. A load applied to a mechanical
member will induce internal forces within the member called stresses when those forces are
expressed on a unit basis. The stresses acting on the material cause deformation of the material in
various manners including breaking them completely. Deformation of the material is called strain
when those deformations too are placed on a unit basis.
The applied loads may be axial (tensile or compressive), transverse, and/or torsional.
 Axial loadings – The applied forces are collinear with the longitudinal axis of the member.
The forces cause the member to either stretch or shorten.
 Transverse loadings – Forces applied perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a member.
Transverse loading causes the member to bend and deflect from its original
position. Transverse loading also induces shear forces that cause shear deformation of the
material and increase the transverse deflection of the member.
 Torsional loadings – Twisting action caused by a pair of externally applied equal and
oppositely directed force couples acting on parallel planes or by a single external couple
applied to a member that has one end fixed against rotation.
1.2 Mechanical Properties of Materials

The mechanical properties of a material are those properties that involve a reaction to an applied
load. It determines the range of usefulness of a material and establish the service life that can be
expected. Mechanical properties are also used to help classify and identify material. The most
common material properties considered are strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility,
brittleness, hardness, impact resistance (toughness), malleability. etc.

1.2.1 Strength

Strength of the materials refers to the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces
without breaking or yielding. The maximum load that any material withstands before destructive
or failure is called its ultimate strength. Whereas the maximum load that any material withstands
just before it starts plastic deformation is called its Yield strength.
 Tensile Strength - This is the ability of a material to withstand tensile (stretching) loads
without rupture occurring.

 Compressive strength - This is the ability of a material to withstand compressive

 Shear Strength - This is the ability of a material to withstand offset or transverse loads
without rupture occurring. The rivet connecting the two bars shown is in shear whilst the
bars themselves are in tension. Note that the rivet would still be in shear if the bars were in
compression.

Rivet connecting the two bars in resisting shear

Rivet connecting the two bars has failed in shear

It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under load. Material which suffers slight
deformation under load has a high degree of stiffness or rigidity. Whereas those that undergo a
large amount of deformation are flexible (not stiff or not rigid).

Stiff/Rigid member Flexible/ Non rigid

1.2.3 Elasticity
This is the ability of a material to deform under load and return to its original size and shape when
the load is removed. A body with this ability is said to behave (or respond) elastically. To a greater
or lesser extent, most solid materials exhibit elastic behavior, but there is a limit to the magnitude
of the force and the accompanying deformation within which elastic recovery is possible for any
given material. This limit is called the elastic limit.

1.2.4 Plasticity
It is the ability of material to undergo some degree of permanent deformation without rupture or
failure. That means, it is the property of a material to deform permanently under the application of
a load. This property is the exact opposite of elasticity. It is the state of a material which has been
loaded beyond its elastic state. Under a load beyond that required to cause elastic deformation (the
elastic limit) a material possessing the property of plasticity deforms permanently. It takes a
permanent set and will not recover when the load is removed.
1.2.5 Ductility
This is the term used when plastic deformation occurs as the result of applying a tensile load. It is
mentioned as a capacity of a material to undergo a large plastic deformation under tension without
rupture. A ductile material combines the properties of a plasticity and tenacity (tensile strength) so
that it can be stretched or drawn to shape and will retain that shape when the deforming force is
removed. Ductility is usually measured by the terms, like percentage elongation and percentage
reduction in area.

1.2.6 Brittleness
Brittleness is a material property that describes its tendency to fracture with little to no plastic
deformation when load is applied to it. Breaking of a material with little permanent distortion
simply states the property of brittleness. Brittle materials when subjected to tensile loads snap off
without giving any sensible elongation usually the tensile strength of brittle materials is only a
fraction of their compressive strength. Examples of brittle materials are glass, bricks, cast iron etc
1.2.7 Malleability

This is the property of a material to deform permanently under the application of a compressive
load. It is the ability of materials to be rolled, flattened or hammered into thin sheets without
cracking by hot or cold working. Malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be
strong and malleability is considered as a compressive quality. Examples for malleability Al, Cu,
Sn, Pb, soft steel, wrought iron.

1.2.8 Hardness

This is the ability of a material to withstand scratching (abrasion) or indentation by another hard
body. It is an indication of the wear resistance of a material. Property of a material to resist
penetration by another material is known as hardness. It embraces many different properties such
as resistance to wear, scratching, deformation etc.. Hardness of materials can be meant like
resistance to abrasion, deformation or indentation.

1.2.9 Toughness: impact resistance

This is the ability of a material to resist shatter. If a material shatters it is brittle (e.g. glass). If it
fails to shatter when subject to an impact load it is tough (e.g. rubber). It is the ability of a material
to withstand bending without fracture due to high impact loads. It is also measured by the amount
of energy that a unit volume of the material has absorbed after being stressed up to failure point
and is the area under stress strain curve. For example, if a load is suddenly applied to a piece of
mild steel and then to a piece of glass, the mild steel will absorb much more energy before failure
occurs. Thus mild steel is said to be much tougher than a glass. This property is desirable in parts
subjected to shock and impact loads.