Lecture 1: Anatomical Terminology and Planes

Regions of the Body:

-head/neck -upper limb (extremity) -thorax, back, spine
-pelvis -lower limb (extremity)
-three major planes, all 90 degrees to another:
1. Median (Sagittal)
2. Coronal (Frontal)→several
3. Horizontal (Transversal)→several
-orthogonal = 90 degrees to each other

Terms:
-proximal: nearer to the body -distal: away from the body
-superior: higher in position -inferior: low or lower in position
-lateral: further away from the middle -medial: towards the middle
-superficial: on the skin or right beneath it -deep: far in from the surface (skin)
-anterior: nearer the front of the body -posterior: near the back of the body
-ventral: of, on, or relating to the abdominal -dorsal: relating to the upper side or back
-cranial: relating to skull or cranium -caudal: relating to the tail part of the body
-dorsiflex: bend towards the upper surface -plantar: relating to the sole of the foot
Axes of Rotation:
-flexion/extension: -internal (in)/external rotation (out)
-medial/lateral (M/L) axis -superior/inferior (SI) axis
-sagittal plane motion -transverse plane motion (like a door)
-abduction (away from midline)/adduction: (towards midline) -circumduction
-anterior/posterior (A/P) axis
-frontal plane motion

Lecture 2: Upper Extremity Bones

Upper Extremity Bones:
-clavicle -scapula -humerus -ulna
-radius -carpals -metacarpals -phalanges
Scapular Motions: ***on FRONTAL plane***
-elevation -depression -protraction -retraction -rotation -on frontal plane
Glenohumeral Joints:
● Ball and socket joint→designed for mobility, NOT stability
○ Superior humerus (ball)
○ Lateral scapula (socket)
Actions: ***glenoid labrum increases glenoid fossa depth
○ Flexion/extension (sagittal M/L)
○ Abduction/adduction (frontal Ant/Post.
○ IRot/ERot (Transverse Sup/Inf)

Sternoclavicular Joint:
 ● Saddle joint → convex (front to back), concave (side to side)
○ Medial clavicle
○ Superolateral sternum
Acromioclavicular Joint:
-lateral clavicle -superior scapula -gliding (plane) joint

Humeroulnar Joint:
-distal (inferior) humerus -articulation is when two bones come together
-proximal (superior) ulna→connects to the trochlea of the humerus
-hinge joint
-actions: flexion/extension (sagittal M/L,)
Humeroradial Joint:
-distal (inferior) humerus, capitulum is where the humerus articulates to the radius
-proximal (superior) radius
-hinge joint
-actions: -flexion/extension (sagittal M/L)
Elbow Joint:
-humerus+radius+ulna -proximal (superior) radius
-hinge joint
-actions: flexion/extension sagittal M/L, Frontal Ant/Pos, Transverse Sup/Inf
-clavicle is point of connection between axial and appendicular (limbs)
Radioulnar Joint:
-proximal/distal ulna, proximal/distal radius→both up by the elbow and down
by the wrist
-pivot joint→pronation/supination
-radius rotates about the ulna at distal aspect
-annular ligament
Radiocarpal Joint:
-condyloid joint (condyle fits into an elliptical cavity)
-radius articulates with scaphoid and lunate→greater ulnar deviation
(adduction) vs
radial deviation (abduction)
-actions: flexion/extension sagittal M/L abduction/adduction Frontal Ant/Pos
-circumduction is a combination of any two actions
Carpal Bones:
-from lateral to medial starting with the proximal row (thumb)
-scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate
→ “some lovers try positions that they can’t handle”
-metacarpals are numbered 1-5:base, shaft, head
Phalanges:
-1st digit has proximal and distal phalanx
-digits 2-5 have proximal, middle and distal phalanx
Metacarpophalangeal Joints:
-condyloid joint: one bone is concave, one is convex
 -convex metacarpal, concave phalanx
-actions: flexion/extension sagittal M/L, abduction/adduction, frontal Ant/Pos
Movements of the Thumb:
-1st CMC is a saddle joint→flexion/extension on a frontal plane and
abduction/adduction
on a sagittal plane, no rotation

Lecture 3: Lower Extremity Bones

Pelvic Bones:
-ilium, ischium, pubis
-acetabulum: socket of the hip joint
-very little movement
-sacrum is 5 vertebrae fused together
Acetabulum:
-translates to “vinegar cup”
-formed from all three bones of the hip
-articulates with head of femur→acetabular notch, acetabular fossa, lunate
surface
Hip Joint:
-acetabulum
-proximal (superior) femur
-ball and socket joint
-actions: flexion/extension sagittal plane M/L axis -IRot/ERot transverse plane Sup/Inf
axis -Abd/Add frontal plane Ant/Pos axis
Knee Joint:
-distal (inferior) femur, proximal (superior) tibia
-modified hinge (condyloid) joint because you can rotate when flexed
Patellofemoral Joint:
-distal (inferior) femur, patella
-sesamoid bone (formed as a response to stress)
-gliding joint (facilitates flexion and extension of knee)
-patella articulates within intercondylar groove of femur
-lateral facet is larger than medial
Tibiofibular Joint:
-proximal/distal fibula, proximal/distal tibia
-syndesmosis joint
-interosseous membrane→very little movement
Tarsals
-calcaneus -talus -cuboid -navicular -medial cuneiform
-intermediate cuneiform -lateral cuneiform
Arches of the Foot:
-medial longitudinal, lateral longitudinal, transverse
-navicular is the “keystone” of the medial longitudinal arch
 -cuboid is the “keystone” of the lateral longitudinal arch
-intermediate cuneiform is the “keystone” of the transverse arch

Talocrural Joint:
-talus+tibia+fibula
-hinge joint
Subtalar Joint:
-talus+calcaneus
-condyloid joint

Lecture 4: Axial Skeleton Bones and Joints

-7 Cervical, 12 Thoracic, 5 Lumbar, Sacrum (5 segments), Coccyx (4 segments)
-primary curvature→thoracic and sacral (convex)
-secondary curvature→cervical and lumbar (concave)
Abnormal Curvatures:
-Scoliosis: -side to side curvature
-both lateral curvature and rotation of the vertebra
-Kyphosis: -increased thoracic curvature
-Lordosis: -increased lordotic curvature
Spinal Landmarks:
-C2: first bony point
-C7: most prominent
-T8: bottom of sternum
-T12: bottom of ribs
-L4/5: top of iliac crest
-L5/S1: fusion of spinous processes
-lamina links the spinous process to the transverse process on both sides
-facets articulate to the facets above them
Cervical Spine:
-Transverse foramen: passage of vertebral arteries
-bifid spinous process
Axis and Atlas:
-Atlas (C1):
-no body (facet for dens)
-no disc
-occipital condyles
-Axis (C2):
-body=odontoid process
-no disc
Thoracic Spine:
-costal (rib) facets on body:
-facets T1, T10, T11 and T12
-demifacets T2-T9
-facets of transverse process
 -long, slender spinous process
Lumbar Spine:
-short, blunt spinous process
-thin transverse processes
-large vertebral body
-holds about two thirds of a person's body weight
Sacrum and Coccyx:
-sacrum is 5 fused vertebrae
-ala (wings) articulate with ilium
-coccyx is 4 fused vertebrae
-vestigial tail
-provides anchor for spinal cord
Intervertebral (IV) Joints:
-symphysis joint designed for weight bearing
-IV discs provide strong attachment between vertebrae
-act as shock absorbers
-annulus fibrosus
-nucleus pulposus
-IV Disc Pathology:
-annular tears
-disc herniation
Ligaments:
-Interspinous ligament: connects adjacent spinous processes
-Supraspinous ligament: connects tips of adjacent spinous processes
-Intertransverse ligament: connects adjacent transverse processes

Lecture 5 - Physiology:fr
-study of body function
-how body systems work together
-feeding, movement
-homeostasis
-adaptation to environment
Homeostasis
-keeping internal environment constant despite a changing external environment
-non-human example is a furnace or thermostat
-hypothalamus is the body’s control centre (receives input, controls hormones)
-what do we keep constant in the body?
-nutrients/waste -O2
-pH -water/electrolytes
-temperature -blood pressure
-blood volume
Control Pathways: Setpoints
-oscillation around the setpoint (negative feedback system)
Levels of Organization
 -Chemical
-molecules
-Cells
-basic unit of life
-Tissue
-4 types
-Organ
-Body Systemru
-Organism
Parts of a Cell
-the cell can be subdivided into 3 parts:
1. Plasma (cell) membrane
2. Cytoplasm
-cytosol
-organelles
3. Nucleus
-chromosomes
-genes
Nucleus
-cell replication and repair
-usually one per cell
-exceptions: red blood cells→no nucleus (so they can carry more
hemoglobin)
and muscle→multinucleated (so they repair themselves
faster)
Ribosomes
-make proteins
-either free or attached
-free ribosomes makes proteins for the cell (eg. muscle)
-attached ribosomes are attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum make proteins that
move out of the cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
-Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
-calcium storage (eg. muscle)
-steroid production (eg. ovaries)
-Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
-ribosomes attached
-protein production for export (eg. anterior pituitary)
Golgi Complex
-re-packages rough endoplasmic reticulum proteins into a vesicle that can leave the cell
-eg. anterior pituitary
Peroxisomes
-oxidative enzymes
-detoxify various waste products
 -eg. liver hepatocytes
Lysosomes
-sac of digestive enzymes
-used for repair and removal of foreign matter (eg. white blood cells)
Cytoskeleton
-complex protein network
-acts as “bone and muscle” of cell
-three distinct elements
-microtubules (transport secretory vessels, form mitotic spindle during cell
division)
-microfilaments (contractile systems, muscle, mechanical stiffeners)
-intermediate filaments (help resist mechanical stress, hair, skin)
Centrosomes/Centrioles
-structures of microtubules
Cilia and Flagella
-only flagellum in the human system is on sperm
-cilia lines the respiratory tract, they’re always moving fluids and stuff in one direction
-both are modified microtubules
Mitochondria
-energy organelle
-site of ATP production
-enzymes for TCA cycle and ETC
Cellular Diversity
-adult has approximately 100 trillion cells
-approximately 200 different types of cells
-variety of shapes and sizes
-differing lifespans
-organize into complex tissues and organs
-specialized functions of cells relate to:
-shape of cell
-arrangement of organelles
Aging and Cells
-as we age:
-our cells gradually deteriorate (lose function, can’t respond to stress)
-number of body cells goes down
-lose integrity of the extracellular components
-free radicals
Developmental Aspect of Cells
-aging effects
-free radical theory
-damage from byproducts of cellular metabolism
-radicals build up and damage essential molecules of cells
-mitochondrial theory
-a decrease in energy weakens cells
 -genetic theory
-proposes that aging is programmed by genes
-telomeres (“end caps”) on chromosomes
-telomerase (prevents telomeres from degrading)

The Cell Membrane:

-the pericardial membrane is a tissue that surrounds the heart
-plasma membrane structure
-physical barrier
-gateway for exchange
-communication
-cell structure
-phospholipids are water soluble
-phospholipids
-choline head
-polar
-fatty acid tails
-Non-polar
-Creates barrier for flow
-glycocalyx
-glycoproteins on surface of cell
-cell identity
-cell orientation
-barrier for growth
-membrane proteins
-two types
-integral (transmembrane) proteins
-peripheral proteins
-pores/gates allow for free flow when open
-functions of membrane proteins
-ion channels -carriers -pores
-receptor sites -enzymes -structural
-cell adhesion→cell junction
-membrane permeability
-plasma membranes are selectively permeable (cell decides)
-permeable to small, uncharged, nonpolar (lipid soluble) molecules
-transmembrane proteins move polar (water soluble) particles using channels
and carriers
-macromolecules use vesicles
-movement across the membrane
-via passive process (no energy needed)→simple diffusion, facilitated
diffusion
or osmosis
-via active process (uses ATP)→active transport or vesicle transport
-membrane gradients
-power movement without ATP
-concentration gradient
-difference in substance concentration across a membrane
-electrical gradient
-difference in charge (concentration of ions)
-electromechanical gradient
-combination of both
-membrane transport→simple diffusion
-net diffusion from high to low concentration
-small molecules
-oxygen, carbon dioxide
-steroids
-diffusion
-two way movement
-consider net movement
-rate of diffusion depends on:
-temperature -concentration gradient
-diffusion distance -mass of diffusion substance
-diffusion across a membrane
-depends on:
-permeability -surface area
-gradient -temperature
-smoking decreases surface area and increases the diffusion distance so less oxygen goes to
the cell
-osmosis
-net diffusion of water down its own concentration gradient
-”pulled” by non-diffusible particles from any area of low concentration of molecules to an
area to high concentration of molecules
-tonicity determines osmosis
-tonicity= # of non-diffusible particles
-”water magnets”
-tonicity
-isotonic→solutions are the same/no osmosis
-hypotonic→fewer non-diffusible particles
-hypertonic→more non-diffusible particles
-water moves from hypotonic to hypertonic
-facilitated membrane transport
-role of plasma proteins
-pores, channels, carriers
-channel mediated facilitated diffusion
-uses protein as channel only
-substance moves in along concentration gradient
-powered by concentration gradient
 -requires action by the carrier protein
-active transport
-against gradient (requires energy)
-must use carrier
-uses ATP to run the pump (example: Na+/K+ pump)
-co-transport mechanism
-secondary active transport
-powered by concentration gradient of one solute
-moves second solute against gradient
-counter-transport
-similar to co-transport but move in opposite directions
-vesicle transport
-endocytosis and exocytosis
-examples: ligand-mediated endocytosis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis
-receptor-mediated endocytosis:
-transport of lipids into the cell
-also moves iron and antibodies
-phagocytosis:
-the immune response in white blood cells
-pinocytosis:
-most cells can move water into the cell in bulk flow
-epithelial transport:
-combines both diffusion and active transport for movement (eg. gut, kidney)
-second messenger response:
-control of cell by chemical messengers
-specific
-shape change of binding protein activates 2nd response
-cAMP response
-activates protein kinase
-rapid amplification
-calcium as a messenger:
-activated IP3 causes release of Ca2+ from endoplasmic reticulum
-DAG and IP3 activates enzymes
-calmodulin:
-protein 2nd messenger
-similar to cAMP response
-activates protein kinase
-Ca2+, calmodulin and cAMP are the three main 2nd messengers

Cell Division and Genetics:

-genes:
-units of hereditary (for traits)
-segments of dna
-each gene has a specific locus (point) on a specific chromosome
-human chromosomes:
-somatic cell:
-46 chromosomes (diploid)
-two sets of 23, one from each parent
-gametes (sperm and egg cells)
-haploid
-1 set of chromosomes (23), result of meiosis
-cell division:
-process by which cells reproduce themselves
-cell cycle
-some cells divide repeatedly (skin, blood cells, cheek cells)
-some cells stay alive but don’t divide (muscle and nerve)
-other cells divide infrequently (bone)
-chromosomes:
-to prepare for cell division
-DNA is replicated
-chromosomes condense
-each duplicated chromosome has two sister chromatids
-cell division by mitosis:
-interphase:
-chromosomes duplicate, cell parts are made
-G1 phase→ Cell grows, multiplies organelles, is active
-S phase→ Cell synthesizes DNA
-G2 phase→ Cell grows, centrioles replicate
-mitosis:
-chromatids split, two equal cells
-mitotic phase:
-prophase:
-chromatin condenses into chromosomes
-nuclear wall degenerates, centrosomes start to move apart
-prometaphase:
-nuclear envelope disappears
-spindles from chromatids to centrosomes
-kinetochore proteins appear
-metaphase:
-centromeres of chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate
-mitotic spindles start to form
-anaphase:
-centromeres of chromosomes split
-sister chromatids move towards opposite poles of the cell
-kinetochore microtubules move chromatids toward opposite ends of the cell
-nonkinetochore microtubules overlap and push against each other, elongating
the cell
-telophase:
 -mitotic spindles dissolve
-chromosomes becomes chromatin
-new nuclear membrane forms
-cytokinesis:
-division of cytoplasm, occurs with telophase
-cleavage furrow pinches cell in two (actin-myosin drawstring)
-The Cell Control System:
-events of the cell are controlled by a control system with specific checkpoints
-checkpoints→G1 passed if: -nutrients sufficient
-cell size big enough
-DNA undamaged
-Regulatory Proteins:
-two types involved in cell control (cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases)
-cyclins and cdks form MPF
-maturation promoting factor (triggers mitosis)
-external factors:
-external cell factors can also trigger cell division
-density-dependent inhibition (crowded cells stop dividing)
-anchorage dependent (cells must be attached to substratum to divide)
-cancer cells:
-no density-dependent inhibition (do not respond to body’s control mechanisms)
-no anchorage dependence
-form tumors
-Meiosis:
-sexual reproduction, produces a haploid set of chromosomes
-chromosomes replicate once
-2 cell divisions (meiosis I and meiosis II)
-Meiosis I:
-reduces chromosomes from diploid to haploid
-Meiosis II:
-produces four haploid daughter cells
-Crossing Over:
-increases genetic variability, produces chromosomes that carry genes from two
different parents (happens in prophase I)
-Interphase I
-Telophase I
-in independent assortment each pair of chromosomes sorts its maternal and parental
homologues into daughter cells independently of the other pairs

-Genetic Variability:
-independent assortment, random fertilization and crossing over produce a
zygote with any of about 64 trillion diploid combinations
-meiosis malfunction:
-abnormal chromosome count
 -the failure of homologous pairs to separate during meiosis I
-the failure of sister chromatids to separate during meiosis II
-birth defect depends on chromosome affected (XXY, XYY, XO, XXX)
-down syndrome is caused by trisomy 21 (an extra copy of chromosome 21)
-Gregor Mendel:
-studied inheritance using true breeding pea plants, discovered basic laws of heredity
-tracked characteristics that varied in an “either-or” manner
Mendel’s hypothesis:
-4 concepts
-there alternative versions of genes (called alleles)
-an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent
-if two alleles at a locus differ the dominant allele determines appearance and the
recessive allele has no noticeable effect on the appearance
-the law of segregation→the two alleles for a heritable character
separate during
gamete formation and end up in different gametes
-most traits are determined by allele pairs (ear lobe shape, taste sensations, rolling tongue,
freckles)
-punnett square:
-determines probability of inheriting a trait
-addition- “or”
-multiplication- “and”
-homozygous
-same genes, either dominant or recessive
-heterozygous
-differing genes, dominant trait is displayed
-TtxTt
-if dominant
-75% with trait→homozygous dominant and heterozygous
-25% no trait
-50% heterozygous
-codominance
-two dominant alleles affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways
-incomplete dominance
-phenotype of F1 hybrids is betweens the phenotypes of the two parental variables
-test cross
-determines genotype if dominant phenotype, but unknown genotype
-crosses a dominant phenotype with a homozygous recessive genotype

-dihybrid cross
-shows inheritance of two characters
-produces 4 phenotypes in F2 generation
-each allele pair segregates independently during gamete formation
-pleiotropy
 -a gene has multiple phenotypic effects
-some genes may be determined by 2 or more genes
-many humans vary along a continuum, called quantitative characters, polygenic
-most disorders are recessive
-recessive disorders show up only in people homozygous for the allele
-carriers are heterozygous individuals who carry the recessive allele but are phenotypically
normal
-pedigree analysis
-a family tree that describes the interrelationships of parents and children across
generations
-inheritance patterns of traits can be traced
-Huntington’s disease
-a degenerative disease of the nervous system
-has no obvious phenotypic effect until about 35 or 40 years of age
-sex linked genes
-genes on the sex chromosomes
-sex linked
-in many organisms the X chromosome carries genes unrelated to sex
-in mammals a female has two X chromosomes and a male has one Y chromosome
and one X chromosome
-color blindness, hemophilia, baldness
-most are recessive and affect males more
-a male has a single X-linked allele from mother, will have disorder if mother has allele
-a female has two X alleles, needs recessive allele from both parents, if they only have
one they are a carrier
-many human diseases have both genetic and environmental components

Energy production
-formation of ATP in the cytosol and the mitochondria
-ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
-is the cell’s energy shuttle, provides energy for the cellular function
-energy is released from ATP when phosphate bond is broken
-ATP production
-by glycolysis, citric acid cycle and electron transport chain
-co-enzymes
-NAD+ becomes NADH (reduced)
-FAD becomes FADH2
-acts as H+ shuttles (recycled), move H+ and electrons to ETs
-Glycolysis
-9 sequential reactions
-breaks glucose into pyruvate
-anaerobic
-two ATP in, 1 glucose in, 4 ATP out, 2 NADH out (shuttled to ETS), 2 pyruvate(TCA)
 -net is 2-2-2

-transfer into mitochondria→loss of CO2, irreversible, Pyruvate become Acetyl CoA

-TCA Cycle- 2 pyruvate in → 6 NADH (ETS), 2 FADH2 (ETS), 2 ATP (work), CO2
(waste)
-occurs in mitochondrial matrix
-final breakdown of glucose
-1 Acetyl CoA
-NADH/FADH2 out
-ATP out, CO2 as a waste
-for 1 glucose model- 2 cycles
-electron transport chain
-forms ATP, requires oxygen
-transfers energy from NADH/FADH2 to ADP to form ATP
-uses ATP synthase enzyme
-oxidative phosphorylation: adding a phosphate to ATP by using oxygen to take away hydrogen
-Glucose+O2 →H2O+ATP+CO2
-ATP synthase
-protein molecule that makes ATP
-H+ gradient drives ATP synthase
ETS

-NADH→3 ATP FADH2→2 ATP O2---H2O

-Glucose
-1 glucose yields 38 ATP
-uses about 40% of energy stored in glucose, rest is lost as heat
-oxygen required for process (aerobic)

-Control of Cellular Respiration

-allosteric control (negative feedback)
-phosphofructokinase- controls all of metabolism
-Lactic Acid Formation
-reversible, if no O2 available-make ATP anaerobically (low yield)
-Proteins as a fuel
-amino acids converted to ketoacids
-low ATP yield, last resort for energy (eg. starvation or high protein intake)
-Fat as Fuel
 -uses beta-oxidation to form acetyl CoA (slow to start)
-high energy yield, most efficient storage of energy
Exercise
0-20s 20s-2min 2min-5min
ATP Glycolysis Sugars
Create ATP Anaerobic

DNA Replication
-needed for mitosis and meiosis (S phase)
-DNA structure is a double helix model
-each strand acts as a template for building a new strand
-parent unwinds, two daughters built; base pairing rules
-semi-conservative, each daughter has one strand
-begins at sites of origins, eukaryotes have hundreds/thousands
DNA
-polymer of nucleotides
-nucleotides have a nitrogenous base, a sugar and a phosphate group
-has two antiparallel sugar-phosphate backbones, 3’ and 5’ ends
-nitrogenous bases are paired in molecule’s interior
-adenine always binds with thymine (A→T), guanine always binds with
cytosine (C→G)
Replication Sequence
First Steps:
-helicase unwinds helix, binding proteins stabilize template strands
-primase “primes” strands (with RNA)
-elongation by DNA polymerase III, adds nucleotides to 3’ end only
-DNA polymerase I replaces primer RNA
-ligase-“glues” together
Leading Strand
-synthesize a complementary strand continuously
-moving towards the replication fork
-primase adds RNA primer once
-DNA polymerase III builds continuously towards fork
-polymerase I builds primer
-ligase binds it to other segment (initial section)
Lagging Strand
-synthesized as a series of segments (called Okazaki fragments, joined together
by DNA ligase)
-moves away from replication fork
-primase adds short primer sequence
-DNA polymerase III adds nucleotides to 3’ end until it reaches next primer
(Okazaki segment)
 -DNA polymerase I replaces primer nucleotides with DNA
-ligase bonds segments together
Primers
-DNA polymerases cannot initiate synthesis of polynucleotide (they can only add
nucleotides to the 3’ end)
-initiated by RNA or DNA primer (short nucleotide strand)
-leading strand, only one primer needed
-lagging strand, each okazaki fragment primed

Proofreading/Mismatch Pair
-enzymes cut out and replace damaged stretches of DNA
Repeated Replications
-chromosome ends get shorter with replication
-nucleotides sequences called telomeres postpone the erosion at the ends (“junk” DNA)
Stem Cells
-telomerase catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in germ cells
Protein Synthesis
-protein functions include:
-transports/carriers -hormones and receptors
-channels/pores -contractile proteins
-antibodies -enzymes
-storage and structures
Enzymes: are a type of protein that acts as a catalyst, speeding up chemical reactions
Polypeptides
-made up of amino acids, folds and bends
-a protein consists of one or more polypeptides
Transcription and Translation
-DNA directs protein synthesis, one gene codes for 1 polypeptide
-ribosome (cellular machinery for transportation, polypeptide synthesis)
DNA→RNA→Protein
Transcription
-synthesis of mRNA (messenger RNA) under direction of DNA
-in nucleus
Translation
-synthesis of polypeptide under direction of RNA
RNA Transcription
-catalyzed by RNA polymerase
-pries the DNA strands apart
-hooks together the RNA nucleotides
-follows base-pairing rules (uracil substitutes for thymine)
Synthesis of an RNA Transcript
-3 stages (initiation, elongation, termination)
Initiation
-Promoters signal initiation of RNA synthesis
 -TATA box
-transcription factors help RNA polymerase to recognize promoter sequences
Elongation
-RNA polymerase moves along the DNA→untwists the double helix,
exposes 10
to 20 DNA bases at a time, base pairs DNA template with RNA nucleotides
Termination
-Polymerase transcribes polyadenylation sequence (AAUAAA) in pre-mRNA and
beyond
-proteins cut mRNA free (10-35 nucleotides past poly-A)
-polymerase falls away from DNA (not understood)
RNA Processing after Transcription
-pre-mRNA:
-5’ end receives a modified nucleotide cap (made up of guanine)
-the 3’ end gets a poly-A tail→helps to export mRNA to cytosol,
protects
mRNA from degradation, helps ribosomes attach in cytosol
-RNA splicing
-removes introns and joins exons (introns-non coding→no genes
and
exons-expressed→has genes)
-spliceosomes→snRNP-small nuclear ribonucleoproteins
(recognize
splice sites)
-Proteins
-modular structure
-each exon codes for different domain
Translation: formation of protein using mRNA template
Messenger RNA: mRNA carries message as a series of codons
Genetic Universal Code: bacteria to humans
Transfer RNA:
-translation uses transfer RNA (tRNA) to shuttle amino acids to building
polypeptide
-each tRNA matches with a specific amino acid
-anti-codon-binds to mRNA codon
-RNA strand (around nucleotides)
-L shaped
Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetase
-joins each amino acid to correct tRNA
-binding site specific to amino acid
Ribosomes
-facilitate coupling of tRNA anticodons with mRNA codons during protein synthesis

-made of proteins and ribosomal RNA or rRNA

 -the ribosome has three binding sites for tRNA (P (peptide) site, A (add) site, E (exit)
site)
-we can divide translation into 3 stages (initiation, elongation and termination)
Initiation:
-brings mRNA, initiator tRNA (with first amino acid- Met) and two subunits of a
ribosome together
-start codon
Elongation:
-amino acids are added one by one to polypeptide
Termination:
-ribosome reaches a stop codon in the mRNA

Polyribosome
-many ribosomes can transfer 1 mRNA at once
After Translation
-possible changes:
-enzyme may be cleaved (eg. Insulin)
-sugars or lipids may be attached, removal of lead amino acids

Ribosomes
-free in cytosol or bound to endoplasmic reticulum, synthesis of all proteins starts on free
ribosomes
-export proteins signalled to endoplasmic reticulum by signal recognition particle (srp
-signal mechanism for targeting proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum
Mutations
-one wrong nucleotide- one wrong amino acid- dysfunctional protein
-substitutions, insertions or deletions
-produce nonsense or mutation
Epigenetics
-chemical mechanisms that control the expression of genes
-methylation: repressors
-histones: control longer sections

Body Tissues:
Cell Junctions
-gap junctions, tight junctions, desmosome-adhering junctions
Tight Junctions
-allows no movement between cells (e.g. intestine, blood brain barrier, kidney)
Gap Junctions
-allows movement of ions→transmission of charge (e.g. heart, gut)
-the heart as its very own nerve fibres (purkinje fibres)
Desmosomes
-structural junction, withstands stress (e.g. skin, uterus, heart)
Tissues
-cells with similar structure and function
-4 types (epithelial, connective tissue, nerve, muscle)
Epithelial Tissue
-covering sheets (e.g. epithelial lining, skin)
-glands (exocrine, endocrine)
-functions: protection, absorption, secretion, ion transport, diffusion, filtration
forms slippery surfaces
-simple vs stratified (single layer vs multiple layers)
-cuboidal, columnar cells (e.g. cells)
-squamous cells (flattened cells, e.g. lung tissue)
Simple Squamous Epithelium
-areas subjected to little wear and tear
-adapted for diffusion and filtration
-e.g. lung alveoli and Bowman’s capsule
Stratified Epithelium
-protects area of wear and tear
-defence against microbes
-e.g. outer layer of skin, lining og mouth, vagina
Transitional Epithelium
-contains cells that change shape in areas subject to stretching
-e.g. urinary bladder
Glands
-specialized epithelial cells
-exocrine glands (secrete substances into duct)
-endocrine glands are ductless (secrete hormones into blood)
-paracrine glands (secrete over short distances)
-unicellular exocrine glands (the goblet cell):
-produce mucin, protects and lubricates many internal surfaces
Classes of Connective Tissue
-most diverse and abundant tissue
-main classes: connective tissue proper, bone, cartilage, blood, fat
-functions: binds together, supports and strengthens
-protects and insulates internal organs
-compartmentalizes muscle
-collagen=stiff (e.g. tendon) elastin=stretchy (e.g. lung)
-blast cells typically mean that they are making new cells
-difference in structural properties due to types of cells, different composition
Connective Tissue Proper
-has 2 subclasses: loose connective tissue and dense connective tissue
Loose Connective Tissue: Areolar
-gel-like matrix with all three fibres
-contains: fat cells, white blood cells, mast cells, fibroblasts
-underlies epithelial tissue
-surrounds blood vessels and organs
 -borders all other tissues in the body
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
-irregularly arranged collagen and elastin
-withstands tension/pulling
-location: skin, gut, fibrous capsules of joints and organs
Dense Regular Connective Tissue
-parallel collagen fibres (some elastin, poorly vascularized)
-muscle and bone attachments (withstands stress in one direction)
-e.g. tendons and ligaments
Muscle Tissues
-contractile (force and movement)
-three types: cardiac, smooth and skeletal
-skeletal muscle tissue (voluntary-moves skeleton)
-cardiac muscle tissue (heart-involuntary)
-smooth muscle tissue
Nervous Tissue
-signal transmission
-brain, nerves
-brain, spinal cord and nerves transmit electrical signals
-contains two types of cells:
-neurons (excitatory cells) and supporting cells (neuroglial cells)
Repair:
-Regeneration of damaged site with same type of tissue
-Fibrosis: proliferation of scar tissue
-Organization: clot is replaced by granulation of tissue
Capacity for Regeneration:
-good to excellent:
-ET, bone CT, areolar CT, dense irregular CT, and blood forming CT
-moderate: smooth muscle, dense regular CT
-weak: skeletal MT, cartilage
-none or almost none: cardiac MT, nervous tissue
The Tissues Throughout Life
-with increasing age:
-epithelia thin
-collagen decreases
-bones, muscles and nervous tissue begin to atrophy
-poor nutrition and poor circulation lead to poor health of tissues (decreased
healing)

DNA Technology and Genomics:

What is Biotechnology?
-use of living organisms to do practical tasks
-e.g. cheese and wine-making
 selective breeding of livestock and crops
production of antibodies
Biotechnology Breakthroughs
-Insulin: commercially made with bacteria in 1982
-Rice: enriched with beta-carotene and iron
-Bananas: edible hepatitis vaccine
DNA Technology
-Recombinant DNA
-DNA made in vitro from various DNA pieces
-allows for DNA sequencing
-allows for gene manipulation and production
-Restriction Enzymes
-cuts DNA at specific DNA sequences (restriction sites)
-produces fragments with “sticky ends” which can bond with “sticky ends” of
other fragments
-DNA ligase seals and connects restriction fragments
-DNA Cloning
-production of multiple copies of a specific gene or DNA segment
-mass production of protein or enzyme
-use of bacteria and plasmids
Animal Cloning
-Totipotent cell
-capable of generating a complete new organism
-Cloning
-using one or more somatic cells to make another genetically identifiable
individual
Stem Cells:
-relatively unspecialized cell
-can reproduce indefinitely
-can differentiate into many types of specialized cells-given appropriate conditions
-Pluripotent
-can become several types of cells (e.g. bone marrow)
-Totipotent
-can become any cell
-embryonic

Neuroanatomy:
Cranial Meninges
-three membranes enclose the brain and spinal cord
-Functions:
1. Protect Brain
2. Support framework for vessels venous sinuses
3. Enclose fluid-filled space (subarachnoid) vital to normal function of brain
Meninges
-three layers:
1. Dura mater (“tough mother”)
2. Arachnoid mater (spider web-like)
3. Pia mater (“tender” mother)
-Dura Mater
-two layers- form spaces (sinuses)
-largest is the falx cerebri which divides cranial cavity and cerebral hemispheres
-falx cerebelli separates the two hemispheres of the cerebellum
-tentorium cerebelli separates occipital lobes and cerebellum sits on a
transverse plane
-venous drainage via sinuses
-large veins from brains drain into these sinuses
-all join at confluence of sinuses, where they all come together (bump on back of
head), then it drains through veins back into general circulation
-venous blood is used and unfiltered, deoxygenated

-Arachnoid Mater
-arachnoid mater contains fibroblasts, collagen fibres and some elastic fibres
-avascular in nature (no veins, capillaries or arteries)
-held against dura mater by pressure of CSF (not direct attachment)
-Pia Mater
-pia mater is thinner than arachnoid
-highly vascularized (mainly all capillaries)
-gives brain shiny appearance
-invests within all folds and contours of the brain

-Meningeal Spaces
-three spaces:
1. Epidural (dura-skull)
-potential space (observed with injury)
2. Subdural (dura-arachnoid)
-potential space (observed with injury)
3. Subarachnoid (arachnoid-pia)
-actual space (contains cerebrospinal fluid, arteries and veins)
Brain-Overview:
-composed of:
-Cerebrum:
-various lobes and diencephalon
-Cerebellum
-Brainstem:
-pons
-midbrain
-medulla oblongota
Cerebrum
-principal part of the brain
-two cerebral hemispheres
-separated by longitudinal fissure and joined by corpus callosum (made up
of neurons)
-responsible for higher order thinking/reasoning
-frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal lobes
-frontal and parietal separated by central sulcus
-temporal and parietal separated by lateral sulcus
-frontal lobe -parietal lobe
-pre-frontal area (personality) -sensory interpretation
-pre-central area (motor activities)
-temporal lobe -occipital lobe
-smell and hearing -vision
Diencephalon
-surrounds 3rd ventricle
-right and left halves
-joined via intermediate masses
-composed of R/L thalamus and hypothalamus
-controls equilibrium, vision, facial sensation, hearing, phonation, respiration, salivation,
swallowing, taste, etc.
Midbrain
-cavity forms cerebral aqueduct
-conducts CSF from 3rd to 4th ventricle
Pons
-superior part of 4th ventricle
-controls sleep and arousal
Medulla Oblongata
-controls autonomic functions (breathing, heart rate)
-continuous with spinal cord
Cerebellum
-dorsal to pons and medulla oblongata
-controls fine motor coordination
-arbor vitae (tree of life)
-tree like configuration seen in a sagittal section of cerebellum
Ventricles of the Brain
-filled with CSF
-consists of lateral ventricle, third ventricle, cerebral aqueduct and fourth ventricle
-Lateral Ventricles
-also called 1st and 2nd ventricles
-largest cavities
-separated by septum pellucidum which sits inferior to corpus callosum

Cerebrospinal Fluid
 -produced by choroid plexus found within each ventricle
-circulates throughout CNS
-absorbed into venous system
-functions:
-protection
-buoyancy
-excrete waste products
-endocrine medium
Blood Supply
-arterial blood from the heart via
-internal carotid arteries
-vertebral arteries
Cerebral Arterial Circle
-ICA branch into anterior and middle cerebral arteries
-anterior cerebral arteries connected via anterior communicating artery
-vertebral arteries join to form basilar arteries
-basilar splits to form posterior cerebral arteries
-posterior cerebral arteries joined to circle via posterior communicating arteries
-joined in a circle by the anterior communicating arteries and two posterior
communicating arteries
-venous drainage via dural venous sinuses
-drain into internal jugular veins
Cranial Nerves
-CN I-olfactory bulb rests on cribriform plate
-pure sensory nerve
-sense of smell and induce visceral responses
-CN II-optic
-formed from axons of retina ganglion cells
-fibres from each nerve run to each hemisphere at optic chiasm
-CN III- oculomotor
-motor nerve to 4
-CN IV- trochlear
-motor nerve to one extraocular muscle
-CN V- trigeminal
-general sensory nerve for cornea, skin of forehead, scalp, nose, nasal cavity,
lips, teeth, tongue
-motor nerve
-CN VI- abducens
-motor nerve to one extraocular eye muscle
-CN VII- facial
-motor nerve to facial muscles of expression and to scalp
-taste from anterior ⅔ of tongue, floor of mouth and palate
-sensation from outer ear
-parasympathetic innervation to submandibular, sublingual and lacrimal glands
 and glands of nose and palate
-CN VIII- auditory/vestibulocochlear
-sensory nerve from inner ear related to position and movement of head
-hearing
-CN IX- glossopharyngeal
-motor nerve for swallowing
-CN X- vagus
-visceral motor function to pharynx, larynx, superior ⅔ of esophagus, cardiac
muscle, and most organs
-visceral sensory function from most organs and many others
-coughing, sneezing, swallowing, speaking, digestion, secretions from the
glands of the stomach
-CN XI- accessory
-motor nerve for movement of the muscles
-CN X11- hypoglossal
-motor nerve of the tongue

Extremity Nerves:
Brachial Plexus
-most nerves in upper limb arise from this collection of nerves
-Rugby (roots C5-T1) Teams (superior, mid, inferior trunks) Drink (anterior,
posterior division) Cold (lateral, medial, posterior cords) Beer (terminal branches
or nerves)
-C5-T1=C5, C6, C7, C8, T1
-find the elusive “M” and then work backwards
-musculocutaneous, median and ulnar nerves
-all arise from anterior division and from either lateral or medial cords
-posterior division (cord) is axillary nerve and radial nerve
-7 cervical vertebrae but 8 cervical nerves
Posterior Division
-axillary nerve (armpit)
-wraps around humeral head
-deltoid
-radial nerve
-posterior humerus, lateral epicondyle, posterior antebrachium
-triceps brachii, forearm extension
Anterior Division
-musculocutaneous nerve
-pierces coracobrachialis nerve
-anterior brachium
-ulnar nerve
-medial humerus, medial epicondyle
-1% forearm flexors, hypothenar eminence
-what you actually hit when you feel pain from hitting “funny bone”
 -median nerve
-deep humerus, cubital fossa, anterior antebrachium
-forearm flexors, thenar eminence
-femoral nerve, obturator nerve, sciatic nerve, common fibular (peroneal) nerve, tibial nerve
Femoral Triangle
-triangular space in the superoanterior ⅓ of triangle
-contains the femoral nerve, the femoral artery and the femoral vein
-Femoral Nerve
-passes under inguinal ligament
-branch of lumbosacral plexus (L2, 3, 4)
-follows same course as femoral artery and vein
-supplies anterior thigh muscles
-VAN from medial to lateral (“VAN out”)
-femoral sheath holds femoral artery and femoral vein
-great saphenous vein enters inferior to femoral sheath opening
-iliacus sheath holds femoral nerve
Sciatic Nerve
-branch of lumbosacral plexus (L4-S3)
-largest nerve in the body
-through greater and lesser sciatic notch
-supplies no structures in gluteal region but most of lower extremity
-tibial and common peroneal portions loosely bound together
-Obturator nerve also formed from this plexus (L2,3,4)
-exits inferior to piriformis
-anterior to gluteus maximus
-tibial branch supplies flexor muscles of lower leg
-common peroneal branch supplies extensor muscles of lower leg
Membrane Potentials and Action Potentials:
Cell Communication:
-endocrine (hormones)
-can undergo rapid changes in membrane potentials
-critical to the function of the neurons and muscles
Neuron-single nerve cell
Nerve-bundle of neurons
-a typical neuron is composed of:
-a dendritic region
-a cell body
-axon hillock
-an axon
-axon terminals
-cell body houses nucleus and organelles
-dendrites:
-surface area increases for receiving signals
-axon:
 -nerve fibre
-conducts impulses (AP’s) away from the cell body
-Axon hillock:
-where axon meets cell body
-neuron’s trigger zone
-Axon terminals
-synapse with,other neurons or effector organ
-releases chemical messengers
-Kinesins:
-move anterograde (away from cell body)
-carry nutrients, enzymes, organelles along axon

-Dyneins:
-move retrograde (towards the cell body)
-carry recycled vesicles, chemical messengers
Membrane Potential:
-plasma membrane of all living cells has a membrane potential (polarized electricity)
-separation of opposite charges across plasma membrane
-due to differences in concentration and permeability of key ions
-in nerve and muscle cells
-potassium on the inside, sodium inside. Charge at -70mV inside
Resting Membrane Potential:
-1 electrode on inside, 1 electrode on outside
-gates are closed
-effect of Na+/K+ pump on membrane potential is small
Movement of Ions:
-depends on
-permeability (controlled by channels)
-electrical gradient (positive charge is drawn to negative)
-concentration gradient (moves from high to low concentration)
-Nernst Equation:
-describes equilibrium potential for an ion
-Nernst value for sodium is +60mV, Nernst value for potassium is -89mV
-Maintenance of Membrane Potential:
-impermeable membrane
-Na+/K+ ATPase pump
-increased permeability to K+
-leaks out
-anions inside membrane
Membrane States:
-Polarization: state when membrane potential is other than 0mV
-Depolarization: membrane becomes less polarized than at rest
-Repolarization: membrane returns to resting potential after a depolarization
-Hyperpolarization: membrane becomes more polarized than at rest
Neural Communication:
-two kinds of potential change
-grade potentials
-serve as short-distance signals
-action potentials
-serve as long distance signals
-once initiated, action potentials are conducted throughout a nerve fibre

Graded Potentials:
-initiated by:
-mechanical stimulus
-chemical stimulus
-electrical stimulus
-usually initiated in dendrites
-summation: graded potentials can be added together to become larger in amplitude
-can summate
-can vary in size
-can be excitatory or inhibitory
-depolarizing or hyperpolarizing
-no refractory period
-temporal effect
-postsynaptic potential
-receptor potentials
-end-plate potentials
-pacemaker potentials
-slow-wave potentials
-Properties:
-can summate
-can vary in size
-can be excitatory or inhibitory (depolarizing or hyperpolarizing)
-no refractory period (temporal effect)
-Action Potential:
-brief, rapid, large (100mV) changes in membrane potential (potential actually reverses)
-do not decrease in strength as they travel from their site of initiation
-permeability changes and ion fluxes during an action potential
-resting RMP (-70 mV)
-graded potentials reach threshold (-55 mV)– triggers AP
-triggers Na+ gates to open -Depolarization
-Na+ rushes in (+30 mV)
-Na+ gates close / K+ gates open
-K+ rushes out (repolarization)
-K+ slow to close; overshoot→Hyperpolarization (-80 mV)
-the Na+ /K+ pump gradually restores the concentration gradients disrupted by action
potentials
 -sodium is pumped into the ECF
-potassium is pumped into the ICF
-Na+ and K+ Gates:
-NA+ gates need time to reset

-Action Potential Characteristics:

-all or none principle
-neurons either reach threshold and produce a full-sized AP, or no AP is
produced at all
-refractory periods
-Na+ gates need time to reset
-overshoot of K+ gates causes the cell to hyperpolarize – requires greater GP to
reach threshold
-absolute refractory period
-when a second AP is not possible even with a large stimulus
-relative refractory period
-a second AP is possible when a greater than normal stimulus
-causes the impulse to move in one direction only
-self-propagating action potentials in unmyelinated neuron
-an impulse in one region is enough of a disturbance to cause the neighbouring
regions to reach threshold and trigger an AP
-uni-directional movement
-Two Types of Propagation:
-continuous conduction
-conduction in unmyelinated fibres
-action potential spreads along every portion of the membrane
-saltatory conduction:
-rapid conduction in myelinated fibres
-impulse jumps over sections of the fibre covered with insulating myelin
-jumps from node to node
-impulse jumps over insulated regions
-about 50 times faster
-Myelin:
-fatty insulator
-primary composed of lipids
-formed by oligodendrocytes in CNS
-formed by Schwann cells in PNS
-leaves exposed nodes
-Multiple Sclerosis:
-loss of myelin
-decreased speed of impulses
-loss of coordination in muscles and nerves
-Nerve Conduction:
-depends on
 -neuron diameter
-myelination
-temperature
-A delta fibres vs C fibres
-Regeneration of Nerve Fibres
-regeneration of nerve fibres depends on its location
-Schwann cells in PNS guide the regeneration of cut axons
-fibres in CNS myelinated by oligodendrocytes do not have regenerative ability
-oligodendrocytes inhibit regeneration of cut central axons
-Synapses:
-junction between two neurons
-primary means by which one neuron directly interacts with another neuron
Convergence and Divergence:
-Convergence
-many neurons input onto one
-Divergence
-one neuron synapses with many
Anatomy of a Synapse:
-presynaptic neuron- conducts action potential toward synapse
-synaptic knob- contains synaptic vesicles
-synaptic vesicles- stores neurotransmitter (carries signals across a synapse)
-postsynaptic neuron– neuron whose action potentials are propagated away from the
synapse
-synaptic cleft– space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons
Synapse:
-AP arrives at terminal end
-voltage-gated Ca2+ open
-Ca2+ moves into knob
-triggers release of neurotransmitter (NT)
-NT migrates across synapse
-binds to receptor site
-opens ion gates
-triggers graded potential
NT release:
-calcium binds to synaptotagmin
-stimulates SNARE proteins
-ensnare vesicles
-causes NT release
Postsynaptic membrane
-activates
-ionotropic receptors- actual ion channels
Or
-metabolic receptors- 2nd messenger activation of channel
-synaptic delay (0.2 to 0.5 ms)
Synapses:
-signal at synapse either excites or inhibits the postsynaptic neuron
-two types of synapses
-excitatory synapses (Na+ or ion gates)
-inhibitory synapses (K+ gates)
Size of Postsynaptic Potential:
-depends on:
-calcium levels (fatigue)
-NT levels
-desensitization/hypersensitization
-pre-synaptic inhibition of facilitation
Neurotransmitters:
-vary from synapse to synapse
-same neurotransmitter is always released at a particular synapse
-quickly removed from the synaptic cleft
-some common neurotransmitters
-acetylcholine -dopamine -norepinephrine
-epinephrine -serotonin -histamine
-glycine -glutamate -aspartate
-gamma-aminobutyric acid
-Parkinson’s Disease: decrease of L-dopa from basal nuclei
-tremors/muscle rigidity
-Neuropeptides:
-large molecules consisting of from 2 to 40 amino acids
-synthesized in neuronal cell body in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex
-packaged in large, dense-core vesicles present in axon terminal
-Neuropeptides:
-substance P -enkephalins -endorphins
-dynorphins -hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones
-angiotensin II -cholecystokinin
Examples of Neuropeptides:
-Acetylcholine (Ach)
-cholinergic receptors
-parasympathetic system/muscle
-muscarinic vs. nicotinic receptors (agonists)
-broken down by acetylcholinesterase (sarin inhibits this enzyme)
-Alzheimer’s disease
-Catecholamines
-epinephrine/norepinephrine
-consciousness, mood, attention
-blood pressure, heart rate
-adrenergic/noradrenergic
-broken down by MAO (monoamine oxidase)
-MAO inhibitors increase epi levels in synapse (anti-depressant)
 -Seratonin
-from tryptophan/modulates (slow onset)
-excitatory on muscle control
-inhibitory on sensory mediation
-mood, anxiety, wakefulness
-block reuptake with paxil (anti-depressant)
-also LSD
Synaptic Drug Interactions
-possible drug actions
-altering the synthesis, axonal transport, storage, or release of a neurotransmitter
-modifying neurotransmitter interaction with the postsynaptic receptor
-influencing neurotransmitter reuptake or destruction
-replacing a deficient neurotransmitter with a substitute transmitter
Drug Interactions
-agonists- mimic NT when they bind (e.g. morphine)
-antagonists- bind but don’t activate receptor (block site)
Drugs that alter synaptic transmission:
-Cocaine
-blocks reuptake of neurotransmitter dopamine at presynaptic terminals
-Strychnine
-competes with inhibitory neurotransmitter glycine at postsynaptic receptor site
-Tetanus Toxin
-prevents release of inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA, affecting skeletal muscles
(destroys SNARE proteins)
-Botulism
-interferes with SNARE proteins for excitatory neurotransmitters
-muscle paralysis

Nervous System Organization

Functional Classes of Neurons
-afferent neurons
-ascending
-dendrites in periphery
-terminal end in CNS
-efferent neurons
-descending
-dendrites in the CNS
-terminal ends in periphery
-only automatic nerves have synapses outside of the CNS
-interneurons-all in CNS
-99% of all neurons
Glial Cells
-make up 90% of CNS cells and about half of the volume
-support cells
 -physical and metabolic support for the CNS
Glial Cell Types
-astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, oligodendrocytes
-microglia are immune cells that protect from pathogens
-atrocytes
-hold neurons in place
-general maintenance of the space (metabolic support and repair)
-myelin
-increase conduction velocity
-secreted by Schwann cells in PNS
-secreted by oligodendrocytes in CNS
-ependymal cells
-secrete cerebrospinal fluid (shock absorption, nutrients)
-form blood-brain barrier
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
-external recording of brain wave patterns
-summation of AP’s, EPSP’s and IPSP’s
Brain Waves
-Alpha (lower frequency, relaxed state)
-Beta (higher frequency, alert and concentrating
-Theta (light sleep)
-Delta (deep sleep, babies are the best delta sleepers)
-NREM (slow-wave) sleep, REM (paradoxical) sleep
-dreams occur in REM sleep
-repairs occur during NREM sleep
Sleep Patterns
-Non-REM sleep (4 stages)
-rest and repair
-REM sleep
-dream state
-rapid eye movement
-problem solving
-reverse learning
-elevated breathing and heart rate
Speech Areas
-Broca’s area (in the frontal lobe)
-speech
-Wernicke’s area
-speech comprehension
-Dyslexia
-poor connections between visual and language areas
-or between areas
Limbic System
-emotion, learning and memory
 -hippocampus
-learning and memory
-inputs to hypothalamus
Short-Term Memory
-small units of info
-temporary neural trace
-quick recall
Long-Term Memory
-unlimited capacity
-permanent neural trace
-slower to retrieve
Transfer from STM to LTM
-relates to past events and memories
-emotional response related to memory
-repetition
-sleep
-exercise and diet
Memory
-Habituation
-decreased response to repeated indifferent stimuli
-decreased calcium at synapse
-Sensitization
-increased response to mild stimuli
-more calcium released at synapse
Spinal Cord
-two vital functions
-neuronal link between brain and PNS
-integrating center for spinal reflexes
The Spinal Cord Cross-Section
-sensory input via the dorsal root
-motor output via the ventral root
Grey and White Matter
-Grey Matter
-unmyelinated nerve body cells
-dendrites
-axon terminals
-White Matter
-myelinated cells
-contains very few cell bodies
Spinal Reflexes
-protective reflexes
-faster when brain is not involved
-after-thought message only
-often monosynaptic
Autonomic Reflexes
-some visceral reflexes are spinal reflexes
Skeletal Muscle Reflexes
-proprioceptors
-located in muscle, joints and ligaments
-carry input to CNS
-muscles spindles and Golgi tendon organs are sensory receptors in the muscle
-alpha motor muscles
-carry input to muscle
Stretch Reflex
-stretch of receptor sends AP’s up sensory neuron
-increases firing of motor neuron
-reflex contraction
Patellar Tendon (Knee Jerk) Reflex
1. Hit tendon→stretch
→stretches muscle
2. Increase firing receptor→EPSP’s→motor neuron
→IPSP’s→antagonistic muscle
→Afterthought→Brain
Withdrawal Reflex
-triggered by pain receptor
-synapses with motor neurons to flexors
-contract to withdraw
-synapses with motor neurons to extensors
-inhibits
-simultaneous with crossed extensor reflex
-opposite side
-contraction of extensors
-inhibition of flexors
Golgi Tendon Organ (GTO) Reflex
-GTO is the stretch receptor in the tendon
-GTO stretch→IPSP’s→motor neuron
-reflex relaxation
Autonomic Nervous System
-two antagonistic branches
-autonomic reflexes
-control of cardiac and smooth muscle, and glands in homeostasis
-Sympathetic Nervous System
-fight or flight
-adrenalin rush
-Parasympathetic Nervous System
-rest and digest
The Hypothalamus, Pons and Medulla
-coordination of homeostatic responses
 -autonomic
-endocrine
-behavioural
Autonomic Branches
-Sympathetic Neurons
-short preganglionic neurons
-long postganglionic neurons
-Ach at ganglion, Epi at Effector organ
-Parasympathetic Neurons
-long preganglionic neurons
-short postganglionic neurons
-Ach at ganglion and effector organ
Parasympathetic→cranial/sacral
Sympathetic→thoracic/lumbar
-sympathetic nerve trunk
Organ: Sympathetic: Parasympathetic:
Heart Increase Heart Rate Decrease Heart Rate
Lungs Increase Breathing Rate Decrease Breathing Rate
Gut (Liver) Decrease activity Increase activity
Kidney Decrease activity Increase Activity
Blood Vessels -constrict -gut
-dilate -muscle
OR
-constriction
Senses
-general senses (touch, temperature, pressure, pain, itch, etc.)
-special senses (vision, hearing, smell, taste)
-visceral senses (pH, osmolarity, chemoreceptors, etc.)
-proprioceptors (stretch, position, over-contraction)
Sensory Receptors
-two types
-specialized endings of neuron
-separate cell that signals to afferent neuron
Receptor Field
-area of skin that a sensory receptor innervates
-size will vary
Characteristics of Sensory Receptors
-modality -intensity -adaptation -localization
Modality
-receptor type
-each responds to one type of stimulus only (except pain)
-chemoreceptors
-mechanoreceptors
-proprioceptors
-sensory end is specialized for its function
Intensity
-coded by frequency (since action potentials are all-or-none)
-higher stimulus will also stimulate more fibres
Adaptation
-when the neuron stops sending action potentials in response to a continuous stimulus
-phasic or fast-adapting receptors
-responds to change in stimulus
-e.g. temperature, touch smell
-tonic or slow-adapting receptors
-continues to send action potentials in response to constant stimulus
-e.g. pain, vision, proprioceptors (non-adapting)
Localization or Acuity
-ability to distinguish between two stimulus points
-depends on:
-receptor field size
-receptive field overlap
-area of representation in cortex
-lateral inhibition
Receptor Field Effect
-if receptive field size increases acuity or ability to localize decreases (e.g. back)
-with more overlap of receptive fields acuity increases (e.g. fingers)
Area of Representation in Cortex
-greater area of representation→greater ability to localize (e.g. face and
fingers)
Lateral Inhibition
-receptive fields continuous
-increase “contrast”, so acuity increases
-“sharpens contrast” in the pattern of action potentials received by the CNS, allowing
a finer resolution of stimulus location
-lateral inhibition allows the CNS to more accurately locate the source of stimulation,
which can help guide necessary or beneficial responses

Retina
-Fovea
-pinhead-sized depression in centre of the retina
-most distinct vision
-has only cones (no filtering)
-Macula Lutea
-area immediately surrounding fovea
-high acuity
-cones only but with overlaid bipolars and ganglions
Macular Degeneration
-loss of cones in macula
-lose central vision
-leading cause of blindness in the western hemisphere
-“doughnut” vision (the middle hole in your vision is blurry)
-wet→more blood vessels→bleeding
-dry: atrophy of pigment
Photoreceptors
-rods and cones
-consists of three parts
-outer segment detects light stimulus
-inner segment contains metabolic machinery of cell
-synaptic terminal transmits signal generated in photoreceptor on light stimulation
to next cells in visual pathway
-more rods than cones (around 100 million rods per eye and around 3 million cones per
eye)
-cones see color, rods see shades of grey
-cones are better for day vision (bright light) and have low sensitivity, rods are better for
night vision (low light) with high sensitivity
-rods are more numerous in periphery
-Rods
-100:1 wiring (rods to bipolar cells)
-larger receptive field (poor acuity)
-Cones:
-1:1 wiring (need a lot of light for action potential)
-small receptive field (high acuity)
-Photopigments
-Rod pigment
-provide vision only in shades of grey
-rhodopsin absorbs all/most visual wavelengths
-Cone pigments
-colour vision
-red cones
-blue cones
-green cones
-chemical change when activated by light
-consists of two components:
-Opsin: protein that is integral part of disc membrane
-Retinene: derivative of vitamin A
-light absorbing part of photopigment
Resting State-In the Dark:
-Na+ gates are open
-rods and cones are depolarized
-release inhibitory neurotransmitters (glutamate)
 -bipolar cells are inhibited
-no action potentials to the ganglions/optic nerve
In Light
-light breaks down photopigment
-activates transducin/decrease cGMP
-closes NA+ gates
-hyperpolarizes membrane
-decreases inhibition of bipolar
-bipolars excited
-graded potentials to ganglion
-action potentials to optic nerve
Colour Blindness
-poor or lack of function in one or more colour cones
-Protanopia: lack of red cones
-Deuteranopia: lack of green cones
-Tritanopia: lack of blue cones
-poor function of cones
-protanomaly: poor red function
-deuteranomaly: poor green function
-tritanomaly: poor blue function
Dark Adaptation
-go from light to dark
-re-form more photopigment
-changes threshold
-eyes become more sensitive
-more rods used
-vitamin A needed for regeneration
-e.g. Entering movie theatre
Light Adaptation
-when you go from dark to bright light
-sudden breakdown of photopigment (bleaching)
-eyes become less sensitive with less photopigments
-e.g. Walking outside after a movie
Hearing
-pitch (tone) of sound (depends on frequency of air waves)
-intensity (loudness, depends on amplitude of air waves)
-timbre (quality, determined by overtones)

Ear Structures
-outer ear
-pinna (visible ear)
-external auditory meatus (ear canal)
-tympanic membrane (eardrum, entry to middle ear)
 -middle ear
-amplifies sound by 20-30x
-ear ossicles
-malleus
-incus
-stapes
-eustachian tube
-equalizes ear pressure
-to oval window
-inner ear
-cochlea
-contains Organ of Corti, endolymph, perilymph
-transduction from waves (ripples) to action potentials
Organ of Corti
-receptors
-hair cells
-basilar membrane
-contains hair cells
-tectorial membrane
-stiff
-tips of hair cells embedded here
Transmission of Sound
-sound waves hit tympanic membrane
-membrane oscillates
-moves ear ossicles-amplified waves
-oval window moves in and out
-sets perilymph in motion
-standing waves form in perilymph, transfer into endolymph
-basilar membrane will the oscillate
-pushes hair cells against tectorial membrane
-bends hair cells (graded potentials)
-action potentials go down auditory nerve
-location of bent cells determine pitch
Deafness
-conduction deafness (e.g. ear infection or otosclerosis)
-problem with amplification of sound
-ear ossicles, tympanic membrane
-hearing aids will help
-sensory deafness (e.g. loud music and damage)
-problem with hair cells or auditory nerve
-hearing aids cannot help
Equilibrium
-vestibular apparatus
-inner ear
 -balance and body position
-consists of
-semicircular canal
-utricle and saccule
-mechanical deformation of hair cell, created by body movement
-vestibular nerve
-to cerebellum
-balance and posture
-motion and orientation
-eye movements
Semicircular Canals
-detects acceleration and deceleration
-uses endolymph and hair cells
-in all planes
-as body accelerates
-hair cells move
-endolymph lags behind
-bends hair cells
-Ion gates altered
-action potentials
Equilibrium
-deceleration
-hair cells stop, endolymph continues
-bends hair cells in other direction
-bending of stereocilia in opposite direction has opposite effects on their membrane potential
Utricle and Saccule
-detects linear motion
-endolymph contains otoliths
-calcium “stones”
-as head moves
-heavier endolymph moves forward
-bends hair cells (action potentials)
Taste and Smell
-chemoreceptors (binding of molecules will trigger graded potentials and action
potentials)
-smell (olfactory nerve)
-taste (facial and glossopharyngeal nerves)
Smell
-scent molecules must be dissolved in mucous (support cells)
-140+ scent receptors identified so far
-2 month lifespan and then replaced
-closely associated with taste
-input to limbic system (emotional response)
Taste
 -receptors are taste buds
-lifespan of 10 days
-5 types (salty, sweet, sour, bitter, umami)
-support cells (mucous)
Taste Bud Map
-facial nerve
-front ⅔ of tongue
-salty and sweet
-glossopharyngeal nerve
-back ⅓ of tongue
-sour and bitter
-umami
-central concentration (some in periphery)
Upper Extremity Muscles
Muscle Classifications (Elbow flexion)
-agonist (prime mover)→activates movement, brachialis
-antagonist→opposes movement, triceps brachii
-synergist→complements the agonist, biceps brachii
-fixator→steadies proximal joints, pectoralis major
Trapezius
-upper, middle and lower fibres
-scapular elevation, depression, retraction and rotation
-nerve: accessory cranial nerve (11)
Rhomboid Major
-scapular retraction, downward rotation
-stabilization of scapula
-acts as a fixator
Levator Scapulae
-scapular elevation and rotation
-agonist

Agonist Antagonist Synergist Fixator

Scapula Elev. Levator Lower Trap. Upper Trap. Rhomboid
Scapulae Major
Middle Trap.
Retraction Rhomboid Serratus Ant. Middle Trap. Levator
Scap.
Major Upper/Lower
Trap.
Serratus Anterior
-protracts scapula and holds it against the thoracic wall
Winging Scapula
-injury to long thoracic nerve, and dysfunction of serratus anterior, results in winging of
scapula
-also seen in small children with underdeveloped musculature
Rotator Cuff Muscles
-supraspinatus -infraspinatus -teres minor -teres major
-subscapularis (anterior)
-collectively function to hold humeral head in glenoid cavity and increase joint stability
Supraspinatus
-initiates and assists abduction
Subscapularis
-assists internal rotation
Infraspinatus and Teres Minor
-assists lateral rotation
Deltoid
-large multipennate muscle
-anterior part: flexes, internally rotates (agonist)
-middle part: abducts
-posterior part: extends, laterally rotates (antagonist)
-nerve: axillary nerve
Pectoralis Major
-adducts and internally rotates shoulder
-horizontal adduction
Latissimus Dorsi
-shoulder extension, adduction, medial rotation

Brachium and Antebrachium Compartments

- Divided by lateral and medial intermuscular septum
Anterior compartment: (flexors and pronators) *innervated by MUSCULOCUTANEOUS NERVE
1. Biceps brachii
2. Brachialis (uniarticulate) - sits deep to biceps, crosses over elbow joint
3. Coracobrachialis
Posterior compartment: (extensors and supinators) *innervated by RADIAL NERVE
1. Triceps brachii
2. Anconeus - weak synergist of elbow extension

Brachium
Biceps Brachii
- Short and long head, originate from scapula
- Forearm supination, assists elbow flexion
- Short head: coracoid process
- Long head: supraglenoid tubercle
 -musculocutaneous nerve
Brachialis *beer drinking muscle
- Uniarticulate, deep to biceps and crosses over elbow joint
- Primary elbow flexor
-musculocutaneous nerve
Coracobrachialis
-originates of the coracoid process of the scapula
-assists shoulder flexion and adduction
-musculocutaneous nerve
-when it contracts it adducts
Triceps Brachii
-three heads: long, lateral and medial
-elbow extensor
Long: infraglenoid tubercle
Lateral: posterior humerus superior to radial groove
Medial: posterior humerus inferior to radial groove
-radial nerve
Anconeus - weak synergist for elbow extension

Antebrachium (forearm)
Anterior compartment - 1 ½ exceptions by ulnar nerve (pinky and half of fourth digit)
- Forearm flexors
- Pronators
Posterior compartment
- Forearm extensors
- supinators
ANTERIOR
1. Flexor Carpi Radialis
-wrist flexion, ulnar deviation
-radial nerve
2. Flexor Carpi Ulnaris
-wrist flexion, ulnar deviation
-ulnar nerve
POSTERIOR
Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus
-wrist extension, radial deviation
-radial nerve
Extensor Carpi Ulnaris
-wrist extension, ulnar deviation
-radial nerve
*Antagonist always produces less force regardless of whether it’s the bigger muscle or not\

*only need to know what muscles contribute to pronation/supination for test

LOWER EXTREMITY MUSCLES
Iliac and Psoas Major
-primary hip flexor
-two separate muscles in origin:
1. Iliacus- iliac fossa
2. Psoas- lumbar vertebrae
-common insertion
-lesser trochanter
-lumbar and femoral nerve
Gluteus Maximus
-most superficial
-largest, heaviest muscle
-one of the most powerful muscles
-hip extension, lateral rotation
Iliacus/Psoas and Gluteus Maximus are agonist/antagonist pairs
Piriformis
-pear shaped muscle
-laterally rotates extended hip, abducts flexed hip
-when standing it’s a lateral rotator and when it’s a flexed hip it becomes an abductor
-every question is from anatomical position
Lower Leg Compartment Muscles
-Anterior (Deep Peroneal Nerve)
-tibialis anterior
-primary ankle dorsiflexor and invertor
-most superficial and anterior
-agonist for dorsiflexion
-extensor digitorum longus
-primary digit extensor, assists dorsiflexion
-biarticulate muscle
-deep peroneal nerve
-extensor hallucis longus
-extends 1st digit (big toe), assists dorsiflexion
-biarticulate muscle, can’t serve as an agonist, synergist to tibialis
anterior for dorsiflexion
-deep peroneal nerve
-peroneus tertius
-runs with extensor digitorum longus
-assists dorsiflexion and eversion, in front of the M/L axis so is a synergist
-antagonist of plantarflexion
-all anterior compartment muscles dorsiflex
-Lateral (Superficial Peroneal Nerve)
-peroneus longus
-ankle eversion, assists with plantarflexion
-starts in cuboid and runs across the bottom of the foot into the base of
 the first metatarsal so it is biarticular
-can only function as a synergist for eversion
-assists with plantarflexion
-superficial peroneal nerve

-peroneus brevis
-agonist for ankle eversion when contracted at the same time as
peroneus tertius, assists with plantar flexion
-superficial peroneal nerve
-Deep Posterior (Tibial Nerve)
-popliteus
-tibialis posterior
-primary inversion, assists plantarflexion
-tibial nerve
-when contracted with the tibialis anterior, they cancel out each others
dorsiflexion and plantarflexion
-flexor digitorum longus
-digit flexion, assists plantarflexion
-tibial nerve
-flexor hallucis longus
-1st digit flexion, assists plantarflexion
-Posterior (Tibial Nerve)
-gastrocnemius
-medial and lateral heads
-ankle plantarflexion, knee flexion
-tibial nerve
-soleus
-ankle plantarflexion, agonist for plantar flexion
-tibial nerve
-plantaris
-ankle plantarflexion, knee flexion
-tibial nerve
Plantar Fascia
-fascia is thin on dorsum and thicker on plantar aspect
-thick central portion is known as the plantar aponeurosis or plantar fascia
-maintains structure, protects from injury and supports longitudinal arch
-any muscle on the lateral side of the foot (peroneus longus and peroneus brevis) will evert the
foot when contracted, any muscle on the medial side (tibialis anterior) will invert the foot when
contracted (pull the big toe inwards)
Muscle
-about 45% of total body mass
-most of body work
-skeletal muscle
-striated
 -voluntary

-smooth muscle
-non-striated
-involuntary
-cardiac muscle
-striated
-involuntary
Levels of Organization in the Muscles
-muscle group
-muscle fascicles
-bundles
-muscle fibres
-cells
-myofibrils
-myofilaments
-actin, myosin
Connective Tissue Organization
-endomysium
-muscle fibres
-perimysium
-muscle fascicles
-epimysium
-muscle bundles
Effects of muscle fascicle arrangement
-muscles consist of fascicles
-muscle fibres are parallel a fascicle
-fascicles form patterns with respect to the tendons
-parallel -fusiform -circular -triangular -pennate
Lever Systems: Bone-Muscle Relationships
-movement of skeletal muscles involves leverage
-lever: a rigid bar that moves
-fulcrum: a fixed point
-effort: applied force
-load: resistance (opposes movement)
-effort x length of effort arm = load x length of load arm
(force x distance) = (resistance x distance)
-bones act as levers
-joints act as fulcrums
-muscle contraction provides effort, applies force where muscle attaches to bone
-the load can be the bone, overlying tissue and anything lifted
First Class Levers
-not common, fulcrum is between the effort and the load
 -e.g. scissors, seesaws and lifting your head off your chest

Second Class Levers

-uncommon, load is between the fulcrum and the effort
Third Class Levers
-most common kind of lever in the body
-effort is between the fulcrum and the load
-always at a mechanical disadvantage
Structure of Skeletal Muscle
-sarcomere
-from Z-line to Z-line
-repeater units
-myofibrils
-many actin/myosin filaments
-surrounded by sarcoplasmic reticulum
Muscle Proteins
Contractile Regulatory Structural
Myosin Troponin Titin
Actin Tropomyosin Nebulin
Myomesin
Dystrophin
Titin and Nebulin
-titin stabilizes myosin
-nebulin aligns actin
Myomesin and Dystrophin
-myomesin
-part of the m-line
-dystrophin
-attaches myofilaments to sarcolemma (membrane) and fascia
-helps transmit tension and shortening to muscle group
Actin and Myosin
-myosin
-always activated
-binding sites for actin and ATP
-actin
-double helix
-binding sites for myosin
-covered by tropomyosin
-activated when Ca+ binds troponin
Muscle at Rest
-tropomyosin covers the actin binding sites
-no cross-bridges
-no shortening
Activation of Actin
-Ca 2+ binds troponin
-shifts tropomyosin
-reveals actin binding sites
-cross-bridges are now possible
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
-how a contraction is initiated
-neuromuscular junction
-axon terminal ends
-muscle end-plate
-step 1: action potential arrives at the end-plate
-acetylcholine is released from the axon end
-binds to receptors on the muscle endplate
-EPP= end-plate potential (a muscle graded potential)
-EPP travels to the side of the end-plate
-becomes a muscle action potential
-action potential moves down T-tubules to the inner core of muscle-close to
sarcoplasmic
reticulum (SR)
-action potential voltage change in the t-tubules triggers the release of Ca 2+ from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum
-action potential will activate DHP receptor
-opens the Ryanodine gate
-calcium is released into the muscle
-calcium binds to troponin
-shifts tropomyosin
-crossbridges and shortening are now possible
The Cross-Bridge Cycle
-Step 1: the energized myosin binds to actin
-Step 2: the power stroke
-myosin head pivots
-increases the overlap of actin and myosin
-sarcomere shortening
-Step 3: myosin binds ATP
-myosin head can release from ATP
-Step 4
-ATP hydrolyzes into ADP+Pi
-this allows myosin to re-pivot
-myosin is now re-energized and ready to attach to another actin molecule
-sequence repeats as longs as calcium present
Contraction
-decrease I Band
-decrease H zone
 -decrease sarcomere
-A band stays the same
-increase overlap
-Relaxation
-calcium pumps remove calcium back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
-needs ATP
-tropomyosin slides over actin sites
-no crossbridges
-actin and myosin go back to resting length
Mechanics of Body Movement
-isotonic contractions
-create force/move load
-concentric: shortening
-eccentric: lengthening
-isometric contractions
-create force without moving a load
Phases of Contraction
-isometric tension
-no visible shortening
-increasing tension
-length is constant
-isotonic shortening
-visible shortening
-tension constant
Muscle Twitch
-a single contraction-relaxation cycle
-latent period=time between action potential and contraction
Tetanus
-high frequency of action potentials
-ensures that no relaxation occurs during a sustained contraction
Motor Unit Summation
-increase in voltage
-increase in the number of fibres stimulated
-increase in contraction size
-recruited with increased load
-more fibres contracting
-more force
Effects of Load
-increase in load
-more tension needed
-longer latent period
-decrease in contraction distance
-back-slippage
-slower cross-bridge recycling
 -decrease in contraction velocity
-if tension can’t overcome the load, it is an isometric contraction
Factors that Determine Muscle Force
-muscle fibre diameter
-actin and myosin cross-bridges
-muscle fibre length
-length to tension relationship
Energy Sources in Muscle
-ATP
-Creatine Phosphate
-Glycogen
Muscle Fibre Types
-slow oxidative (type I)
-slow cross-bridge cycling
-uses oxidative metabolism for energy
-myoglobin, mitochondria, high blood flow
-“Red fibres”
-low intensity, high endurance
-e.g. High proportion in core muscles
-fast oxidative (type IIa)
-faster cross-bridge cycling
-higher intensity but lower endurance
-fast glycolytic (IIb)
-uses glycolysis for energy
-anaerobic
-highest intensity but lowest endurance
-“emergency fibres”
-“white fibres”
-based on fuel source and contraction type
Muscle Fatigue
-depends on oxidative ability
-due to
-increased lactic acid
-decreased ATP
-increased wastes
-calcium changes
Exercise Effects
-glycolytic fibres convert to oxidative
-more mitochondria
-increased blood flow
-more myoglobin
-more glycogen
-fast oxidative increase their endurance level
-more actin and myosin within the muscle fibres
 -increase diameter (“bulk up”)
-muscle cells don’t divide so fibres get bigger but don’t increase in number
Muscle Training
-weight training (heavier loads) produces increased muscle strength and size
-fast contractions tend to build up muscle endurance instead
Steroid Effects
-similar to testosterone
-increases number of actin and myosin myofilaments
-if too large, can overload the tendon
-cardiac hypertrophy
Protective Mechanisms
-overstretch
-stretch receptor reflex
-over-contraction
-golgi tendon organ reflex
Muscle spindle
-increased load stretches spindle, triggers reflex, increases contraction
Strains
-overstretching injury of muscle
-damage to actin and myosin
-muscle stiffness
-treatment
-rest/analgesics
-anti-inflammatories
Muscle Types:
-skeletal
-smooth
-cardiac
Smooth Muscle
-walls of hollow organs and tubes
-gut, blood vessels
-no striations
-filaments do not form myofibrils
-cells usually arranged in sheets
-spindle-shaped cells
-single nucleus
-has three types of filaments
-thick myosin filaments: longer than in skeletal muscle
-thin actin filaments: tropomyosin but no troponin
-intermediate filaments: not part of contraction
-cytoskeletal-supports cell shape
-diagonal arrangement of actin and myosin (reinforced by dense bodies)
-activation of myosin instead of actin
-two major types: multiunit smooth muscle and single-unit smooth muscle
 -varicosities contain neurotransmitter
Skeletal Smooth
-Calcium Sarcoplasmic reticulum -calcium from extracellular space
-activates actin -activates myosin
-troponin -myosin kinase
-T-tubules -gap junctions
Multiunit Smooth Muscle
-neurogenic
-discrete units function independently
-each must be stimulated
-large blood vessels
-large airways to lungs
-ciliary body muscle (eye)
-iris of eye
-base of hair follicles
Single-unit Smooth Muscle
-also called visceral smooth muscle
-gut, urogenital tract
-self-excitable
-doesn’t require nervous stimulation
-fibres contract as single unit
-gap junctions
-contraction is slow
Slow Wave Potential
-pacemaker potential
-modified interstitial cells
-interstitial cells of Cajal
Cardiac Muscle
-striated
-involuntary
-intercalated discs
-cardiac cells
-interconnected by gap junctions
-innervated by autonomic nervous system
Intercalated Discs
-desmosomes
-withstand stress
-gap junctions
-spread impulses

Cardiac Muscle
-pacemaker initiated
-neurogenic influence
 -Ca2+ from sarcoplasmic reticulum and extracellular space
-spread by gap junctions and special fibres
-calcium activates actin
Cardiac Action Potential
-depolarization (influx of sodium)
-plateau (influx of calcium)
-repolarization (efflux of potassium)
-long action potential
-long refractory period
Diseases of Muscle
-muscular dystrophy (MD)
-X-linked genetic disorder of skeletal muscle
-missing dystrophin
-death of muscle fibres
-degeneration of shoulder and pelvic muscle
-dystrophin
-attaches cell membrane to myofilaments
-connects fascia to muscle fibre for tension development
-structural instability when lost
-myasthenia gravis (MG)
-nerves fail to stimulate muscle
-unknown cause (autoimmune? genetic?)
-fatigue/loss of muscle use
-Bell’s Palsy
-facial nerve dysfunction
-can’t control muscle
-partial paralysis
-unknown cause
-use tends to return after a few weeks or months
-anti-inflammatories/steroids might help
Muscle Tissue Throughout Life
-with increased age
-connective tissue increases in muscles
-number of muscle fibres decreases
-loss of muscle mass with aging
-decrease in muscular strength is 50% by age 80
-sarcopenia is muscle wasting

Activation of Myosin in Smooth Muscle

-calcium from extracellular space
-activates myosin kinase
-phosphorylates myosin
Review:
-in skeletal muscle, there is always ATP on the myosin head
-smooth muscle has no phosphate on the myosin head, an enzyme adds the needed phosphate
to activate the cross-bridge cycle
-calcium comes from the sarcoplasmic reticulum for skeletal muscle, from the extracellular
space for smooth muscle and both for cardiac muscle
-eye active potential is different because sodium gates are open when at rest
-spinal reflex, monosynaptic where the sensory neuron travels to the
-if you bind a neurotransmitter to a sodium gate, you will get a depolarization (EPSP)
-if you bind a neurotransmitter to a potassium gate, you will get a hyperpolarization (IPSP)
-