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R20 CN UMIT-3 - unit-3

COMPUTER SCIENCE ENGINEERING (Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,

Kakinada)

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COMPUTER NETWORKS MULTIPLE ACCESS

Media Access Conttrol
Syllabus: Multiple Access
Random Access: ALOHA, Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA), CSMA with Collision Detection, CSMA with Collision
Avoidance, Controlled Access: Reservation, Polling, Token Pasng, Channelization: frequency division multiple
access(FDMA), time division multiple access(TDMA), code division multiple access(CDMA).
Wired LANs:Etthernet,Ethernet Protocol,Standard Ethernet,Fast Ethernet,Gigabit Ethernet,10GGigabit Ethernet
Multiple Access:
 Data link layer in the OSI model is divided into two layers,

 The upper sublayer is responsible for flow and error control is called as LLC (Logical Link Control)
layer.
 The lower sublayer is responsible for Multiple access resolution is called Media Access Control(MAC)
layer.
Multiple Access Protocols:

Random Access Protocols:

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 We have different Random-Access methods listed as
 ALOHA
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
 CSMA CD (Collision Detection)
 CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance)

ALOHA:
 ALOHA, the earliest random access method, was developed at the University of Hawaii in early 1970.
 It was designed for a radio (wireless) LAN, but it can be used on any shared medium.
 It is obvious that there are potential collisions in this arrangement.
 The medium is shared between the stations. When a station sends data, another station may attempt
to do so at the same time. The data from the two stations collide and become garbled.
 There are two forms of ALOHA
1. Pure ALOHA
2. Slotted ALOHA

 Pure ALOHA:
 The original ALOHA protocol is called pure ALOHA. This is a simple, but elegant protocol.
 The idea is that each station sends a frame whenever it has a frame to send.
 Since there is only one channel to share, there is the possibility of collision between frames
from different stations.
 A collision involves two or more stations.

Figure: Pure ALOHA

 The pure ALOHA protocol relies on acknowledgments from the receiver.

o When a station sends a frame, it expects the receiver to send an acknowledgment.
o If the acknowledgment does not arrive after a time-out period, the station assumes
that the frame (or the acknowledgment) has been destroyed and resends the frame.
o If all these stations try to resend their frames after the time-out, the frames will collide
again.

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 Collision Prevention in Pure ALOHA:

o Pure ALOHA dictates that when the time-out period passes, each station waits a
random amount of time before resending its frame.
o After a maximum number of retransmission attempts Kmax' a station must give up
and try later.
o Vulnerable Time: The length of the collision is given by the Vulnerable Time.

Figure: Vulnerable Time of Pure ALOHA

o Let us assume that the stations send fixed-length frames with each frame taking Tfr s
to send.
o The Above figure gives the vulnerable time of the Station A, Station A sends a frame at
time t. Now imagine station B has already sent a frame between t - Tfr and t. This leads to
a collision between the frames from station A and station B. The end of B's frame collides
with the beginning of A's frame.
o On the other hand, suppose that station C sends a frame between t and t+Tfr. Here, there
is a collision between frames from station A and station C. The beginning of C's frame
collides with the end of A's frame.
o The vulnerable time, during which a collision may occur in pure ALOHA, is 2 times the
frame transmission time.
Pure ALOHA vulnerable time = 2 x Tfr
 Slotted ALOHA:
 Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA.
 In slotted ALOHA we divide the time into slots of Tfr s and force the station to send only at the
beginning of the time slot.
 Because a station is allowed to send only at the beginning of the synchronized time slot, if a
station misses this moment, it must wait until the beginning of the next time slot. This means
that the station which started at the beginning of this slot has already finished sending its
frame.

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 There is still the possibility of collision if two stations try to send at the beginning of the same
time slot.

Figure: Slotted ALOHA

 Vulnerable Time: The vulnerable time for slotted ALOHA is one-half that of pure ALOHA.
Slotted ALOHA vulnerable time = Tfr

Figure: Vulnerable Time of Slotted ALOHA

 Throughput:
o The average number of successful transmissions for slotted ALOHA is S = G x e-G.
o The maximum throughput Smax is 0.368, when G = 1. In other words, if a frame is
generated during one frame transmission time, then 36.8 percent of these frames
reach their destination successfully. This result can be expected because the
vulnerable time is equal to the frame transmission time.
o If a station generates only one frame in this vulnerable time (and no other station
generates a frame during this time), the frame will reach its destination successfully.
The throughput for slotted ALOHA is S =: G x e-G.

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The maximum throughput Smax == 0.368 when G=1.

Figure: Flow Diagram for ALOHA

Carrier Sense Multiple Access(CSMA):

 To minimize the chance of collision and, therefore, increase the performance, the CSMA method was
developed.
 The chance of collision can be reduced if a station senses the medium before trying to use it.
 Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) requires that each station first listen to the medium (or check
the state of the medium) before sending. In other words, CSMA is based on the principle "sense
before transmit" or "listen before talk."
 CSMA can reduce the possibility of collision,
but it cannot eliminate it.
 Stations are connected to a shared channel
(usually a dedicated medium).
 The possibility of collision still exists
because of propagation delay; when a
station sends a frame, it still takes time
(although very short) for the first bit to
reach every station and for every station to
sense it.
 In other words, a station may sense the
medium and find it idle, only because the Figure: CSMA Collision(The two signals collide
first bit sent by another station has not yet and both frames are destroyed.)
been received.

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 Vulnerable Time of CSMA:

 The vulnerable time for CSMA is the propagation time Tp . This is the time needed for a signal
to propagate from one end of the medium to the other.
 When a station sends a frame, and any other station tries to send a frame during this time, a
collision will result. But if the first bit of the frame reaches the end of the medium, every
station will already have heard the bit and will refrain from sending.

Figure: Vulnerable Time of CSMA

 Persistence Methods of CSMA:
 There are three methods for CSMA persistence
1. 1-persistent CSMA
2. Non Persistent CSMA
3. P-persistent CSMA
 1-Persistennt CSMA:
o The I-persistent method is simple and straightforward.
o In this method, after the station finds the line idle, it sends its frame immediately
(with probability 1).

Figure: 1-Persistent CSMA

o This method has the highest chance of collision because two or more stations may
find the line idle and send their frames immediately.

Figure: Flow Diagram of 1-Persistent CSMA

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 Non Persistent CSMA:

o In the Non Persistent Method, a station that has a frame to send
o senses the line. If the line is idle, it sends immediately. If the line is not idle, it waits a
random amount of time and then senses the line again.
o The Non Persistent approach reduces the chance of collision because it is unlikely that
two or more stations will wait the same amount of time and retry to send
simultaneously.
o This method reduces the efficiency of the network because the medium remains idle
when there may be stations with frames to send.

Figure: Flow diagram for Non Persistent CSMA

 P-Persistent CSMA:
o The p-persistent method is used if the channel has time slots with a slot duration equal
to or greater than the maximum propagation time.
o The p-persistent approach combines the advantages of the other two strategies.
o It reduces the chance of collision and improves efficiency.

o In this method, after the station finds the line idle it follows these steps:
1. With probability p, the station sends its frame.
2. With probability q = 1 - p, the station waits for the beginning of the next time slot
and checks the line again.
a. If the line is idle, it goes to step 1.
b. If the line is busy, it acts as though a collision has occurred and uses the back-
off procedure.

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Figure: Flow Diagram for P-Persistent CSMA

CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection):

 The CSMA method does not specify the procedure following a collision. Carrier sense multiple access
with collision detection (CSMA/CD) augments the algorithm to handle the collision.
 In this method, a station monitors the medium after it sends a frame to see if the transmission was
successful.
 If so, the station is finished. If, however, there is a collision, the frame is sent again.
 To better understand CSMA/CD, let us look at the first bits transmitted by the two stations involved
in the collision. Although each station continues to send bits in the frame until it detects the collision.

Figure: Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD

 At time t1, station A has executed its persistence procedure and starts sending the bits of its frame.
 At time t2, station C has not yet sensed the first bit sent by A. Station C executes its persistence
procedure and starts sending the bits in its frame, which propagate both to the left and to the right.
The collision occurs sometime after time t2 Station C detects a collision at time t3 when it receives

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the first bit of A's frame. Station C immediately (or after a short time, but we assume immediately)
aborts transmission.
 Minimum Frame Size: Each frame must be large enough for a sender to detect a collision.
 Energy Level:
 The level of energy in a channel can have three values: zero, normal, and abnormal.
 At the zero level, the channel is idle. This level is also called Idle Period.
 At the normal level, a station has successfully captured the channel and is sending its frame.
This level is called Transmission Period.
 At the abnormal level, there is a collision and the level of the energy is twice the normal level.
This is called Contention Period.
 A station that has a frame to send or is sending a frame needs to monitor the energy level to
determine if the channel is idle, busy, or in collision mode.

Figure: Energy levels in CSMA/CD

Figure: Flow Diagram for CSMA/CD

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CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance):

 The basic idea behind CSMA/CD is that a station needs to be able to receive while transmitting to
detect a collision. The signal from the second station needs to add a significant amount of energy to
the one created by the first station.
 In a wired network, the received signal has almost the same energy as the sent signal because either
the length of the cable is short or there are repeaters that amplify the energy between the sender
and the receiver. This means that in a collision, the detected energy almost doubles.
 In a wireless network, much of the sent energy is lost in transmission. The received signal has very
little energy. Therefore, a collision may add only 5 to 10 percent additional energy. This is not useful
for effective collision detection.
 Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) was invented for this network.
 Collisions are avoided through the use of CSMA/CA's three strategies:
The Interframe Space, The Contention Window, and Acknowledgments
 Interframe Space:
o Collisions are avoided by deferring transmission even if the channel is found idle.
o When an idle channel is found, the station does not send immediately.
o It waits for a period of time called the interframe space or IFS.
o The IFS time allows the front of the transmitted signal by the distant station to reach
this station.
o If after the IFS time the channel is still idle, the station can send, but it still needs to
wait a time equal to the contention time.
o The IFS variable can also be used to prioritize stations or frame types. For example, a
station that is assigned a shorter IFS has a higher priority.
 The Contention Window:
o The contention window is an amount of time divided into slots.
o A station that is ready to send chooses a random number of slots as its wait time. The
number of slots in the window changes according to the binary exponential back-off
strategy. This means that it is set to one slot the first time and then doubles each time
the station cannot detect an idle channel after the IFS time. This is very similar to the
p-persistent method except that a random outcome defines the number of slots taken
by the waiting station.
o The contention window is that the station needs to sense the channel after each time
slot.
o If the station finds the channel busy, it does not restart the process; it just stops the
timer and restarts it when the channel is sensed as idle. This gives priority to the
station with the longest waiting time.
 Acknowledgements:
o The data may be corrupted during the transmission. The positive acknowledgment
and the time-out timer can help guarantee that the receiver has received the frame.

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Figure: The Interframe Space, The Contention Window, and Acknowledgments

 CSMA/CA was mostly intended for use in wireless networks.

Figure: Flow Diagram of CSMA/CA

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Controlled Access:

1. Reservation 2. Polling 3. Tokenpassing

Reservation:

Polling:

Figure: Select and poll functions in polling access method

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Token Passing:

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Channelization:

 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA).

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Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):

Figure: FDMA

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):

Figure: TDMA

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Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):

CDMA means communication with different codes.

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Figure: CDMA

Figure: Chip Sequences

The above sequences are orthogonal sequences, the orthogonal sequences have the following
properties.

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Example: Sharing channel in CDMA

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Basic Ethernet
Ethernet is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs.
However, Ethernet can also be used in MANs and even WANs. It was first standardized
in the 1980s as IEEE 802.3 standard. Since then, it has gone through four generations,
as shown in the following chart

Standard Ethernet is also referred to as Basic Ethernet. It uses 10Base5 coaxial cables
for communications. Ethernet provides service up to the data link layer. At the data link
layer, Ethernet divides the data stream received from the upper layers and
encapsulates it into frames, before passing them on to the physical layer.
The main parts of an Ethernet frame are
 Preamble − It is the starting field that provides alert and timing pulse for transmission.
 Destination Address − It is a 6-byte field containing the physical address of destination
stations.
 Source Address − It is a 6-byte field containing the physical address of the sending
station.
 Length − It stores the number of bytes in the data field.
 Data and Padding − This carries the data from the upper layers.
 CRC − It contains error detection information.
Standard Ethernet has many physical layer implementations. The four main physical
layer implementations are shown in the following diagram

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Fast Ethernet :
In computer networks, Fast Ethernet is a variation of Ethernet standards that carry data
traffic at 100 Mbps (Mega bits per second) in local area networks (LAN). It was
launched as the IEEE 802.3u standard in 1995, and stayed the fastest network till the
introduction of Gigabit Ethernet.
Fast Ethernet is popularly named as 100-BASE-X. Here, 100 is the maximum
throughput, i.e. 100 Mbps, BASE denoted use of baseband transmission, and X is the
type of medium used, which is TX or FX.

Varieties of Fast Ethernet

The common varieties of fast Ethernet are 100-Base-TX, 100-BASE-FX and 100-Base-
T4.

 100-Base-T4
o This has four pairs of UTP of Category 3, two of which are bi-directional
and the other two are unidirectional.
o In each direction, three pairs can be used simultaneously for data
transmission.
o Each twisted pair is capable of transmitting a maximum of 25Mbaud data.
Thus the three pairs can handle a maximum of 75Mbaud data.
o It uses the encoding scheme 8B/6T (eight binary/six ternary).
 100-Base-TX
o This has either two pairs of unshielded twisted pairs (UTP) category 5
wires or two shielded twisted pairs (STP) type 1 wires. One pair transmits
frames from hub to the device and the other from device to hub.
o Maximum distance between hub and station is 100m.

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o It has a data rate of 125 Mbps.

o It uses MLT-3 encoding scheme along with 4B/5B block coding.
 100-BASE-FX
o This has two pairs of optical fibers. One pair transmits frames from hub to
the device and the other from device to hub.
o Maximum distance between hub and station is 2000m.
o It has a data rate of 125 Mbps.
o It uses NRZ-I encoding scheme along with 4B/5B block coding.

Frame Format of IEEE 802.3

The frame format of IEEE 802.3u is same as IEEE 802.3. The fields in the frame are:
 Preamble − It is a 7 bytes starting field that provides alert and timing pulse for
transmission.
 Start of Frame Delimiter (SOF) − It is a 1 byte field that contains an alternating
pattern of ones and zeros ending with two ones.
 Destination Address − It is a 6 byte field containing physical address of
destination stations.
 Source Address − It is a 6 byte field containing the physical address of the
sending station.
 Length − It a 2 bytes field that stores the number of bytes in the data field.
 Data − This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers. The
maximum size of data field is 1500 bytes.
 Padding − This is added to the data to bring its length to the minimum
requirement of 46 bytes.
 CRC − CRC stands for cyclic redundancy check. It contains the error detection
information.

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Gigabit Ethernet:
Gigabit Ethernet is a variant of the Ethernet technology generally used in local area
networks (LANs) for sending Ethernet frames at 1 Gbps. It can be used as a backbone
in several networks, especially those of large organizations.
Gigabit Ethernet is an enlargement to the earlier 10 Mbps and 100 Mbps 802.3
Ethernet standards. It provides 1,000 Mbps bandwidth while supporting full
compatibility with the set up base of around 100 million Ethernet nodes.
Gigabit Ethernet usually employs an optical fibre connection to share records at a very
huge speed over high distances. For short distances, copper cables and twisted pair
connections are utilized.

Advantages of Gigabit Ethernet

The advantages of Gigabit Ethernet are as follows −
 Noise Immunity − The coaxial cable used in an Ethernet network is very well
shielded, and has a very large immunity from electrical noise generated by
external sources.
 Reliability − Ethernet connections acquire principal reliability. This is because
there is no delay from the radio frequencies. Therefore, ultimately there are fewer
disconnections and slowdowns in Ethernet. Because the bandwidth is not shared
between connected devices, there are no bandwidth shortages as well.
 Conceptually Simple −Ethernet is clearly daisy-chained closely with coax cable
and "T" adapters. There are generally no hubs, transceivers, or multiple devices
used.
 Speed − Speed provided by Ethernet is much higher than compared to the
wireless connection. This is due to the Ethernet supporting one to one
connection. As a result, a speed of 10Gbps or sometimes 100Gbps can be simply
managed.

Disadvantages of Gigabit Ethernet

The disadvantages of Gigabit Ethernet are as follows −
 Installation − Ethernet connections are usually harder to install without expert
assistance. Particularly the areas where they required passing walls and various
floors. These areas required to be drilled independently and also multiple cables
required to be connected to several computers and switches.
 Mobility − Mobility is limited. Ethernet is perfect to use in areas where the device
is required for sitting in specific areas.
 Connections − The multiple connections are restricted in Ethernet. If it is using a
single Ethernet connection then only a single device can be linked.
 Difficult Troubleshooting − Ethernet networks are very complex to troubleshoot.
There is no simple way to decide what node or cable areas is generating a
problem, and the network should be troubleshot by a "step of elimination." This
can be very slow.

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10 Gigabit Ethernet :
In 10 Gigabit Ethernet, it is a telecommunications technology that sends data packets
over Ethernet for 10 billion bits per second. This innovation improved the traditional and
well-known use of Ethernet in the local area network (LAN) to a much wider area of
network application, such as high-speed storage area networks (SAN), wide area
networks (WAN), and metropolitan area networks (MAN).
10 GbE differs from traditional Ethernet in that it takes benefit of full-duplex protocol, in
which data is sent in both directions simultaneously by utilizing a networking switch to
link devices.
This defines that the technology diverges from the Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) protocols, which are rules that can decide how
network devices will respond when two devices try to use a data channel
simultaneously, also known as a collision.

Advantages of 10 Gigabit Ethernet

The advantages of 10 Gigabit Ethernet are as follows −
 Noise Immunity − The coaxial cable used in an Ethernet network is very well
shielded, and has a very large immunity from electrical noise generated by
external sources.
 Reliability − Ethernet connections carry the greatest reliability. This is because
there are no disruptions from the radio frequencies. Hence, ultimately there are
fewer disconnections and slowdowns in Ethernet.
 Conceptually Simple − Ethernet is frequently daisy-chained composed with
coax cable and "T" adapters. There are generally no hubs, transceivers, or other
devices used.
 Speed − Speed provided by Ethernet is much higher than compared to the
wireless connection. This is because Ethernet supports the one-to-one
connection. As a result, a speed of 10Gbps or sometimes 100Gbps can be simply
produced.

Disadvantages of 10 Gigabit Ethernet

The disadvantages of 10 Gigabit Ethernet are as follows −
 Installation − Ethernet connections are frequently harder to install without a
professional's service. Especially the areas where they are required to pass walls
and several floors. These areas required to be drilled independently and also
various cables required to be connected to multiple computers and switches.
 Mobility − Mobility is definite. Ethernet is perfect to use in places where the
device is required to sit in specific places.
 Connections − The multiple connections are limited in Ethernet. If you are using
an individual Ethernet connection then only a single device can be linked. If you
are required to connect multiple devices then you are required to use more
cables.

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 Difficult Troubleshooting − Ethernet networks are very complex to troubleshoot.

There is no simple way to decide what node or cable element is generating a
problem, and the network should be troubleshot by a "process of elimination."
This can be very moderate.

Varieties of Gigabit Ethernet

The popular varieties of fast Ethernet are 1000Base-SX, 1000Base-LX, 1000BASE-T
and 1000Base-CX.

10GBase-SR
 Defined by IEEE 802.3ae standard
 Uses fiber optic cables
 Maximum segment length is 300 m
 Deployed using multimode fibers having 0.85μ frequency

10GBase-LR
 Defined by IEEE 802.3ae standard
 Uses fiber optic cables
 Maximum segment length is 10 km
 Deployed using single-mode fibers having 1.3μ frequency

10GBase-ER
 Defined by IEEE 802.3ae standard
 Uses fiber optic cables
 Maximum segment length is 40 km
 Deployed using single-mode fibers having 1.5μ frequency

10GBase-CX4
 Defined by IEEE 802.3ak standard
 Uses 4 pairs of twin-axial cables
 Maximum segment length is 15 m
 Uses 8B/10B coding

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10GBase-T
 Defined by IEEE 802.3an standard
 Uses 4 pairs of unshielded twisted pair cables
 Maximum segment length is 100 m
 Uses low-density parity-check code (LPDC code)

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