DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Unit - I

Introduction:
Database is a collection of related data. Database management system is software designed to assist
the maintenance and utilization of large scale collection of data. DBMS came into existence in 1960
by Charles. Integrated data store which is also called as the first general purpose DBMS. Again in
1960 IBM brought IMS- Information management system. In 1970 Edgor Codd at IBM came with
new database called RDBMS. In 1980then came SQL Architecture- Structure Query Language. In
1980 to 1990 there were advances in DBMS e.g. DB2, ORACLE.

Data: Data is raw fact or figures or entity.

Information: The processed data is called information.

Database: A database is a collection of related data.

For example, a university database might contain information about the following:
 Entities such as students, faculty and courses.
 Relationships between entities, such as students' enrollment in courses, faculty teaching
courses.

Database Management System:

A Database Management System (DBMS) is a collection of program that enables user to create,
maintain and manipulate a database.
The DBMS is hence a general purpose software system that facilitates the process of defining,
constructing and manipulating database for various applications.

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Characteristics of DBMS

• ■ Self-describing nature of a database system

• ■ Insulation between programs and data, and data abstraction

• ■ Support of multiple views of the data

• ■ Sharing of data and multiuser transaction processing.

1. Self-Describing Nature of a Database System -A fundamental characteristic of the database approach is
that the database system contains not only the database itself but also a complete definition or description of
the database structure and constraints. This definition is stored in the DBMS catalog, which contains
information such as the structure of each file, the type and storage format of each data item, and various
constraints on the data. The information stored in the catalog is called meta-data, and it describes the
structure of the database.
2. Insulation between Programs and Data, and Data Abstraction-, DBMS access programs do not require
such changes in most cases. The structure of data files is stored in the DBMS catalog separately from the
access programs. We call this property program-data independence.
The implementation (or method) of the operation is specified separately and can be changed without
affecting the interface. User application programs can operate on the data by invoking these operations
through their names and arguments, regardless of how the operations are implemented. This may be termed
program-operation independence.
3. Support of Multiple Views of the Data-A database typically has many types of users, each of whom may
require a different perspective or view of the database. A view may be a subset of the database or it may
contain virtual data that is derived from the database files but is not explicitly stored.
4. Sharing of Data and Multiuser Transaction Processing: A multiuser DBMS, as its name implies, must
allow multiple users to access the database at the same time. This is essential if data for multiple
applications is to be integrated and maintained in a single database. The DBMS must include concurrency
control software to ensure that several users trying to update the same data

ADVANTAGES OF DBMS
1. Controlling Redundancy- This redundancy in storing the same data multiple times leads to several
problems.

First Such as entering data on a new student—multiple times: once for each file where student data is
recorded. This leads to duplication of effort.

Second, storage space is wasted when the same data is stored repeatedly, and this problem may be
serious for large databases.

Third, files that represent the same data may become inconsistent. This may happen because an update is
applied to some of the files but not to others. Technique used are data normalization ,demoralization.

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2. Restricting Unauthorized Access-When multiple users share a large database, it is likely that most users
will not be authorized to access all information in the database. Only authorized persons are allowed to
access such data. In addition, some users may only be permitted to retrieve data, whereas others are allowed
to retrieve and update. Hence, the type of access operation—retrieval or update—must also be controlled.
DBMS is a secure and authorized system

3. Techniques for Efficient Query Processing-Database systems must provide capabilities for efficiently
executing queries and updates. Because the database is typically stored on disk, the DBMS must provide
specialized data structures and search techniques to speed up disk search for the desired records. Types of
searching are Indexing, Buffering and Caching and query processing and optimization

4. Providing Backup and Recovery- A DBMS must provide facilities for recovering from hardware or
software failures. The backup and recovery subsystem of the DBMS is responsible for recovery.
5. Providing Multiple User Interfaces-Because many types of users with varying levels of technical
knowledge use a database, a DBMS should provide a variety of user interfaces. These include apps for
mobile users, query languages for casual users, programming language interfaces for application
programmers, etc
6. Representing Complex Relationships among Data-A database may include numerous varieties of data
that are interrelated in many ways. A DBMS must have the capability to represent a variety of complex
relationships among the data, to define new relationships as they arise, and to retrieve and update related
data easily and efficiently.
7. Enforcing Integrity Constraints Most database applications have certain integrity constraints that must
hold for the data. A DBMS should provide capabilities for defining and enforcing these constraints. The
simplest type of integrity constraint involves specifying a data type for each data item.

Different people behind DBMS

These apply to "large" databases, not "personal" databases that are defined, constructed, and
used by a single person via, say, Microsoft Access.
There are two categories of people behind DBMS
a) Those who actually use and control the database content, and those who design, develop and
maintain database applications (called ―Actors on the Scene)
b) Those who design and develop the DBMS software and related tools, and the computer systems
operators (called ―Workers Behind the Scene).

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a) Actors on the Scene

1. Database Administrator (DBA): DBA is a person who is responsible for authorizing access to
the database, coordinating and monitoring its use, and acquiring software and hardware
resources as needed.
2. Database Designers: They are responsible for identifying the data to be stored and for
choosing an appropriate way to organize it. They also define views for different categories of
users. The final design must be able to support the requirements of all the user sub-groups.
3. End Users: These are persons who access the database for querying, updating, and report
generation. They are main reason for database's existence!
o Casual end users: use database occasionally, needing different information each time; use query
language to specify their requests; typically middle- or high- level managers.
o Naive/Parametric end users: Typically the biggest group of users; frequently query/update the
database using standard canned transactions that have been carefully programmed and tested in
advance. Examples:
Bank tellers check account balances, post withdrawals/deposits

Reservation clerks for airlines, hotels, etc., check availability of seats/rooms and make reservations.
o Sophisticated end users: engineers, scientists, business analysts who implement their own
applications to meet their complex needs.
o Stand-alone users: Use "personal" databases, possibly employing a special- purpose (e.g.,
financial) software package. Mostly maintain personal databases using ready-to-use packaged
applications.
o An example is a tax program user that creates its own internal database.

o Another example is maintaining an address book

4. System Analysts, Application Programmers, Software Engineers:

o System Analysts: determine needs of end users, especially naive and parametric users, and
develop specifications for canned transactions thatmeet these needs.
o Application Programmers: Implement, test, document, and maintain programs that
satisfy the specifications mentioned above.

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 DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
b) Workers behind the Scene
1) DBMS system designers/implementers: provide the DBMS software that is at the foundation of
all this!
2) Tool developers: design and implement software tools facilitating database system design,
performance monitoring, creation of graphical user interfaces, prototyping, etc.
3) Operators and maintenance personnel: responsible for the day-to-day operation of the
system.

Data models

Data Models, Schemas, and Instances

A data model is a collection of concepts that can be used to describe the structure of a
database. Data models describe how a database’s logical structure is represented. In a
database management system, data models are essential for introducing abstraction.

TYPES OF DATA MODEL

1. Hierarchical Model

The hierarchical data model is one of the oldest data models, developed in the 1950s by IBM. In this data model,
the data is organized in a hierarchical tree-like structure. This data model can be easily visualized because each
record has one parent and many children

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Advantages:
1. The representation of records is done using an ordered tree, which is natural method of
implementation of one–to-many relationships.
2. Proper ordering of the tree results in easier and faster retrieval of records.

Network Model

A network model is nothing but a generalization of the hierarchical data model as this data model
allows many to many relationships therefore in this model a record can also have more than one parent.
The network model can be represented as a graph and hence it replaces the hierarchical tree with a graph
in whichobject types are the nodes and relationships are the edges. For example -

Advantages-
Data access and Data manipulation can be done easily with this model.

Relational Model

This is the most widely accepted data model. In this model, the database is represented as a collection of
relations in the form of rows and columns of a two-dimensional table. Each row is known as a tuple (a tuple
contains all the data for an individual record) while each column represents an attribute.

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Advantages
1. The main advantage of this model is its ability to represent data in a simplified format.
2. The process of manipulating record is simplified with the use of certain key attributes used to
retrieve data.
3. Representation of different types of relationship is possible with this model.

Entity-Relationship model (ER Model)

An Entity-Relationship model is a high-level data model that describes the structure of the database in a pictorial
form which is known as ER-diagram.

Entity
Entity Set
Attributes
Relationships

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SCHEMAS, INSTANCES, AND DATABASE STATE

In a data model, it is important to distinguish between the description of the database and the database itself. The
description of a database is called the database schema, which is specified during database design and is not
expected to change frequently.
A displayed schema is called a schema diagram. We call each object in the schema—such as STUDENT or
COURSE—a schema constructs.

 The data in the database at a particular moment in time is called a database state or snapshot. It is also
called the current set of occurrences or instances in the database.

 Initial database state-refers to the database state when it is initially loaded into the system

 Valid state- A state that satisfies the structure and constraints of the database.

 The schema is sometimes called the intension, and a database state is called an extension ofthe schema.
 Schema does not change frequently but data base state change whenever there is updation

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The Three-Schema Architecture

In this architecture, schemas can be defined at the following three levels:

1. The internal level has an internal schema: The internal level has an internal schema, which describes the
physical storage structure of the database it is also called as Internal or Physical level.
 This is the lowest level of database abstraction. It describes how the data is actually stored in the database
and provides methods to access data from the database.
2. The conceptual level has a conceptual schema: The conceptual level has a conceptual schema, which
describes the structure of the whole database for a community of users.
 The conceptual schema hides the details of physical storage structures and concentrates on describing
entities, data types, relationships, user operations, and constraints

3. External or View level: This is the highest level of database abstraction. External or view level describes the
actual view of data that is relevant to the particular user.

 This level also provides different views of the same database for a specific user or a group of users. An
external view provides a powerful and flexible security mechanism by hiding the parts of the database from
a particular user.
Data Independence
Data independence can be defined as the capacity to change the schema at one level without changing
the schema at next higher level.
It also means the internal structure of database should be unaffected by changes to physical aspects of
storage. Because of data independence, the Database administrator can change the database storage
structures without affecting the users view.
 The different levels of data abstraction are:

1. Physical data independence

2. Logical data independence

1. Physical data independence is the capacity to change the internal schema without
changing the conceptual schema (logical).
2. Logical data independence is the capacity to change the conceptual schema without having
to change the external schema (physical).

DATABASE LANGUAGES
Data Definition Language
o DDL stands for Data Definition Language. It is used to define database structure or pattern.
o It is used to create schema, tables, indexes, constraints, etc. in the database.
o Using the DDL statements, you can create the skeleton of the database.
o Data definition language is used to store the information of metadata like the number of tables and
schemas, their names, indexes, columns in each table, constraints, etc.

Here are some tasks that come under DDL:

 Create: It is used to create objects in the database.

 Alter: It is used to alter the structure of the database.
 Drop: It is used to delete objects from the database.
 Truncate: It is used to remove all records from a table.
 Rename: It is used to rename an object.
 Comment: It is used to comment on the data dictionary.

Data Manipulation Language:

DML stands for Data Manipulation Language. It is used for accessing and manipulating data in a database. It
handles user requests.
Here are some tasks that come under DML:

 SELECT - retrieve data from the a database

 INSERT - insert data into a table
 UPDATE - updates existing data within a table
 DELETE - deletes all records from a table
 A data-manipulation language (DML) is a language that enables users to access or manipulate data as
organized by the appropriate data model.

Data Control Language

 DCL stands for Data Control Language. It is used to retrieve the stored or saved data.
 The DCL execution is transactional. It also has rollback parameters.

Here are some tasks that come under DCL:

 Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.

 Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.

Transaction Control Language

TCL is used to run the changes made by the DML statement. TCL can be grouped into a logical transaction.

Here are some tasks that come under TCL:

 Commit: It is used to save the transaction on the database.

 Rollback: It is used to restore the database to original since the last Commit.

DBMS Interfaces

User-friendly interfaces provided by a DBMS may include the following.

 Menu-based Interfaces for Web Clients or Browsing-These interfaces present the user with lists of
options (called menus) that lead the user through the formulation of a request.
 Menus help the user need to memorize the specific commands and syntax of a query language; rather, the
query is composed step- by step by picking options from a menu that is displayed by the system.
 Pull-down menus are a very populartechnique in Web-based user interfaces.

 Apps for Mobile Devices- These interfaces present mobile users with access to their data. For example,
banking, reservations, and insurance companies, among many others, provide apps that allow users to
access their data through a mobile phone or mobile device.

 The apps have built-in programmed interfacesthat typically allow users to login using their account name
and password; the apps then provide a limited menu of options for mobile access to the user data.

 Forms-based Interfaces- A forms-based interface displays a form to each user. Users can fill out all of the
form entries to insert new data, or they can fill out only certain entries, in which case the DBMS will
retrieve matching data for the remaining entries. Forms are usually designed and programmed for naive
users as interfaces to canned transactions. Many DBMSs have forms specification languages, which are
special languages that help programmers to implement these interfaces.
 Graphical User Interfaces-A GUI typically displays a schema to the user in diagrammatic form. The user
then can specify a query by manipulating the diagram. In many cases, GUIs utilize both menus and forms.
 Natural Language Interfaces- These interfaces accept requests written in English or some other language
and attempt to understand them. A natural language interface usually has its own schema and dictionary of
important words. The natural language interface refers to the words in its schema, as well as to the set of
standard words in its dictionary, that are used to interpret the request. If the interpretation is successful, the
interface generates a high-level query corresponding to the natural language request and submits it to the
DBMS for processing; otherwise, a dialogue is started with the user to clarify the request.
 Keyword-based Database Search. Keywords, also commonly called search terms, are the words that you
enter into the database search boxes. They represent the main concepts of your research topic and are the
words used in everyday life to describe the topic. Without the right keywords, you may have difficulty
finding the articles that you need.
 Speech Input and Output. Limited use of speech as an input query and speech as an answer to a
questionor result of a request is becoming commonplace. Applications with limited vocabularies, such as
inquiries for telephone directory, flight arrival/departure, and credit card account information, are
allowing speech for input and output to enable customers to access this information. The speech input is
detected using a library of predefined words and used to set up the parameters that are supplied to the
queries. For output, asimilar conversion from text or numbers into speech takes place.

 Interfaces for Parametric Users. Parametric users, such as bank tellers, often have a small set of
operations that they must perform repeatedly. For example, a teller is able to use single function keys to
invoke routine and repetitive transactions such as account deposits or withdrawals, or balance inquiries.
Systems analysts and programmers design and implement a special interface for each known class of naive
users.

 Interfaces for the DBA. Most database systems contain privileged commands that can be used only by the
DBA staff. These include commands for creating accounts, setting system parameters, granting account
authorization, changing a schema, and reorganizing the storage structures of a database.
The Database System Environment

Figure shows a simplified form, the typical DBMS components.

The figure is divided into two parts.
 The top part of the figure refers to the various users of the database environment and their interfaces.
 The lower part shows the internal modules of the DBMS responsible for storage of data and processing of
transactions.
The database and the DBMS catalog are usually stored on disk; it stores metadata and schemas
A higher-level stored data manager module of the DBMS controls accessto DBMS information that
is stored on disk,
Let us consider the top part of Figure first. It shows interfaces for the DBA staff, casual users who work with
interactive interfaces to formulate queries, application programmers who create programs using some host
programming languages, and parametric users who do data entry work by supplying parameters to predefined
transactions.
The DBA staff works on defining the database and tuning it by making changes to its definition using the DDL
and other privileged commands.
The DDL compiler processes schema definitions, specified in the DDL, and stores descriptions of the schemas
(meta-data) in the DBMS catalog.
The catalog includes information such as the names and sizes of files, names and data types of data items,
storage details of each file, mapping information among schemas, and constraints.
Other DBMS modules can look up the catalog information as needed.
Casual users and persons with occasional need for information from the database interact using the interactive
query interface in Figure.
These queries are parsed and validated for correctness of the query syntax, the names of files and data elements,
and so on by a query compiler that compiles them into an internal form.
This internal query is subjected to query optimization the query optimizer is concerned with the rearrangement
and possible reordering of operations, elimination of redundancies, during execution.
Application programmers write programs in host languages such as Java, C, or C++ that are submitted to a pre-
compiler.
The pre-compiler extracts DML commands from an application program written in a host programming
language.
These commands are sent to the DML compiler for compilation. The rest of the program is sent to the host
language compiler. Both the compiled code are linked, forming a compiled transactions or canned which are
executed by run time database processor.

Database System Utilities-

In addition to possessing the software modules just described, most DBMSs have database utilities that help
the DBA manage the database system. Common utilities have the following types of functions:

■ Loading. A loading utility is used to load existing data files—such as text files or sequential files—into the
database. Usually, the current (source) format of the data file and the desired (target) database file structure are
specified to the utility, which then automatically reformats the data and stores it in the database. With the
proliferation of DBMSs, transferring data from one DBMS to another is becoming common in many
organizations. Some vendors offer conversion tools that generate the appropriate loading programs, given the
existing source and target database storage descriptions (internal schemas).

■ Backup. A backup utility creates a backup copy of the database, usually by dumping the entire database onto
tape or other mass storage medium. The backup copy can be used to restore the database in case of catastrophic
disk failure. Incremental backups are also often used, where only changes since the previous backup are
recorded. Incremental backup is more complex, but saves storage space.

■ Database storage reorganization. This utility can be used to reorganize a set of database files into different
file organizations and create new access paths to improve performance.

■ Performance monitoring. Such a utility monitors database usage and provides statistics to the DBA. The
DBA uses the statistics in making decisions such as whether or not to reorganize files or whether to add or drop
indexes to improve performance. Other utilities may be available for sorting files, handling data compression,
monitoring access by users, interfacing with the network, and performing other functions.
DBMS CLASSIFICATION

 Based on number of users DBMS is classified as the number of users supported by the system.

 Single-user systems support only one user at a time and are mostly used with PCs.

 Multiuser systems, which include the majority of DBMSs, support concurrent multiple users.

 Based on the number of sites over which the database is distributed.

 A DBMS is centralized if the data is stored at a single computer site. A centralized DBMS can support
multiple users, but the DBMS and the database reside totally at a single computer site.

 A distributed DBMS (DDBMS) can have the actual database and DBMS software distributed over
many sites connected by a computer network. Big data systems are often massively distributed, with
hundreds of sites. The data is often replicated on multiple sites so that failure of a site will not make
some data unavailable.

 Homogeneous DDBMSs use the same DBMS software at all the sites, whereas

 Heterogeneous DDBMSs can use different DBMS software at each site.

 Based on the purpose the DBMS is classified into

 General purpose- Data bases used by normal end users are general purpose DBMS.

 Specific purpose- When performance is a primary consideration, a special-purpose DBMS can be

designed and built for a specific application; such a system cannot be used for other applications without
major changes. Many airline reservations and telephone directory systems developed in the past are
special-purpose DBMSs.

 Based in the data models DBMS is classified into

Hierarchical Model

The hierarchical data model is one of the oldest data models, developed in the 1950s by IBM. In this data
model, the data is organized in a hierarchical tree-like structure. This data model can be easily visualized
because each record has one parent and many children
 Network Model
A network model is nothing but a generalization of the hierarchical data model as this data model allows
many to many relationships therefore in this model a record can also have more than one parent.
The network model can be represented as a graph and hence it replaces the hierarchical tree with a graph in
which object types are the nodes and relationships are the edges. For example –

Relational Model

This is the most widely accepted data model. In this model, the database is represented as a collection of
relations in the form of rows and columns of a two-dimensional table. Each row is known as a tuple (a tuple
contains all the data for an individual record) while each column represents an attribute.

Differentiate between centralized and distributed data base

Centralized Distributed
Database is maintained at one site Database is maintained at a number of
different sites

If centralized system fails, entire system If one system fails, system continues
is halted. work with other sites

Less reliable More reliable

 Difference between File System and DBMS

Basics File System DBMS

The file system is a way of arranging the files in DBMS is software for managing the
Structure a storage medium within a computer. database.

Data
Redundant data can be present in a file system. In DBMS there is no redundant data.
Redundancy

Backup and It doesn’t provide Inbuilt mechanism for backup It provides in house tools for backup and
Recovery and recovery of data if it is lost. recovery of data even if it is lost.

Query There is no efficient query processing in the file Efficient query processing is there in
processing system. DBMS.

There is more data consistency because of

There is less data consistency in the file system.
Consistency the process of normalization.

It has more complexity in handling as

It is less complex as compared to DBMS.
Complexity compared to the file system.

Security File systems provide less security in comparison DBMS has more security mechanisms as
Constraints to DBMS. compared to file systems.

It has a comparatively higher cost than a

It is less expensive than DBMS.
Cost file system.

In DBMS data independence exists, mainly

of two types:
There is no data independence.
Data 1) Logical Data Independence.
Independence 2) Physical Data Independence.

User Access Only one user can access data at a time. Multiple users can access data at a time.
Responsibilities of the DBA and Database Designer
It is responsibility of the DBA to tune the database performance.
1) Installing and upgrading the DBMS Servers: - DBA is responsible for installing a new DBMS server for the
new projects. He is also responsible for upgrading these servers as there are new versions comes in the market or
requirement.
2) Performance Tuning:-Since database is huge and it will have lots of tables, data, constraints and indices, there
will be variations in the performance from time to time.
3) Backup & Recovery: - Proper backup and recovery programs needs to be developed by DBA and has to be
maintained him. This is one of the main responsibilities of DBA. Data should be backed up regularly so that if there is
any crash, it should be recovered without much effort and data loss.
4) Documentation:-DBA should basically maintain all his installation, backup, recovery, security methods. He
should keep various reports about database performance.
5) Security:-DBA is responsible for creating various database users and roles, and giving them different levels of
access rights.
 Chapter 2 Entity-Relationship Model

Data Modeling Using the Entity-

Relationship Model
o ER model stands for an Entity-Relationship model.
o This model is used to define the entities and relationship between the entities for a specified system.
o It is a high-level data model

Entity-Relationship Diagram
A graphical representation of entity-relationship model. Also called E-R diagram or just ERD.

Entity
 An entity is an object that exists and which is distinguishable from other objects.

 An entity canbe a person, a place, an object, an event, or a concept about which an

organization wishes to maintain data.
 For example, in a school database, student, teachers, class and course offered can be consideredas
entities. All entities have some attributes or properties that give them their identity.

Entity Types, Entity Sets, Keys, and Value Sets

Entity Types and Entity Sets. Entity set- A database usually contains groups of entities that are similar. For
example, a company employing hundreds of employees may want to store similar information concerning each
of the employees. These employee entities share the same attributes, but each entity has its own value(s) for
each attribute.
An entity type defines a collection (or set) of entities that have the same attributes. Each entity type in the
database is described by its name and attributes. Figure shows two entity types: EMPLOYEE and COMPANY
and a list of some of the attributes for each. A few individual entities of each type are also illustrated, along with
the values of their attributes. The collection of all entities of a particular entity type in thedatabase at any point in
time is called an entity set or entity collection.
Attributes
An attribute is a property that describes an entity. All attributes have values. For example, a
student entity may have name, class, age as attributes.
There exists a domain or range of values that can be assigned to attributes. For example, a
student's name cannot be a numeric value. It has to be alphabetic. A student's age cannot be
negative, etc.

Types of attributes:
o Simple attribute: Simple attributes are atomic values, which cannot be divided
further. For example, student's phone-number is an atomic value of 10 digits.
o Composite attribute: Composite attributes are made of more than one simple attribute. For
example, a student's name may have First name and Last name.
o Derived attribute: Derived attributes are attributes, which do not exist physical in the database,
but there values are derived from other attributes presented in the database. For example, Age
can be derived from DOB.
o Stored attribute: An attribute whose value cannot be derived from the values of other
attributes is called a stored attribute. For example, DOB
o Single-valued attribute: Single valued attributes contain on single value. For example:
SocialSecurityNumber.
o Multi-value attribute: Multi-value attribute may contain more than one value. For example, a
person can have more than one phone numbers, Email ID etc.

Keys
o Keys play an important role in the relational database. It is a attribute or set of attribute used to uniquely
identify any record or row of data (tuple) from the table. It is also used to establish and identify
relationships between tables.

For example, ID is used as a key in the Student table because it is unique for each student. In the PERSON
table, passport_number, license_number, SSN are keys since they are unique for each person.
 In the above table Emp-id,Aadhar-no and email _id are keys and .name cannot be a key.

Types of keys:

1. Super Key

Super key is an combination of all possible attributes that can uniquely identify a tuple. A super key is a
superset of a candidate key. A table can have multiple super keys.

2. Candidate key
o A candidate key is an attribute or set of attributes that can uniquely identify a tuple..
o Candidate key is a minimal super key. Candidate key cannot have NULL values.
 o

3. Primary key
o Primary key is one of the candidate key choosen by the database designer to uniquely identify the tuple,
In the EMPLOYEE table, ID can be the primary key since it is unique for each employee. In the
EMPLOYEE table, we can even select License Number and Passport_Number as primary keys since
they are also unique.
o For each entity, the primary key selection is based on requirements and developers.
o The value of the primary key cannot be NULL. The value of primary key is always unique and cannot
have duplication.
o The value of the primary key cannot be changed. There can be only one primary key in a table

4. Alternate key
Out of all the candidate key only one get selected as the primary key and the remaining keys are called
alternate keys.
From the candidate key empid is primary key, adhaar no. and email id are alternate key.

For example, employee relation has two attributes, Employee_Id and PAN_No, that act as candidate keys. In
this relation, Employee_Id is chosen as the primary key, so the other candidate key, PAN_No, acts as the
Alternate key.
 5. Foreign key
o Foreign keys are the column of the table used to point to the primary key of another table.
o It is used to link two table together. We add the primary key of the DEPARTMENT table,
Department_Id, as a new attribute in the EMPLOYEE table.
o In the EMPLOYEE table, Department_Id is the foreign key, and both the tables are related.
o Foreign key may have NULL values. And foreign key need not be unique.
o Referenced table may be called as the master table or primary table and the referencing table is called as
foreign table.

6. Composite key

Whenever a primary key consists of more than one attribute, it is known as a composite key. This key is also
known as Concatenated Key.
For example, in employee relations, we assume that an employee may be assigned multiple roles, and an
employee may work on multiple projects simultaneously. So the primary key will be composed of all three
attributes, namely Emp_ID, Emp_role, and Proj_ID in combination. So these attributes act as a composite key
since the primary key comprises more than one attribute.

Value Sets (Domains) of Attributes. Each simple attribute of an entity type is associated with a value set (or
domain of values), which specifies the set of values that may be assigned to that attribute for each individual
entity.
Say for example in an employee table if the range of ages allowed for employees is between 20and 60, we can
specify the valueset of the Age attribute of EMPLOYEE to be the set of integer numbers between 20and 60.
Similarly, we can specify the value set for the Name attribute to be the set of strings of alphabetic characters
separated by blank characters, and so on.
Mathematically, an attribute A of entity set E whose value set is V can be defined as a function from E to the
power set P(V) of V:
A : E →P(V)

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Relationship

Any association between two entity types is called a relationship. Entities take part in the relationship. It is
represented by a diamond shape.

For example, A teacher teaches students. Here, " teaches " is a relationship and this is the relationship between a
Teacher entity and a Student entity.

Degree of Relationship

In DBMS, a degree of relationship represents the number of entity types that associate in a relationship.
Forexample, we have two entities, one is a student and the other is teacher and they are connected with the
primary key and foreign key. So, here we can see that the degree of relationship is 2, as 2 entities are
associating in a relationship.

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Types of degree
Now, based on the number of linked entity types, we have 4 types of degrees of relationships.
1. Unary
2. Binary
3. Ternary
4. N-ary

Let’s discuss them one by one with the help of examples.

Unary-In this type of relationship, both the associating entity type are the same. So, we can say that
unary relationships exist when both entity types are the same and we call them the degree of relationship
is 1. Or in other words, in a relation only one entity set is participating then such type of relationship is
known as a unary relationship.’

Example: In a particular class, we have many students, there are monitors too. So, here class monitors
are also students. Thus, we can say that only students are participating here. So the degree of such type
of relationship is 1.

Binary (degree 2)-In a Binary relationship, there are two types of entity associates. So, we can say that a
Binary relationship exists when there are two types of entity and we call them a degree of relationship is 2.
Or in other words, in a relation when two entity sets are participating then such type of relationship is
known as a binary relationship. This is the most used relationship and one can easily be converted into a
relational table.

Example: We have two entity types ‘Student’ and ‘ID’ where each ‘Student’ has his ‘ID’. So, here two
entity types are associating we can say it is a binary relationship. Also, one ‘Student’ can have many
‘daughters’ but each ‘daughter’ should belong to only one ‘father. We can say that it is a one-to-many
binary relationship.

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Ternary(degree 3)- In the Ternary relationship, there are three types of entity associates. So, we can say
that a Ternary relationship exists when there are three types of entity and we call them a degree of
relationship is 3. Since the number of entities increases due to this, it becomes very complex to turn E-R
into a relational table. Now let’s understand with the examples.

Example: We have three entity types ‘Teacher’, ‘Course’, and ‘Class’. The relationship between these
entities is defined as the teacher teaching a particular course, also the teacher teaches a particular class. So,
here three entity types are associating we can say it is a ternary relationship.

N-ary (n degree)-In the N-ary relationship, there are n types of entity that associates. So, we can say that an
N-ary relationship exists when there are n types of entities. There is one limitation of the N-ary relationship,
as there are many entities so it is very hard to convert into an entity, rational table. So, this is very
uncommon, unlike binary which is very much popular.

Example: We have 5 entities Teacher, Class, Location, Salary, Course. So, here five entity types are
associating we can say an n-ary relationship is 5.

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Roles and structural constraints

Roles- Each entity type that participates in a relationship type plays a particular role in the relationship.
The role name signifies the role that a participating entity from the entity type plays in each relationship
instance and helps to explain what the relationship means.
For example, in the WORKS FOR relationship type EMPLOYEE plays the role of employee or worker
and DEPARTMENT plays a role of department or employer.
A relationship type R among n entity types E1, E2, . . . , En defines a set of associations or a relationship set—
among entities from these entity types.
For example, consider a relationship type WORKS_FOR between the two entity types

EMPLOYEE and DEPARTMENT, which associates each employee with the department for which the
employee works. Each relationship instance in the relationship set WORKS_FOR associates one EMPLOYEE
entity and one DEPARTMENT entity.

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Structural constraints
There are two main types
1. Cardinality ratio
2. Participation

Mapping Cardinalities:
Cardinality defines the number of entities in one entity set which can be associated to the
number of entities of other set via relationship set.
Types of Cardinality Ratios-
There are 4 types of cardinality ratios-

 Many-to-Many cardinality (m:n)

 Many-to-One cardinality (m:1)
 One-to-Many cardinality (1:n)
 One-to-One cardinality (1:1 )

1. Many-to-Many Cardinality-

By this cardinality constraint,

 An entity in set A can be associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in set B.
 An entity in set B can be associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in set A.
Symbol Used- 

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Example- Consider the following ER diagram-

2. Many-to-One Cardinality-

By this cardinality constraint,

 An entity in set A can be associated with at most one entity in set B.

 An entity in set B can be associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in set A.
Symbol Used-

Example- Consider the following ER diagram-

 One student can enroll in at most one course.

 One course can be enrolled by any number (zero or more) of students.

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3. One-to-Many Cardinality-
By this cardinality constraint,

 An entity in set A can be associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in set B.
 An entity in set B can be associated with at most one entity in set A.

Symbol Used-

Example- Consider the following ER diagram-

Here,

 One student can enroll in any number (zero or more) of courses.

 One course can be enrolled by at most one student.

1. One-to-One Cardinality-

By this cardinality constraint,

 An entity in set A can be associated with at most one entity in set B.

 An entity in set B can be associated with at most one entity in set A.

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Symbol Used-

Example- Consider the following ER diagram-

Here,

 One student can enroll in at most one course.

 One course can be enrolled by at most one student.

Participation Constraints and Existence Dependencies. The participation constraint specifies whether
the existence of an entity depends on its being related to another entity via the relationship type.
This constraint specifies the minimum number of relationship instances that each entity can participate in and
is sometimes called the minimum cardinality constraint.
There are two types of participation constraints
 Total
 Partial—that we illustrate by example.
If a company policy states that every employee must work for a department, then an employee
entity can exist only if it participates in at least one WORKS_FOR relationship instance Thus, the
Participation of EMPLOYEE in WORKS_FOR is called total participation,
meaning that every entity in thetotal set of employee entities must be related to a department entity via
WORKS_FOR. Total participation is also called existence dependency.

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In Figure below we do not expect every employee to manage a department, so the participation of
EMPLOYEE in the MANAGES relationship type is partial, meaning that some or part of the set of
employee entities are related to some department entity via MANAGES, but not necessarily all.

.
In ER diagrams, total participation (or existence dependency) is displayed as a double
line connecting the participating entity type to the relationship, whereas partial participation
is represented by a single line (see Figure 3.2).

1. Total Participation-

1. It specifies that each entity in the entity set must compulsorily participate in at least one relationship
instance in that relationship set. That is why, it is also called as mandatory participation.

2. Total participation is represented using a double line between the entity set and relationship set.

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Example-

Here,

Double line between the entity set “Student” and relationship set “Enrolled in” signifies total participation. It
specifies that each student must be enrolled in at least one course.

2. Partial Participation-

1. It specifies that each entity in the entity set may or may not participate in the relationship instance in that
relationship set. That is why, it is also called as optional participation.
2. Partial participation is represented using a single line between the entity set and relationship set.

Example-

Here,

Single line between the entity set “Course” and relationship set “Enrolled in” signifies partial participation. It
specifies that there might exist some courses for which no enrollment are made.

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Weak entity types and strong entity type.

An entity is a thing or object in a real world that is distinguishable from other objects. In ER diagram an entity is
represented using rectangles.

There are two types of entities in ER diagram

1. Strong entity
2. Weak entity

Strong entity- The strong entity always has a primary key. Its existence is not dependent on any other entity
i.e it is independent of other entity.
A set of strong entities is known as strong entity set.
Strong entity is represented by a single rectangle.

Weak entity- The weak entity does not have a sufficient attributes to form a primary key. i.e weak entity do
not have a primary key.
A weak entity is dependent on a strong entity to ensure its existence. It is represented by double rectangle.

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Example 2

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Entity diagram examples

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Example of E-R diagram

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ER Diagram for Company Database

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