MODULE 3: PRODUCE FRUIT TREES

3.1.1 Clear the land for growing fruit trees

Land clearing: The removal of all or most of the vegetation and any other undesirable
materials from the orchard site.
Reasons for clearing the land
- To facilitate subsequent tillage operations
- To destroy pests and pathogens hidden in the existing vegetation
- To destroy existing vegetation to prevent future competition with fruit trees
- To create a clean environment around the planting area

Stumping: Removal of tree stumps and their roots

Reasons for Stumping a field site
- To facilitate mechanical tillage operations
- To get rid of pests and pathogens that tree stumps might be harbouring
- To increase land available for crop production

3.1.2 Determine the spacing of fruit trees

Factors affecting spacing of fruit tree

Roots system- a tree with deep and wide root system requires more
space than with lateral rooted spread.

System of land use – trees grown in a pure stand would be closer than
those to be inter row planted with other crops.

Growth habit – a tree with large and spreading canopy requires more
than the one with small crown.

Soil fertility - in soil of low fertility should wider than usual

The purpose for which they are raised – trees whose fruits are for exports or processing
would be spaced differently from those that are for local market.

Use of machinery - spacing should take account of use of machinery if the orchard is

Pattern: There are different methods of planting and thus different layouts for
orchards. Some of these layout types are:
 Square method
 Rectangular method
 Quincunx method
 Triangular method
 Hexagonal method
1. Square system

It is the most easy and popular method of planting fruit plants. In this system row to row and
plant to plant distances are kept similar. The plants are planted exactly at right angle at each.

Thus, every four plants make one square. Intercultural operations can be done in both
directions as the distances between trees and rows are similar.

2. Rectangular system

The field is laid out into rectangular shape plot keeping more space between row and row.
The
plant to plant distance is kept comparatively less. Thus, rectangular system accommodates
more plants in rows. Inter-cultural operations can be carried out through both ways. The
plants get proper space and sunlight for their growth and development.(Orchard Planting)
3. Hexagonal system

This system accommodates 15 % more plants than square system. It allows three directional
cultivation in the orchard. In this system, the orchard is laid out similar to rectangular system.
The diagonals of rectangles are intersected to form equilateral triangles. The trees are planted
at the vertex of each equilateral triangle. Thus, six trees form hexagon with the seventh tree in
the centre. Hence, this system is also called as “septule’ as it accommodates seventh tree in
the centre.

The hexagonal system is considered as a grid of contiguous equilateral triangle in which

the length of each arm of the triangle is desired tree to tree distance. This is very intense
method of planting and hence requires fertile land. In the suburb of cities where land is
costly, this system is worth adoption. However, the laying out of system is hard and
cumbersome.

4. Quincunx system

This system is similar to square system except one additional plant is planted in the
centre of each square . The plants that are planted in the centre of each square along
with tall growing plants at the corners of squares are termed as ‘filler’ plants. These plants are
planted with a view to generate income when the main orchard plant is under non-bearing
stage.
Filler plants also ensure proper utilization of otherwise left space between rows of
trees. These plants are usually short-statured and early bearing. When main plants of the
orchard resume their proper shape, the filler plants are uprooted. Guava, Kinnow, Phalsa,
Plum, Peaches, Papaya etc. are important filler plants.(Orchard Planting)

5. Contour system

It is adopted in hilly areas for planting fruit plants where land is undulated and soils erosion is
a great threat. Under such circumstances, contour terrace is developed by scratching and
levelling the hill-slope. The width of contour terrace varies according to the slope of the hill.
At stiff hill slope, the width is kept narrower.
3.1.3 Dig tree holes to prescribed size

NOTE: PRESCRIBED SIZE is determined by ;( diameter(two times the diameter of the

root ball)

Depth(height of the root ball)

3.1.4 Apply fertilizers appropriately when growing fruit trees

Methods of fertilizer application has a significant influence on fertilizer recovery. The

application method varies according to the spacing of crop, type of fertilizer material, time of
application. A brief account of these points could be explained as follows.

Methods of Fertilizer Application

Solid fertilizer materials application method

Solid materials may be applied in the following ways:

A. Broadcasting

Even and uniform spreading of dry solid fertilizers by hand or spreader over the entire field
before or after sowing of the crop is termed as broadcasting. Well-decomposed FYM (Farm
yard manure), compost, oil cake, bone meal, urea, superphosphate, and lime are applied by
this method.

Advantages
 This method is easy, less time taking, cheap, and more convenient to the farmers. This
method proves effective-

 When the crops have a dense stand.

 When the plant roots absorb nutrients from the whole volume of soil.
 When soil fertility rich.
 When using a large amount of material.
 When using potassic fertilizers on light soils.

Disadvantages

 It is not advantageous because it encourages weed growth all over the field.
 Most of the material remains on the soil surface and does not reach the root zone for
uptake by plants.
 There is a more significant loss of fertilizer nutrients due to washing, run-off,
volatilization.
 The recovery (extent of fertilizer used by plants) ranges between 25 to 45 percent or
even less.

Types of broadcasting application methods:

1. Basal application

Spreading fertilizers before sowing or planting the crops and mixing them by cultivating the
soil during seedbed preparation is termed as basal application through broadcasting.

Advantages

 Suitable for applying controlled/slow-release fertilizers.

 Suitable for applying bulky manures.

Disadvantage

Encourages early weed growth.

2. Topdressing and side dressing

 Spreading of fertilizer in standing crops without considering the crop rows is termed as a top
dressing. However, when the crop rows are taken into account, and the material is dropped on
the ground surface near the crop rows, it is called side dressing.

Advantages

 Highly mobile fertilizers are top-dressed by split application.

 Side dressing reduces misuse of fertilizers in row crops.

Disadvantage

 Topdressing is not suitable for bulky manures.

B. Placement

It refers to applying fertilizers into the soil from where the crop roots can take them easily.

Advantages:

 Plants can use a maximum portion of the material.

 Losses through uptake by weeds, washing, run-off, volatilization could be eliminated to
the greatest extent.

Disadvantage:

 Is not suitable for bulky manures.

The placement could be done in the following ways:

1. Plough sole placement

When the fertilizers are applied in open furrows at plow sole level while plowing, it is termed
plow sole placement. Such furrows are covered immediately during the next run of the plow.

Advantages:

 This method is suitable when-

 In dry soil where there is moisture only in the sole plow layer.
 In problem soils where there is the problem of fixation.
 Disadvantage:

 Is not suitable for bulky manures.

2. Deep placement

The method is adopted in the dryland condition where the fertilizers are placed deeper than
the sole plow level; then, it is called deep placement.

Advantages

 Suitable for dry soil where there is a moisture deficit.

 Helps in root elongation.
 Eliminates various losses of nutrients from the soil.
 In wetland rice, a reduced form of N fertilizer (ammonium sulfate) is placed deep in the
reduced layer to avoid denitrification.

Disadvantage

 Laborious and time-consuming.

3. Sub-soil placement

The method is termed sub-soil placement when placing fertilizers deeper than the seeding or
planting depth and deeper than the previous two methods.

Advantages

 Suitable for dry soil where there is a moisture deficit.

 Helps in maximum root elongation.
 P and K fertilizers are placed in deeper layers by heavy machinery to avoid fixation in
strongly acidic soils.

Disadvantage

 Laborious and time-consuming.

C. Localized placement
 There is a distinction between placement and localized placement. The former refers to
applying fertilizer into the soil without special reference to the location of the seed or plant.
At the same time, the latter implies the application of fertilizer into the soil close to the seed
or plant.

Advantages

Localized placement of fertilizers has many advantages over broadcasting methods of

application such as. Relatively lesser quantity is required for the production of an ideal crop

 It suppresses weed growth.

 It reduces fertilizer losses.
 Placing fertilizers in the moist zone, where they remain available to plants for a more
extended period.
 Fertilizers come in easy reach of crop roots.
 It increases fertilizer recovery and the response of crops to applied doses.

Disadvantages

 The method is very technical and needs special precautions.

 Besides, it is costly.

The method could be adopted in the following ways:

1. Contact placement/combine drilling

When placing fertilizer along with the seed, then it is called contact placement. It is done by
using seed-cum-fertilizer drill. Sometimes fertilizer is drilled by implement, and seed is sown
in the same furrow.

Advantage

Well-decomposed manure, ashes, and P and K fertilizers in small quantities are used along
with seeds during sowing.

Disadvantage

Care must be taken so that seeds are not burnt by contact with fertilizers.
 2. Band placement

It is a localized placement of fertilizers by the side of plants or seeds (about 5 cm apart). It

may be of two types as the bands may be continuous or discontinuous:

i. Hill placement (discontinuous band)

In the hill, for widely spaced plants like cotton, castor, and cucurbits, fertilizers are placed on
either side of plants along or across the row but not along the entire row. This method is also
termed a discontinuous band application.

ii. Row placement (continuous band)

Along the entire rows of closely spaced crops like cereals, minor millets, potatoes, and
tobacco, fertilizers are applied continuously at 2-2.5 cm depth. This method has a definite
relationship of fertilizers with seedlings or seeds as the fertilizer is placed to the side of
seedlings or seeds some distance away from them or at the seed level, above or below or by
the side of the seed level. When the soil surface is dry, this method gives very promising
results.

iii. Ring placement (continuous band)

Fertilizer is applied in a circle around an individual plant or hill base at a depth of about 2.5-5
cm.

3. Pocket/spot placement

When fertilizers are placed at a fixed spot with the help of a bamboo peg having a hole at the
bottom in the case of very widely spaced crops, then the method is termed as pocket/spot
placement method. Fertilizers are placed deeper into the pocket (dibble), and seeds are sown
in the same pocket about 5 cm above the fertilizers.

Advantages

 Suitable for dry soil where there is a moisture deficit.

 Suitable for wide-spaced crops like cotton, castor, cassava, cucurbits, and chili.

Disadvantage
 Care must be taken so that seeds are not burnt by contact with fertilizers.
 Laborious and time-consuming.

4. Pellet placement

This method is adopted, especially in deepwater rice cultivation. It is not easy to apply
fertilizers in typical methods as the fertilizer granules get dissolved in water before reaching
ground level. In this method, fertilizers (especially nitrogenous ones) are mixed with clay soil
in the ratio of one part of fertilizer into 10-15 parts of soil. The fertilizer is well-mixed with
soil after slight moistening, filled in gunny bags, and stored for two to three days. Small mud
bolls are prepared, and these boll or pellets are dropped near the crop rows in rice Jr jute
under deep water conditions.

Liquid fertilizer application method

The use of liquid fertilizers is not a very common practice, but this is the most common
method in advanced countries. It is the most suitable method under dryland agriculture and in
areas prone to erosion problems. Liquid fertilizers may be applied in the following ways:

1. Use of starter solution

Starter solutions usually contain N, P, K, in 1: 2: 1 or 1: 1: 2. This method is used for

transplanted crops in place of irrigation water, and this solution is applied just to wet the field
so that the seedlings may establish quickly.

Advantages

 It serves as irrigation water as well as a nutrient solution for the crops.

 Suitable for dipping the seedling roots and soaking seeds or spraying to encourage early
rooting and crop establishment.

Disadvantage

 Requires careful attention to maintain the proper concentration of the solution.

2. Application through irrigation water

 The required quantity of fertilizer material is dissolved in irrigation water and can be used in
surface, sprinkler, or drip irrigation systems.

Advantage

 The concentrated fertilizer solution may be dripped in the channel of irrigation water
while irrigating the crop.

Disadvantage

 If the crop is to be given surface irrigation as flooding, excess water may lead to
physiological problems in crops.

3. Nutrient injection method/direct application to soil

In the USA and some other countries, farmers inject anhydrous ammonia into the soil at a
depth of about 20-25 cm and a pressure of about 200 pounds per square inch.

Advantages

 Anhydrous ammonia is the cheapest source of nitrogen because of its lower unit value.
 Injecting hormonal solutions and some micronutrient solutions in the phloem region of
the fruit trees is also becoming a distinct possibility in correcting the nutrient
deficiency.

Disadvantage

 For this method, the soil should have fine tilth, enough moisture so that nitrogen loss in
the form of ammonia does not occur.

4. Foliar spraying of nutrient solutions

In this method of fertilizer application, urea, micronutrients, and other required materials are
dissolved in water, filtered, and sprayed over the crop foliage with the help of a suitable
sprayer.

Advantages
 This method is preferred over other methods because it needs a minimal quantity of
materials.
 The crop plants respond within 24 hours of application.
 Soil reaction, topography, and soil textures have no adverse effect on the soil’s nutrient
availability and fertility status.
 Possible to apply almost all nutrients by this method.

Disadvantage

 Non-uniform spraying and improper concentration of the solution may lead to

hazardous effects on the crop, and the entire plant population may get devastated.
 A high concentration of the solution may cause the burning of foliage.

Determine the application rate of the fertilizers

If Super phosphate application rate 200 kg per hectare, how much super phosphate
needed for 5 ha.

5 x 200 kg = 1 000 kg.

How much Super phosphate is needed for 1m x 5m seedbed? Use an application rate of
200kg / ha. N B: 1 ha = 10 000m2

Step 1 - 1m x 5m = 5 m2
Step 2 1 ha : 200 kg Substitute 1 ha by 10 000m 2
Step 3 2
10 000m : 200 kg Multiple 5 by 200 kg and divide 10 000
5m2 : X

5 x 200 kg = 1 000 kg = 0.1 kg

10 000 10 000
 Source of major Elements found in fertilizers
Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
 Organic Matter  Organic matter  Rocks
 Inorganic fertilizers  Inorganic  Inorganic fertilizers(
 Nitrogen fixation fertilizers Murate of potash)
from legume crops  Rocks
 Lightning Strikes

Functions of major Elements

Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
 Needed by plants in  Helps in root  Helps plants to
chlorophyll formation development produce better seeds and
 Nitrogen is necessary  Helps plant to fruits
for making protein produce flowers  Needed in production
 Nitrogen in  Improve plant of chlorophyll.
absorption of other resistance to disease.  Helps plant to
major elements produce and store
carbohydrates.
Symptom Deficiency of the major elements
Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
 Stunted growth  Leaves and stem  Leaves edges become
 Leaves turn yellow become reddish, purple yellowish
 Plants mature early or brown  Roots  Flowers, fruit and
develop poorly seeds develop poorly
 Plants show  Low resistance to
stunted growth disease
 Plants develop  Plant lodge easily(
few flowers fall over)
 Fruits and seeds take
long to ripen
Symptoms of excess ( too much) supply of the major elements
Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
Plants develop long large Too early ripening of fruits Slow seed germination
and very dark leaves .Plant and seeds Seeds ripen slowly
leaves become weak and Reduce crop yield Erratic growth
soft. sometimes May reduce calcium
Easily attacked by diseases

Loss of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium from soil.

Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium

 Leaching Leaching Leaching
Soil erosion Soil erosion Soil erosion
Removal of crop residue Removal of crop residue Removal of crop residue
Continuous cropping Continuous cropping Continuous cropping
Bush burning
Denitrification

3.2.1 CLASSES OF FRUIT TREES

Fruit is the fleshy or dry ripened ovary of a flowering plant, enclosing the seed or seeds.
Fruits are the fleshy or dry ripened ovary of a flowering plant, enclosing the seed or seeds 1
Thus, apricots, bananas, and grapes, as well as bean pods, corn grains, tomatoes, cucumbers,
and (in their shells) acorns and almonds, are all technically fruits 1. Within the simple fruit
category, there are four types of fruit2:
o Drupes: These fruits are sometimes called stone fruit because inside the fleshy fruit there is a
very hard seed (ex: cherry, plum, peach).
o Pomes: This category is made of of fruits that primarily bloom from trees (ex: apples, pears)

Identify classes of fruit trees

CLASSSES OF FRUIT TREES EXAMPLES
OF FRUIT
TREES
Berries -black berries
-cranberries
-blueberries
-red and
black
raspberries
-strawberries
-grapes
 -cherries
-apricots
-nectarines
-peaches
-plums

Pits / drupes
Core /pome -apple
-pear
 Citrus -oranges
-tangerines
-grapefruit
-lemons
-kumquats
-lime

Tropical fruits -banana

-mangoes
-pawpaw
-avocados
-dates
-papayas
-coconuts
-figs
-pineapples
-
pomegranates
-kiwi

3.2.2 Determine appropriate propagation method to produce fruit tree seedlings

Cuttings – It is a vegetative portion of a plant with one or more buds.

Preparation of cuttings

Hard wood cuttings are prepared from late autumn to early spring and planted in summer
-

Take cuttings from a riped wood from the previous year’s growth. Use sharp knife to
ensure clean cut of cuttings. Size 0.6 – 2.5 cm in diameter and about 30cm in length
with at least 2 nodes. Remove leaves from the portion to be buried and those on the
aerial section side. Treat a basal cut in with rooting powder to promote early and better
root development Planting of Cuttings. Cuttings can either be set in a nursery beds or
planted directly in a field. Usually plant them to a depth of half their length. Water
regularly following planting settings.

Grafting – It is the act of connecting parts of two plants so that they will unite and grow
into one unit.
There are different methods of grafting but they all involve uniting scion and root
stock. Scion form the upper part and root stock for the lower part. Grafting is done in
spring or late winter.

Budding – It is a special form of grafting that involve uniting a vegetative buds

and a root stock. T- Budding – it involves selection of a scion plant and root stock.
Preparation of budding site on root stock, cutting of bud shield, uniting of bud
shield to the stock, binding the union firmly: germination of the bud shield and
eventual cutting off of part the stock.

Layering- This involve inducing a branch to develop roots whilst still attached to the
mother plant.
Propagation Using Suckers – Suckers is a shot that arises on a plant from below the
ground. Bananas and pine apple are propagated using suckers,
Step for propagation using suckers
i. Selection of strong and suckers of 1 – 1.5 m in height
ii. Digging out and cuttings of the suckers from the mother plant.
iii. Trimming the suckers of excess leaves and adventious roots.
iv. Protection the suckers from drying until they are planted.
v. Suckers are usually taken during dormant season.
How to propagate using suckers
 Loosen the soil around the sucker with a fork, and then
carefully expose and lift the sucker and associated roots,
being careful not to disturb the parent plant.
 Using sharp secateurs or a knife, sever the sucker, making
sure that it has fibrous roots on the detached portion. Replace
and firm the soil around the parent plant.
 Trim the sucker by removing the main root or stolon
(creeping underground stem) up to the fibrous roots.
 Reduce long, leafy shoots by about half to limit drying out of
the sucker after planting and to promote bushy re-growth.
 Plant the sucker into fertile, free-draining soil enriched
with organic matter such as well-rotted garden compost,
manure or leafmould. If potting up the sucker,
multipurpose compost is fine to use.
 Water well after firming the soil around the roots. The
roots are usually insufficient to sustain the plant without
careful watering for the first season.
 3.2.3 Sow seeds to produce fruit tree seedlings

When To Plant Fruit Seeds From Trees

Growing a rootstock for implanting involves some minor jobs at different times of the year,
as with gardening. Here are some seasonal recommendations:

o In late summer, you can gather your nectarine and peach seeds to store in the moist sand.

o In autumn, you can start gathering your pears and apple seeds to keep in the sand by
keeping the soil moist.

o For winter, gather scion wood of the varieties you want to graft in spring and keep them
stored correctly. You can also collect plum cuttings to store in damp sand.

o While in spring, you can plant those seeds and cut them in a container or the ground.

Another note when growing fruit trees is that peach, apricot, and nectarine seedlings might
only bud in the first growing season in late July or early August. You can then transplant
them the following spring.

Apples, pears, plums, and cherries must develop for two years before they will bud in July or
early August.
Gathering Seeds to Produce Fruit

You must follow some steps when you want to plant your outdoor trees to sprout blossoms
and form fruits. First, you need to gather the pits, and ripening of it can be done in two
methods:

First Method: Stratification in Refrigerator

Extract the seed or pips you would like to germinate.

1. Star by removing all the fruit portions and leaving the seeds to air dry.

2. Place the dried seeds in a receptacle or a glass jar with a loosely fitted lid.

3. Then place the seeds in a cool place until mid-January, as it needs after-ripening. The
length can vary from one fruit species to another.

4. If you use your fridge to store seeds, keep them in a sealed receptacle and do not expose
them to fruit that gives off ethylene gas, like apples, pears, peaches, nectarine, bananas,
blueberries, etc.

5. If the seeds have not gone through a cold treatment, it helps to mix the seeds with
something like damp peat moss, shredded paper towels, or sand in mid-January.

6. Then return that mixture to a receptacle, replace the lid, and keep it in the fridge until the
last frost date.

Your seeds will remain in the fridge for up to 60 days, and after the last frost date or early
summer, you can prepare some potting medium to plant them.
Second Method: Directly Into The Ground

Prepare some potting mix in a plot as you would with your other seed varieties in the fall.
Then make a furrow not deeper than one or two times the length of the seed. Next, cover the
seed with light soil and add another two inches of sand over them as it prevents crusting that
can inhibit germination.

Place a wire screen or a hardware cloth over your row, push it several inches into the potting
mix, and ensure the ends are closed. When early April arrives, look if you see your seedling
grows. As your seedling grows, remove the wire screen.

Third Method

Gather your apple seeds from cold storage, rinse them with 10% Clorox solution, and dust
them with a fungicide. Then line your seeds in trays in moist peat moss or vermiculite.

Once they germinate, you can transplant them an inch deep in parallel seed lines about two
inches apart. After a few months in the fridge, they should sprout. Now, you place them in a
four-inch pot and leave them until they mature with leaves.

With all methods, when your seedlings reach eight inches tall, you can place one to two
tablespoons of urea along each of the 12-inch rows and keep it two inches away from your
plants.

We recommend using warm water at room temperature to saturate your plants. Another note
is that stone fruit pips have a hard covering, and to help them germinate, you can crack them
with a nutcracker before you plant them.

But do not crack too hard, as it can destroy the embryo.

How to Grow Fruits Tree Plants From Seeds

There are a few ways to grow fruit trees, and they can be done as follow:

Using Seed Trays or Plug Trays

Using seed trays is a great way to sow fruit seeds, as you can transplant them later.

1. Place a loose potting mix friable as the moisture needs to flow through the drainage
holes. Your seedlings will retain enough moisture to expand. You can use a germination
mix or make one using equal parts topsoil, perlite, peat, and Fertilis.

2. Fill the trays with the potting mix and level them off. Dampen the potting mix.

3. Then evenly sprinkle the seed over the soil and cover it lightly or as bought seed
recommendations.

4. Soak with a fine water spray and cover the trays with plastic protection or newspaper.

5. Place the tray in bright indirect light and water as needed.

6. Once you see the seeds germinate, you can remove the covers and start exposing them to
more sunlight.

In Seed Beds
In the landscape, dig over the ground to remove debris, stones, and clots. Then dig in some
compost with something like Fertilis. Dampen the potting medium and sow the seeds in rows
to cover them with the potting mix.

Water well with a fine spray and cover it with mulch or straw to help retain moisture. As
seedlings sprout, you can thin them out, allowing for more space

3.2.4 Select vegetative parts to produce fruit tree seedlings

3.2.5 Plant appropriate vegetative parts to produce fruit tree seedlings

3.2.6 Prepare fruit tree seedlings for transplanting

Transplanting fruit tree seedling
Lifting and moving seedling from nursery to an orchard.
Preparing to plant – by back filling the hole so that the root collar will be level to the
ground surface. Add some water to the hole to help remove air pockets.
Planting seedling – Remove pot and place the seedling in the centre of the hole . Add
the remaining soil as back fill. Firm the soil to remove air pockets. Add soil to the level
of the collar.

Use sub soil to construct a dish shaped basin round the plant to water.
Mulching - Apply mulch in the basin to reduce evaporation and maintain good soil
structure and control weeds. Water the seedling heavily and repeat it every 2-3 days to 2
weeks.
PRECAUTIONS WHILE TRANSPLANTING
-Lift seedlings with as much soil round the roots as
possible - Protect uprooted seedlings from heat until
they are transplanted.
 - Transplant in the afternoon
- Ensure that roots are well spread out in the hole and the stem kept erect - Plant the
seedling so that the collar is a level with the ground. - Press the soil round the
seedling firmly to the remove air pockets - Water seedling immediately after
transplanting.
- Provide shade to seedling to protect them from heat.
- If a seedling s is in danger of bending, support it with a stake.

3.3.1 Determine the time for planting fruit tree

When is the Best Time to Plant Fruit Trees?

The three main considerations when planting fruit trees is the current weather, during which
season they will bear their fruit, and how you receive them (containerized or bareroot).

Containerized trees, those in pots or balled-and-burlap wrapped where the roots are
established in existing soil, can almost be planted any time of the year. Your greatest success
will occur if you plant them in months that include the letter "R."

These include September, October, and November (autumn and early winter) or February,
March, and April (late winter and early spring).

Bareroot trees, those that are uprooted during dormant seasons when no leaves or fruit are
present and whose roots are shaken free of soil and packed in moisture containing materials,
are best planted in the months of February, March, April, and occasionally May (late winter
and spring).

May is getting a bit late in the season but can work. You should avoid planting bareroot trees
in the fall due to the risk of failure explained below.

When to Plant Containerized Fruit Trees & Why

Now for the details. Again, though these can be planted all year round, the best time is any
month that contains the letter "R," which means you'll be planting in the fall to early winter or
late winter to early spring.

The reason these are far more resilient to when they are planted is because of the fact that
they're containerized and not experiencing new growth.

This means that they're already established in soil and when you plant them you'll transplant
everything within the container except the container itself.

This means the root system doesn't experience any shock or moisture fatigue (for the most
part) because it remains in the same soil without being disturbed.

If you can, you should avoid planting containerized trees in the summer months of May,
June, July, and August due to higher temperatures and dry breezes. The lack of moisture in
the air and soil can cause moisture stress.
Too much water can cause the same problems, so avoid overly wet times in the spring where
water can't drain away and never plant just before or during the times when the ground starts
freezing.

When to Plant Bareroot Fruit Trees & Why

Bareroot trees are available to most of us only during the spring due to the "Nursery Cycle."
This refers to when bareroot trees are harvested, stored and ensured to be thriving, and then
sold to the public.

And because you should plant these nearly immediately, the best time to plant bareroot fruit
trees is in the early spring.

When you buy the tree in this condition it will be dormant still for the most part. Getting it in
the ground quickly means the roots have a chance to start growing and establishing
themselves in the cooler early spring soil.

Letting the roots become strong and larger before temperatures start rising is good because
once new growth begins it will have a higher demand on the fertilizer and water contents of
the soil around it.

The more mature the root system is, the better it can handle these demands.
Another option is to plant them in the fall if that's when you buy them, before the nursery
stores them for the winter again. In the fall, the root system grows fairly rapidly as demands
otherwise slow down due to the tree preparing to become dormant.

The risk here is it won't have had two seasons already to harden itself for the coming winter,
so realize there is a risk here. If there's a hard winter or any deep cold snaps, expect for your
tree to receive cold damage if not killed. It's a risk you take if you plant in the fall.

Best Time to Plant Fruit Trees By Season

To break it down further, let's look at this by the season in four groupings.

Fall, Winter - Fruit trees can be planted during these months when the trees are dormant, but
the early and mid-winter should only be considered if you live in a plant hardiness zone of 8
or above. This would include the South, Southwest, and West Coast.

But still take into consideration the avoidance of planting when the ground is frozen or when
snow is forecasted. Fall planting runs a risk of plant harm or death in harsher winters. Late
winter can be thought of as early spring if the weather is warm enough.
Early Spring - All fruit trees will perform their best if planted in the early spring, especially
in plant hardiness zones of 7 and below where the autumn and winter months are too cold.

The key for early spring (and even late winter) planting is to wait for the soil to be workable
and not overly wet. Frost dates are supposedly irrelevant here, but I'd wait till after the last
one if it occurs in winter.

Late Spring, Summer & Fall - Containerized trees can do fine in these seasons, but be
careful of high heat, dry wind, and low moisture in the soil during the summer.

The fall runs the risk of the plant not acclimating and hardening before winter, leaving it
vulnerable to cold damage. Bareroot fruit trees should be planted at the latest in late spring.

Winter - Don't plant your trees during winter, period. There's often too much moisture that
can freeze and damage young root systems. Low temperatures and cold wind can cause cold
damage and freezing to the trees.

Expect to lose your trees if you try this. The only exception is late winter when the
temperature has risen significantly.

3.3.2 Determine the depth of planting fruit trees

Factors affecting dimensions of a planting hole.

Type of roots system - a tree with deep and wide root system requires a deeper planting
and wider hole.
Soil type – in heavy and hardy soil planting hole has to be deeper.
Size of a fruit tree – large trees need deeper a wider planting hole.
Soil fertility –.in soil of low fertility the hole should be deeper and wider then filled with
more good soil and manure.
Topography of the land – on steep slopes planting holes should be deeper and wider
than in gentle slope.
Expected productive life of a tree. - a tree of a longer life span need a bigger hole than
one with short life span.
Method of Propagation – trees raised from cuttings and layering do not develop tap
roots, so they need deeper planting hole.
Factors affecting spacing of fruit tree

Roots system - a tree with deep and wide root system requires more
space than with lateral rooted spread.
System of land use – trees grown in a pure stand would be closer than
those to be inter row planted with other crops.
Growth habit – a tree with large and spreading canopy requires more
than the one with small crown.
Soil fertility - in soil of low fertility should be deeper and wider than usual
The purpose for which they are raised – trees whose fruits are for exports or processing
would be spaced differently from those that are for local market.
Use of machinery - spacing should take account of use of machinery if the
orchard is mechanized.

PREPARATION OF PLANTING FOR A FRUIT TREE

- Mark hole position at a recommended spacing

- Dig 1m square of at least 60cm deep, keep hole straight to the bottom
- Separate top soil from sub soil as you dig the hole

- Mix top soil with composted kraal manure at a ratio of 1:1 and add about 100-500g
of super phosphate to the mixture.

- Break up the bottom surface and make it loose.

3.3.3 Plant fruit tree seedlings

 3.4.1 Discuss management practices of fruit trees
Management practices in an orchard.
Cultivation – done to control weeds, aerate soil and improve water infiltration.
Watering – regularly done normal of growth and high yield.
Control pests and diseases otherwise the quality and the yield of tree would be reduced.
Regular removal of weeds – to prevent them from competition with trees would
reduced.

Pruning – is the removal of unproductive parts of a plant.

Reasons for Pruning
- remove dead, diseased and otherwise damaged branches
- ease air circulation and light penetration
- form and maintain desirable shape
- prevent overbearing
- control pests and diseases
- facilitates harvesting of fruits
- increase quality and yield of fruits -
- induce fruiting in certain fruit trees.

3.4.2 Apply appropriate mulching material

1. Remove as many weeds and grass from around your fruit tree.
2. Place the mulch around the base of the tree trunk in a ring-shaped circle about 4-6
inches deep.
3. Use a shovel or gloved hands to pull mulch about 6-8 inches away from the trunks
of the fruit trees.
 4. Spread a thick layer of wood chip mulch, compost, or well-rotten manure around
the base of the tree.
5. Mulch should be applied twice a year in the mid-spring and autumn for the first
three or four years after planting the tree. After that, you can cut down to an
annual spring mulch.

Different mulching materials

3.4.3 Irrigate fruit trees using suitable method of irrigation

5 Best Irrigation System For Fruit Trees
There are several types of irrigation systems available for fruit trees including:

1. Drip irrigation

Drip irrigation is a system of tubes, pipes, and emitters that provide water directly to the base
of plants. It’s an economical way to irrigate fruit trees as it only waters the root zone,
reducing water wastage.
Drip irrigation delivers water directly to the root system of a tree, resulting in more precise
watering. This is especially helpful for fruit trees, which have deep roots and necessitate an
adequate amount of moisture.

Drip irrigation is a convenient way to water gardens as it can be automated with timers,
making it suitable for both busy and gardeners that are far from home. This allows for an
even amount of watering without the need for direct supervision.

Drip irrigation is an effective way of conserving water as it delivers water straight to the root
zone of plants, limiting evaporation and runoff. This helps to cut down on water usage,
saving resources and money.

Drip irrigation is a great way to improve the health and yield of fruit trees. It provides a
constant supply of water and nutrients to the roots, enabling the trees to grow better and
produce more fruit.

Drip irrigation is a great way to water fruit trees due to its accuracy, automation capabilities,
conservation efforts, and the potential to improve tree health and productivity.

2. Micro sprinkler irrigation

Micro sprinkler irrigation is a type of irrigation system that uses small sprinklers or emitters
to deliver water to plants. It is often used in small or odd-shaped gardens, or in areas where it
is difficult to install other types of irrigation systems.
With micro-sprinkler irrigation, the water can be customized for each plant and delivered at
low pressure to keep evaporation levels low. This also decreases the risk of erosion and
runoff. It’s an effective approach as the sprinklers are put close to the base of each plant.

Micro sprinkler irrigation can be automated with a timer or moisture sensor, which helps to
conserve water by preventing overwatering and under-watering. Additionally, the automation
feature can be adjusted according to varying weather conditions and turn the sprinklers off
during times of heavy rain.
One downside of using a micro sprinkler system is that it may not be suitable for large
gardens or fields, as the water output may not be sufficient to cover them.

It is also more prone to clogging than other types of irrigation systems, as the small sprinklers
can become blocked by debris or minerals in the water.

Micro sprinkler irrigation is a convenient and efficient way to water small gardens or areas
with plants that have specific watering needs. It can be easily customized and automated, and
it reduces the risk of water waste and erosion.

3. Tree watering bags

A tree watering bag is an effective way to irrigate fruit trees. It is a bag that holds water,
which gradually drips into the soil around the roots of the tree, providing moisture and
nourishment.
Watering bags are great for trees because they gradually release water, which avoids
oversaturating the soil. As a result, it maximizes water conservation and prevents root rot.

Tree watering bags are simple to use and require little initial setup. Just fill the bag with
water, put it around the tree’s base, and adjust the water given to the tree by increasing or
decreasing the water in the bag.

Tree watering bags are easy to transport, which makes them ideal for those without an
established irrigation system. Plus, they can be shifted around trees and taken with you if you
relocate.

Tree watering bags are an excellent choice for supplying moisture to the roots of fruit trees.
They are simple to use, can be moved around easily, and help conserve water – perfect for
irrigating these trees.

4. Soaker hose

Soaker hoses are a type of irrigation system meant to evenly distribute water. Made from
porous materials like recycled rubber, they have tiny holes allowing water to slowly seep out.
Soaker hoses are beneficial for gardens, landscaped areas, and fruit trees as it is a great way
to water them.

Using a soaker hose for watering fruit trees is beneficial since less water evaporates and runs
off compared to traditional methods like overhead watering. Water is released slowly, right at
the roots, letting the tree absorb more water and aiding its growth, and producing more fruit.

Another benefit of using a soaker hose is that it can reduce the risk of disease. Wet foliage on
fruit trees can create an ideal environment for fungal diseases to thrive. By applying water
directly to the roots of the tree with a soaker hose, the leaves and fruit remain dry, reducing
the chance of disease.

For an effective soaker hose, it’s important to place it in a spot that will cover the whole root
zone of the tree. The root zone is where the tree takes in water and nutrients from the soil.

Placing the soaker hose near, but slightly inside, the outer edge of the tree canopy should
provide your fruit tree with enough water for its entire root zone.

Properly watering a tree is important, as too much may lead to root rot whereas not enough
water can weaken the tree and lessen fruit yield. You can use a soaker hose in order to get the
exact amount of water needed.

To determine the correct amount of water, you can use a soil moisture gauge or simply check
the soil moisture by hand. The soil should be evenly moist, but not soggy.

In short, a soaker hose is an effective and efficient way to water fruit trees. It conserves
water, lowers the risk of disease, and can help the tree grow and produce fruit.

5. Hand watering with a hose or watering can

Watering fruit trees by hand using a hose or watering can is an easy way to keep them
hydrated.

3.4.4 Apply fertilizers appropriately to enrich the soil

 3.4.5 Perform thinning of fruit trees
It isn’t necessary to thin every type of fruit tree in your orchard.
Here is the list of trees which benefits from fruit thinning:
1. Apples 2. Peaches 3. Nectarine 4. Plums 5. Apricot 6.
Pears(only if it suffers from biennial bearing)

Thinning fruit trees may seem counterproductive, but here are four reasons why
thinning out fruit benefits you, your trees, and your fruit harvest.

As a fruit gardener, you may have heard talk about thinning fruit trees. Thinning is
the process of removing a selection of fruit from your trees while the fruit is still
small.

Now, it may seem counterintuitive to pluck some of the newly developing fruit
before it is ripe. After all, growing fruit is your goal! However, thinning fruit trees
ultimately works in your favor and, more importantly, it benefits your fruit trees in
the long run.

4 benefits of thinning fruit:

1. Discourage overbearing & early fruit drop.

2. Improve remaining fruit size, color, & quality.
3. Help to avoid limb damage from a heavy fruit load.
4. Stimulate next year’s crop & help avoid biennial bearing*.

* "Biennial bearing" is a tree’s tendency to bear fruit every other year. Left to its
own devices, a fruit tree may bear heavily one year, then light (or not at all) the
next year. Certain types of fruit tree, like many peach trees, and certain varieties of
fruit tree, like Golden Delicious Apple trees, are more likely to bear biennially if
the current year’s fruit crop isn’t thinned.

How to Thin Your Tree's Fruit

What you need: Thinning fruit trees is an easy task. All you need is your fingers,
or a small pair of sharp pruners, to remove the excess fruit and get the job done.

When to thin out fruit: The window for thinning fruit trees opens after pollination
takes place and in the early stages of fruit development – this is usually before the
young fruit exceeds an inch in diameter. In most locations, you will no longer need
to be concerned with thinning your fruit trees after July.
3.4.6 Perform training of fruit trees

Training a fruit tree involves directing tree growth in a way that will lead to the
development of a desirable tree framework
Some methods of training include:
 Spreading limbs
 Tying the plant to a trellis
 Using a rootstock for growth control
 Staking, pruning, and branch spreading
 Having 3 to 5 scaffold branches with wide angles evenly distributed around the
tree
 Removing large, branched water sprouts
 Using "diameter-based" pruning
 Training twice, pruning once
 Limiting tree height

Three ways to train a fruit tree

Discover three ways to train fruit trees so that they look attractive but take up little space - as
cordons, espaliers or fans.

By planting trained trees in shapes such as espaliers, cordons and fans, you can fit apples,
pears and more into the smallest of gardens. Either growing flat against a wall or fence, or as
a garden divider or screen, trained fruit trees make an attractive feature. Despite being
deciduous, they look good all year round, offering blossom in spring, delicious fruits and
attractive foliage from summer to autumn, and dramatic shapes through the winter.

Discover more beautiful trees for small gardens.

Trained trees can provide you with a surprisingly large crop in a small space and as the fruit
should be in easy reach, you can pick it before it falls. You can buy trees ready-trained,
mainly from specialist fruit nurseries, or train them yourself from scratch.

Here are the three main trained tree types to grow.

Single cordon
This is a single stem with short fruiting spurs evenly spaced along it. Prune in the summer,
cutting sideshoots that are over 23cm long, back to three leaves from where the current
season's growth begins. Once it has reached the top wire, prune the leading shoot back to a
leaf joint at the required height. Many fruits can be grown this way,
including apples, cherries, plums and damsons.

A row of cordon fruit trees growing against a wall at Audley End House
Espalier

This attractive, symmetrical form has a central trunk and two more more pairs of 'arms',
trained horizontally on each side. It's usually grown flat against a wall. Prune the arms like
cordons. Pears and apples can be trained as espaliers. Find out how to prune apple trees in
summer.
An espalier apple tree
Fans

An ornamental and productive form for a wall, with straight branches fanning out from two to
four main branches, originating from a very short trunk. Remove shoots growing outwards.
As it matures, remove older fruited sideshoots and train in new ones. Used for cherries,
plums, peaches, apricots, nectarines and fig trees.
Training a small fruit tree into a fan
Fruiting spur
Spurs are short branches on apple and pear trees that flower and set fruit. Pruning encourages
the tree to grow more spurs – giving you more fruit.
 3.5.1 Describe classes of pests in fruit tree production
3.5.2 Identify pests affecting fruit trees
CLASSES OF PESTS EXAMPLES
OF PESTS
RODENTS Rats, mouse,
squirrel ,rabbits

BIRDS Quelea birds,

doves ,quail
,guinea fowl
NEMATODES

BORING INSECTS Weevil, stalk

borer
PIERCING AND SUCKING Scale, aphids,
tuta absoluta,
bagrada bug

BITING AND CHEWING Beetle,

grasshopper,
cricket,
termites, leaf
miners
 3.5.3 Describe the lifecycle of a chosen insect pest from each
class
Life cycle of a mouse

Life cycle of a bird

Life cycle of nematodes

- These are microscopic wire-like worms living in the soil (cysts)
- There are also have specialized mouth parts for piercing and sucking
- A few of the species are parasitic to plants
 Life cycle of of a stalkborer

Has a four stage life cycle consisting of --Egg -- larva-- pupa—adult--

- female moth mates with male moth and lay eggs on the underside of the leaf sheath
- eggs hatch into larva ( caterpillar) after about 10 days
- larva feeds on plant material and then crawls up the plant into the funnel and starts
feeding on the folded leaves
- the larva then bores down the funnel into the stalk where it feeds until it is fully
grown
- mature caterpillars bore holes on the stem and pupates in the tunnel and this stage
lasts 10 days
 - adult moth emerges through the hole into the stem
- 2-3 days after adult emergence mating occurs and the cycle starts all over again

Life cycle of aphids

- The lifecycle of a locust has three stages consisting of the egg---nymph---adult.

- Aphids’ life cycle has an incomplete metamorphosis i.e. the nymphal stage resembles the
adult.
- Aphids can reproduce both sexually and asexually

Sexual Reproduction

- occurs when the conditions are unfavourable (hot and dry)

- Male mates with the winged females
- Eggs are laid with protective shells, the shells protects eggs against unfavourable
conditions
- When favourable conditions return the eggs hatch into nymphs which will then
develop into wingless females
- The reproduction through the laying of eggs is called oviparity.

Asexual Reproduction

- this occurs when the conditions are favourable (warm and wet)
- Females produce unfertilized eggs which hatch into nymphs while inside the females’
body. This called parthenogenesis
- The females lay nymphs instead of eggs i.e. nymphs are born alive this is called
viviparity
 - The nymphs feed on plant sap and moults several times before they mature to become
adults
- Nymphs become adults in a space of a week
- Adult aphids continue to feed on plant sap and females start to produce nymphs,
- When they get overcrowded some develop wings and fly away to colonize other
plants.

Life cycle of a locust

- The lifecycle of a locust has three stages consisting of the --egg---nymph---adult--.

- Locusts’ life cycle has an incomplete metamorphosis i.e. the nymphal stage resembles the
adult.
- Fertilization occurs inside the female locust
- Female lays eggs in protective pods underground
- In 30 days eggs hatch into nymphs
- Nymph feeds and grows, moults 4-5 times and reaches maturity (adult stage) in 40 days
- After 45 days adult reaches sexual maturity the cycle starts all over again

3.5.4 Describe the damage caused to the plant by the insect

Piercing and sucking pests

 They insert their mouth parts into plant tissues and
removes juice
 Heavily infested plants become yellow, wilt, deformed
and stunted
 Tree canopy die back
 Some pests inject toxic materials into plants
 Discoloured leaves, stem materials and fruits making
them mottled

Biting and chewing pests

 Creates holes in the leaves/stems
  Creates semi circular holes along the edges of the
leaves
 Discolouration on the surface / the edges of the foliage
and flower petals
 Severed stems and leaves
 Plant wilting
Boring insects
 Tunnel holes into woody plant tissue
 Creates darkly colored patches on the tree bark
 Creates spiral woody cuttings
 Creates white powdery frass(droppings) under leaves
Nematodes
 There is premature wilting of the plant
 Leaves turns yellow
 There is root malformation
 Stunted growth
Rodents
 Feed on the tree bark and roots
 Chews tree leaves and fruits
 Unearth planted seeds
 Decrease of quality of the tree
 They can spread diseases
Birds
 Damages blossoms and buds
 Feeds on fruits
 Make multiple perk marks on fruits
3.5.5 Control fruit tree pests using appropriate methods

Class of pests Method of control

Rodents -use traps

-use rodent proof stores
-bush clearing around storages and field
-quarantine and legislation
-use of cats
-use of rodenticides
- use IPM methods

Birds -use of scarecrows

-early planting
-use of predatory animals
Nematodes
-Use clean planting materials
-Use of plenty organic manures
-Plant resistant varieties of trees
-Quarantine and legislation
-Field hygiene and or sanitation
-Soil fumigation with formalin
-Land fallowing for several planting seasons
-Promote natural enemies like fungi, bacteria,
protozoa etc
Boring insects -destroy crop residues after harvesting
-enforce close season
-winter ploughing
-Field hygiene and or sanitation (timely removal of
weeds, volunteer plants and crop residue)
-Crop rotation
-Early planting
-Spray inside the funnel with carbaryl 5% at 20ml in
10L
- Use IPM(Integrated pest management)

Piercing and -Spray using dimethoate (roger) 50% at the rate of

sucking 5ml/5L of water
-Spray using kerosene-soap emulsion
-Spray with nicotine-soap solution
-Spray with malathion
- Field hygiene and or sanitation (timely removal of
weeds, volunteer plants and crop residues
-Use of lady-bird beetles as natural predators
-Use IPM(Integrated pest management)

Biting and -Biological control using reptile, birds, egg parasites

chewing -Chemical control that is, spray swarms with carbaryl
 -Cultural control e.g. early planting, effective weed
control, fertilizer application to ensure vigorous crop
growth
- Use IPM(Integrated pest management)

Chemical name and its Mode of action Active ingridients

formulation
Warlock 19.2 Emomectin
-E.C (Emulsifiable Stomach insecticide benzoate(avermectin)
concentrate)
Rat and mouse grain bait Brodifacoum(coagulant)
-Granules Contact insecticide
Carbakill dusting powder Carbaryl( corbomate)
-Dust Stomach and
contact insecticide
Bandit 350 Systemic Imidacloprid
-SC (Suspension
concentrate)
Avi-klorpirifos Contact Chloropyrifos(organo-
-E.C(Emulsifiable phosphate)
concentrate)

3.5.6 Describe classes of weeds in fruit tree production

3.5.7 Identify weeds affecting fruit trees
3.5.8 Control weeds affecting fruit trees using appropriate
methods
WEEDS

- A weed is any plant that grows where it is not wanted OR

- It is a plant whose growth interferes with that of the crop which the soil is meant
to raise.

DESIRABLE EFFFECTS OF WEEDS

- provides organic matter and mineral nutrients upon death and decomposition
- protects soil against solar radiation during hot days
- provides ground cover therefore controlling soil erosion
- serve as shelter for pests predators and other useful organisms
- some leguminous weeds fixes nitrogen to the soil hence improving soil fertility and
plant growth

UNDESIRABLE EFFECTS OF WEEDS

 - some weeds harbour pests and pathogens which in turn affects plants hence poor
growth and yield
- compete with crops for water, air, nutrients and space leading to poor crop growth
and yield
- some produce allelomorphs (toxic chemicals) which could kill crops
- some weeds are parasitic and directly draw nutrients from the crops lead to poor crop
growth and yield
- weed seeds contaminate crop harvest leading to reduced quality of crop yields

CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS

- life cycle
- morphology
- method of dispersal

LIFE CYCLE

a) annuals

These weeds will germinate; produce flowers and seeds in one year or growing season.
These are commonly a problem in the arable land and are easy to control since they do
not have food storage or strong roots
E.g. Black jack, upright starbur, morning glory, Mexican poppy, thorn apple, devils thorn
etc.

b) biennials

- these complete their lifecycle in two years

- in the first year they germinate and produce leaves
- in the second year they produce flowers and seeds
- these are not common

c) perennials

- perennials do not die after reproducing

- these cause a great problem in arable crops
- herbaceous perennials can survive cold weather and dry season by developing
underground food storage and or deep root system
- woody perennials (bushes and trees) survive difficult conditions by shedding off their
leaves
E.g. Couch grass

MORPHOLOGY (LEAF SIZE/SHAPE)

 a) broad leaved weeds

All the broadleaved weeds belong to the group dicotyledons

Dicotyledonous weeds
- the seedlings have a pair of seed leaves/cotyledons
- leaves are usually large and do not encircle the stem
- the veins of the leaves have a branched pattern
- these plants usually have tap roots
E.g. Mexican poppy, black jack, morning glory

b) Narrow leaved weeds

Narrow leaved weeds belong to the group monocotyledons.

Monocotyledonous weeds
- seedlings have a single seed leaf / cotyledon
- the leaves are usually wide and encircle the stem
- the leaves have veins that run parallel to the midrib along the leave
E.g. Star grass

METHOD OF DISPERSAL

a) water
- Irrigation water from rivers, dams, lakes can spread weeds through seeds and
vegetative parts
- Running off water carries weed seeds
- Many weeds are spread through this method

b) wind
- light weighted seeds with wing like structures (pappus) makes it easy for them to be
carried by wind to other areas

c) animals
- when animals feed they ingest some weed seeds which will be passed in excreta and
may latter regenerate into weeds
- weed seeds stick to the fur of the animals as they graze and will be dropped in other
areas
eg. Black jack

d) man – spread weeds through clothes, shoes or vehicle tires

e) vegetatively

During ploughing the weeds are chopped into small pieces and as ploughing is done these
pieces spread into the field and these small pieces develop into weeds.

f) By explosion
Plants that produce seeds in pods at night these pods contract and during the day they
expand the pod ultimately will burst open sending seeds flying into the air. The seeds are
normally scattered around the plant.

Common weeds found in Botswana

Common name Scientific name

Black jack Bidens pilosa
Thorn apple Ditura stramonium
Couch grass Cynodon dactylon
Star grass Digitaria scalarum
Mexican poppy Argemone mexicana
Pig weed Amaranthus spp.
Witch weed Striga spp.

WEED CONTROL METHODS

1) CULTURAL CONTROL 2. MECHANICAL/PHYSICAL

The use of good crop husbandry practices CONTROL
to minimize weed interference with crops The use of physical means to control
e.g. flooding, burning, crop rotation, weeds e.g. tillage/digging, cultivation,
proper spacing, timely/ early planting, use hoeing, hand pulling, slashing
of clean planting material
Advantages
Advantages - avoids use of chemicals/herbicides
- effective control of parasitic weeds - all farmers can use it
- help prevent introduction and spread of - incorporates organic matter with the soil
weeds - no special skills are required
- easy to integrate with other weeds - improves soil aeration and drainage
control methods - improves water infiltration
- Environmental friendly since no
chemicals are used Disadvantages
- no special skills needed except in crop - Its labour intensive
rotation - may damage crop roots
- possible only in row planted crops
Disadvantages - frequent cultivation exposes soil to agent
- its time consuming of erosion
- effective when combined with other
methods
- requires farmers to have basic knowledge
of crop husbandry
 3. BIOLOGICAL 4) CHEMICAL CONTROL
CONTROL the use of chemicals (herbicides) to
the use of living organisms to control control weeds
weeds e.g. insects, pathogens, animals,
live mulch, cover crop and trap crops advantages
- low labour requirement
advantages - faster to control weeds than other
- avoids use of herbicides or chemicals methods
- makes use of natural resources - efficient weed control on a large area of
- promotes integration of farming system land
- some methods used promotes soil - more effective in controlling perennial
conservation and increases organic matter weeds
in the soil - weeds can be selectively controlled
- promotes minimum tillage
Disadvantages
- it is costly Disadvantages
- takes a long time to develop suitable - pollution of the environment
biological agents - expensive to buy herbicides
- biological agent introduced may become - needs skills and knowledge to use
pests - requires special application equipment
- population of control agents may not be - herbicides are not always readily
large enough to control weeds effectively available
- biological agents introduced may fail or - harmful to sensitive crops
take long to adapt to the new environment - weeds may develop resistance to
herbicides if repeatedly used
- may kill biological control agents

Herbicides

Chemicals used to control weeds

a) selective herbicides
- kills specific type/kind of weeds and not harm others
- these can be applied when crops have established or post emergence of
seedlings
- e.g. 2, 4 D and MCPA control broadleaved weeds. Dalapon and alachlor kill
grass weeds (narrow-leaved) weeds only.

b) non-selective herbicides

- kills all type/kind of weeds

- these can be applied pre-planting or pre-emergence of seedlings
- e.g. glyphosate, paraquat, sodium chlorate

identify selective herbicides

Identify Non selective herbicide
 3.5.9 Describe classes of diseases under the following: causative
agent , signs and symptoms

PLANT DISEASES

Any deviation from the normal functioning of physiological anatomical processes OR it is a

change in the state of the organism which curbs the proper performance or functions of its
parts.

Diseases are caused by pathogens like fungi, virus and bacteria.

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT DISEASES

On the basis of causative agents

Causative Disease Class Examples

agent
Bacterial Bacterial canker,bacterial leaf spot,fire blight,
Bacterial crown gall
diseases
Fungi Downy mildew, powdery mildew,fly speck,
Fungal diseases brown rot, leaf curl, bull’s eye rot, apple scab,
damping off, albinism, leaf spot
Virus Mosaic virus ,streak virus,citrus mosaic,
Viral diseases psorosis, satsuma dwarf, rusty mottle,
Streak virus

Cause: Virus

Transmission: (aphids, leafhoppers/piercing and sucking pests)

Mode of infection: virus enter plant through wounds and toxins secreted by pest when
feeding

Symptoms:
- light green leaves with white to yellow streaks running parallel to the leaf
veins/midrib
- Stunted growth
- Small and partially filled cobs
- Inflorescence may become sterile
- death of the plants

Control and prevention

- Use of close season

- Plant resistant varieties
- Practice early planting
 - Use clean and certified seeds
- Field hygiene
- Use carbaryl to control aphids and leaf hoppers

Leaf spot

Cause: fungus

Transmission
o airborne conidia is carried from infected plants, volunteer crops and crop residue
o Contact from farm workers
o irrigation water

Mode of infection: through openings and plant wounds

Symptoms

o premature loss of plant leaves

o Whitish blotches on lower leaves and pegs at an early stage of the disease
o Lesions/wounds latter develop into chlorotic then necrotic patches
o In seedlings the stems become waterlogged, seedlings topple and die
o reduced photosynthetic area and capacity of the plants
o reduced crop yields
Control methods

o spray infected crops with benlate

o proper crop spacing
o early planting
o destroy crop residues/ volunteer crops/ infected plants

Bacterial canker/bacterial shothole

Cause: bacteria
Transmission: soil borne, irrigation water, crop residues, farm implements and tools

Mode infection: enters plants through wounds in the roots

Symptoms

o discolouration of the xylem vessels

o milky/whitish slimy bacteria form in the xylem vessels
o wilting and death of affected plants
o chlorosis, necrosis and leaf shedding
o complete crop loss
Control and preventative measures

o remove infected plant and burn them

o use of resistant varieties
o sterilise clean tools and implements
o soil fumigation and solarization of planting medium
o use of legislative measures

FARM CHEMICALS (AGRO-CHEMICALS)

These are classified according to what they control/ target pest

Target pest Pesticide

group
Nematode Nematicides
Insects Insecticides
Rodents Rodenticides
Aphids Aphicides

3.5.10 Identify diseases affecting fruit trees

3.5.11 control fruit trees diseases using appropriate methods
3.5.12 identify types of chemical formulations used in control of
pests, weeds and diseases in fruit tree production
3.5.13 demonstrate calibration of sprayer
3.5.14 demontraste proper use of a sprayer
Mode of action of insectcides

a) Contact insecticides

- act by physical contact with the body of the target insect

- are absorbed through the skin/ cuticle into the body of the insect
- these are dusted/sprayed directly on pest moving on exposed surface or the
foliage
- these are less selective e.g. malathion, carbaryl, dipterex, pyrethrin etc

b) Stomach insecticides

- these are baits/sprays applied on plant tissues and ingested by insects

- these poisons the pests through digestive system
- These selectively control biting and chewing pests e.g. rotenone, malathion,
carbaryl etc

c) Systemic insecticides

- these are applied and absorbed into the host plant

 - the chemical is translocated throughout the plant tissue by sap
- these selectively control piercing and sucking pest and boring pest when
feeding e.g. dimethoate, menazon

d) Fumigants

- pesticide in a form of a tablet which releases poisonous gas that suffocates or

poison the pest
- it is used to control pests in the soil, bulk produce buildings, import and export
goods
e.g. formaldehyde (formalin), iodoform, phospine, hydrogen
cyanide, chloropicrin

PESTICIDES FORMULATIONS

The form in which the pesticide is used

The pesticide material consist of active ingredient and inert material

ACTIVE INGRIDIENT: actual toxicant/poison/ chemical compound that is designed to

kill the target pest

INERT MATERIAL: carrier/compound that contains/carries active ingredient

Pesticides formulations
Formulation Description
Sprays Wettable powders (WP), water soluble powders (WSP), emulsifiable
concentrates (EC)(they form suspension, solution or emulsion with
water for spraying) e.g. malathion 50%
Dusts Formulated into dry, very fine powder for direct application e.g.
carbaryl 1%
Aerosols Active ingredient is dissolved in an inert liquid under pressure.
Pesticide is released as a gas at room temperature on releasing pressure
e.g. doom
Granules Pesticide in which active ingredient is formulated as small solid
particles for direct application e.g. dipterex, cutworm bait
fumigants Active ingredient formulated in a tablet form which releases poisonous
gas that suffocates or poison the pest e.g. hydrogen cyanide, formalin

KNAPSACK SPRAYER

Agricultural equipment used to spray chemicals (pesticides) on crops and animals.

Parts of a knapsack sprayer and their functions

Part Function
Tank Container in which chemical is placed
Cap Seals the tank
Strainer Removes impurities from water
Delivery hose Carries chemical from tank to the lance
Handle Operates pump building pressure inside the reservoir
Pump Creates pressure inside the tank
Trigger Controls the release of spray through nozzle/ turns
spray on or off
Nozzle Atomize/ vapourises chemical to produce a spray/
distributes spray into fine dropplets
Shoulder Put over shoulder to carry sprayer
strap
Lance Directs spray to target crop/animal
Filter cap Water poured through to ensure the water contains no
large particles which blocks the nozzle

Maintenance of knapsack sprayer

- drain tank of any spray and wash thoroughly

- unblock the filter/strainer and nozzles
- drain the hose, lance and clean them thoroughly
- grease or oil moving parts
- wash rubber parts and store in a dry place
 - replace worn out washers and old faulty valves

Calibration of a knapsack sprayer

This helps determine the amount of chemical to be used in a given area

- select and measure a test area i.e. about 100m

- fill the tank with known volume of water (litres)
- spray test area at constant speed and height until completed
- measure amount of water remaining in the tank
- determine the amount of water used by subtracting the remaining water volume from
the initial volume
- divide the water used by the test area size to get spray volume

- multiply the spray volume by the size of the field to get the quantity of mixture

ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS OF FARM CHEMICALS

- kill beneficial organism (natural predators and pollinating insects)

- development of pesticides resistance
- pollution (ground water/soil/air)
- poison livestock and man
- disturbance of natural balance
- phyto-toxicity (poisonous to plants)

Precautions in handling and use of pesticide

- wear protective clothing (e.g. overalls, goggles, mouth mask)

- ensure correct dilution of chemical
- avoid eating, drinking, smoking when handling chemicals
- avoid tasting or smelling chemicals
- wash thoroughly after application
- ensure proper and safe disposal of empty containers and left over chemicals
- Avoid spraying on a windy day
- Read and follow owners’ instruction

Precautions when storing farm chemicals

- store out of reach of children

- store them in well labelled containers
- store keep them in a well ventilated place
- store in tightly closed containers
- store keep them in a cool dry place
- store keep them in secure/lockable cupboards
3.6.1 identify signs of maturity in fruits
Maturity
Maturity is the basis for determining the exact moment/stage to
pick a crop.
The stage at which the crops should be harvested has an
important bearing on quality. Good quality is obtained when
harvesting is done at the proper stage of maturity. Fruits
harvested before optimum maturity may not ripen adequately and
may not develop good flavor, while crops harvested late (over
mature) will have a shorter post-harvest life and deteriorate
easily.
Maturity indices
Maturity indices are the sign or indication of the readiness of the
commodity for harvest. Thus, it is the basis for determining
harvest date.
Types of maturity
There are three types of maturity which are as follows
 Physiological maturity
 Horticultural/Commercial maturity
 Harvest Maturity

Physiological maturity:
It refers to the stage in developing the fruits and vegetables when
maximum growth and maturation have occurred. It is usually
associated with full ripening in the fruits. The Physiological
mature stage is followed by senescence. For example, A French
bean pod of okra is at its physiological maturity when seeds are
fully developed, and the pod will dehisce with little pressure.
Horticultural/Commercial maturity:
Horticultural maturity refers to any stage of development when
the commodity has reached a level of development sufficient for
its intended use. It is sometimes referred to as commercial
maturity. For example, A papaya with green pulp and peel that
has attained maximum size is already commercially mature as a
vegetable. Still, a tinge of yellow color has to develop when it is
used for dessert.
Harvest Maturity:
It may be defined in terms of physiological maturity and
horticultural maturity. It is a stage that will allow
fruits/vegetables at its peak condition when it reaches consumers
and develop acceptable flavors or appearances and have a good
shelf life. For example, For the local market, and for processing,
fully colored tomato fruits are harvested. However, for a distant
market, fruit that has started developing color is harvested.
Determination of maturity
Maturity can be determined either by subjective or objective
observation. According to Reid (2002), the methods of
determining harvest maturity are as follows
 Physical methods: Size, shape, color, texture, etc.
 Chemical methods: Total Soluble Solids (TSS), acidity, etc.
 Physiological methods: Respiration and ethylene production.
 Apart from the above measures, abscission, accumulated heat
unit, specific gravity, duration after flowering, firmness, dry
matter, juice content, Oil content, waxiness, tenderness, etc.,
can also determine the optimum harvest maturity stage.
Measures of maturity of fruits and vegetables
Some essential measures of maturity of fruits and vegetables are
described in the following.
1. Fruit Color:
Fruit skin or flesh color changes as the fruit matures or ripens.
These changes can be determined subjectively by the harvester.
However, color meters and color charts have been developed for
determining harvest times for apples, tomatoes, peaches, chili
peppers, etc. However, some fruits do not exhibit any perceptible
color changes during maturation, and thus this parameter cannot
be effectively used. Color changes also differ among different
cultivars of the same fruit.
For example, the Hayward cultivar of kiwifruit maintains its
green flesh during maturation while the ‘Sanuki Gold’ cultivar
changes gradually to golden-yellow. Some cultivars of avocado
also maintain their green skin color during maturation.
2. Firmness:
Some fruits may change in texture during maturation, and these
changes can be used to determine the harvest time. Textural
changes are detected subjectively by touch or gentle squeezing.
However, objective measurement can be achieved using pressure
testers and texture analyzers.
3. Soluble Solids Content and Starch content:
During maturation, starch in non-climacteric fruits is converted to
sugars. For climacteric fruits, starch accumulates during
maturation. Therefore, harvest maturity can be determined by
measuring the sugar content or starch content. Usually, the sugar
content is measured in total soluble solids content using a Brix
hydrometer or refractometer. Starch content is measured using
iodine to qualitatively determine the amount of starch. This
method is used in determining the maturity of pear cultivars,
whereby the fruit is cut into two and dipped into a solution
containing potassium iodide and iodine.
4. Number of days from fruit set:
Fruit set refers to the transition of a flower to fruit after
fertilization. It usually involves rapid cell division and expansion
of the ovary and the development of seeds. In some fruits, the
time taken between fruit sets until the fruit starts showing signs
of maturity has been recorded, which can be used to determine
harvest time.
For instance, in Alphonso and pairi mango varieties, it takes
about 110 to 125 days after fruit set for surface color to change
from dark green to olive-green and flesh color from white to pale
yellow (Bhatnagar and Suramanyam, 1971). On the other hand,
Tandon and Karla (1986) concluded that Langra and Mallik took
84 and 96 days after fruit set respectively to attain harvest
maturity.
5. Specific gravity:
The specific gravity of fruit can be considered an index for
maturity grading. Water has a specific gravity of 1.00, and
common salt solution (2.5% NaCl) has a specific gravity of 1.02,
and both are used in the maturity grading of mango fruits (Kapsa
and Katrodia 1997). e.g., the specific gravity of mango range
between 1.01-1.02.

In summary, the maturity of fruit at harvest will significantly

affect their quality along the post-harvest value chain. Therefore,
accurate, efficient, and effective maturity indices must be applied
to ensure high quality at all levels along the value chain. It is
worth noting that a single maturity index cannot predominately
determine the maturity of fruits. Therefore, it is advisable to use
different parameters simultaneously to improve the accuracy of
the determinations. Furthermore, one maturity index cannot be
applied across all cultivars of the same crop. This is because there
are slight differences among the cultivars.
3.6.2 identify tools,equipment and machinery used to harvest
fruit treesHarvesting Methods
In general, these are the three different harvesting methods that
take place when harvesting fruits and vegetables:
1. Hand Harvesting
2. Harvesting with Hand Tools
3. Harvesting with Machinery
However, it is important to note that it is hard to categorize the
different types of harvesting because there can be some overlap.
1. Hand Harvesting
Hand harvesting is just that: produce is harvested by hand,
without the use of any tools. When hand harvesting, it is typically
done using a picking cart or some sort of container. A common
example of a hand harvest with a picking cart is a strawberry
harvest. While, an example of a hand harvest using containers is
the hand harvesting carrot operation you have seen previously on
the blog. (There are two different types of carrot harvest that can
be done: hand harvest for the fresh market or machine harvest for
carrots that go on to be processed in to baby carrots or something
of that sort.)
2. Harvesting with Hand Tools
This harvesting method is typically carried out when harvesting
tree fruit, where some sort of clipper (usually specialized for the
type of produce being harvested) is used to remove the fruit from
the tree, and then the fruit is placed into harvesting containers.
Once the harvesting containers are full, the harvested product is
transferred to larger bins in the field, of which those are then
transported to the facility. Some examples include the harvesting
of fresh figs, peaches, and Cuties. Although this is very common
in the harvesting of tree fruit, it does also occur for other produce
items, such as onion (the non-machine harvesting
operation), garlic and row crops.
3. Harvesting with Machinery
There are a lot of different harvesting types that land under this
category. There are operations that perform hand harvesting and
harvesting with hand tools that also use harvesting machinery
(e.g., harvesting rig) to aid in the overall harvesting and packing
process. But, there are also harvesting operations that use the
harvesting rigs to perform further “semi-processing activities” or
postharvest washing. Then, there are also harvesting mowing
machines and combines. All of these harvesting types serve a
specific purpose, based on the type of produce being harvested,
and considering the amount of investment that goes into the
machinery, it needs to make sense.
 Harvesting Using a Harvesting Rig – Commonly, the
produce items are either hand harvested or harvested using
tools and then passed on to the workers working on the
harvesting rigs, where the product can be packed; washed and
packed; trimmed, washed and packed; etc. The harvesting
rigs serve as an aid in the packing process and then once the
product is packed, or prepared for the processor, it is
transported (typically via a conveyor belt) over to an adjacent
trailer that is responsible for transporting the product out of
the field. Some examples of this include the harvesting
of cauliflower, cantaloupe, and romaine hearts (this is an
example of semi-processing activities in the field).
 Harvesting Using a Mower – The mower harvests have been
perfected to rely heavily on the mowers and not so much on
actual workers. There is the mower, with a few workers on it
or at least one driving it and then an adjacent trailer to capture
the harvested product. Some examples include the harvesting
of spring mix and basil. Another form of a mower that you
have seen is as part of the 3-step almond harvesting process
(which also includes a sweeping and shaking machine).
  Harvesting Using a Combine – Combines are used to
harvest grain crops. They pass through the fields and mow
down the grain crops and remove the desired portion into the
machine and spit the rest out the back. An example of this is
a corn combine that is used to harvest corn that is harvested
to be used in processed products (e.g., corn chips, corn
tortillas, etc.).

Flail mower
Nut wizard-a rolling barrel used to collets nuts and other big
fruits
3.7.1 carry out marketing of fruit trees products
Determination of yield in fruit tree production

Many factors contribute to the profitability of an orchard. The two most important factors are
marketable yield per hectare and the price received for the fruit. Early yields also have a big
impact on profitability of a new orchard. In the early years of an orchard, tree density
generally has a greater effect on yield than does the training system. However, as the orchard
matures, yields can differ depending on the tree training system used.

High yield per hectare, or per acre, requires a high percentage of light interception, whether
in the first three years or when the orchard is fully bearing. The best way to obtain high early
light interception and thus high early yields is to plant trees closely. The specific tree training
used in the early years is less important than the tree density, as long as the spaces allotted to
the trees are filled quickly with bearing wood. As the orchard matures, the training system
must ensure that high light interception is achieved. The percentage of light intercepted by
the orchard is the most important factor in determining yield. For optimum yields, the orchard
should intercept at least 70 percent, but not more than 80 percent, of sunlight. All over the
world, orchardists are embracing this concept to achieve early and high yields of marketable
fruit.

Processing of fruit trees

Fresh fruit
Storage
Once harvested, fruits are moved to storage. In the case of highly heat-sensitive
products such as raspberries or cherries, the fruit should be precooled prior to
storage. Precooling can be accomplished by hydrocooling (immersion of the fruit in
cold water) or vacuum cooling (moistening and then placing under vacuum in order
to induce evaporative cooling).

A typical storage system for fruit is cold storage, using refrigerated air. Other
techniques include controlled-atmosphere (CA) storage and hypobaric storage. In CA
storage the oxygen and carbon dioxide content of the storage environment are
controlled in such a way as to retard senescence and further deterioration of the fruit.
In general, oxygen levels are reduced and carbon dioxide levels increased. CA
conditions can be generated in a number of ways. Conventional CA depends on the
respiration of the fruit to generate carbon dioxide, and the concentration of this gas
is controlled by wet scrubbers, hydrated lime, or other commercial carbon dioxide
removal systems. Liquid nitrogen and compressed nitrogen gas have also been used
to flush out the ambient air of the storage facility. In other systems oxygen
is converted to carbon dioxide by reaction with liquid propane or by catalytic
burning.

Hypobaric storage involves the cold storage of fruit under partial vacuum. Typical
conditions include pressures as low as 80 and 40 millimetres of mercury and
temperatures of 5 °C (40 °F). Hypobaric conditions reduce ethylene production and
respiration rates; the result is an extraordinarily high-quality fruit even after months
of storage.

Packaging
Packaging systems for fresh fruit usually involve a simple plastic breathable bag or
overwrap. However, as the market value of high-quality fruit has increased, so too
have efforts to develop improved packaging. These efforts have been primarily in the
area of modified-atmosphere packaging (MAP). In this type of packaging the barrier
properties of the material are carefully selected according to the respiration
characteristics of the fruit. The goal is to allow an exchange of gases and moisture
that produces the optimal storage environment. Continued work in this field is
producing “smart” films, which not only produce the optimal atmosphere for storage
but also change their barrier properties depending on the ambient temperature and
on the respiration rate of the fruit.
Fruit juice

orange juice
Cups of orange juice cooling on ice.
After fresh fruit, one of the most common fruit products is fruit juice. Fruit juice can
take on many forms, including a natural-style cloudy product, a “nectar”-type
product containing suspended solids, a fully clarified juice, juice concentrate, and
fruit drinks.

The processing of fruit juice involves washing, extraction, clarification, and

preservation.
Washing
Fruit is usually washed prior to any processing. Washing is typically conducted with
a high-pressure soak or spray system. Under some conditions a surfactant or
detergent may be added in order to release stubborn soil attached to the fruit.
In apple processing a high-quality wash is necessary to ensure the safe removal of
microorganisms responsible for mycotoxin formation and possible gastrointestinal
poisoning.

Juice extraction
Preparation
Fruit is prepared for juice extraction by removing unwanted parts. This may include
pitting operations for stone fruit such as apricots, cherries, or plums or peeling for
such fruits as pineapples. In one large class of fruit, citrus fruit, juice extraction and
separation from the peel are combined. Two major juice extraction systems for citrus
exist. One is a reaming technique, in which the fruit is cut in half and the individual
halves reamed to extract both the juice and the inner fruit solids. In the second major
system, a hole is punched in the fruit and the juice squeezed out at the same time.
If the entire fruit is to be used in the juice, then typically it is disintegrated in a drum
grater or a hammer mill. Care must be taken to control disintegration so that the
particle size of the mash is compatible with the press system.
Pressing
Many different types of press are used for juice extraction. The most traditional is
a rack-and-frame press, in which ground fruit (mash) is pumped into cloth
partitions, called cheeses, which are separated by wooden or metallic racks. After a
stack of cheeses has been produced, the press is activated and the juice expressed
from the assembly.

Many variations of the rack-and-frame press exist. These include the continuous belt
press, the bladder press, and the basket press.
Liquefaction
As an alternative to press systems, some processors have gone to total enzymatic
liquefaction of the fruit mash. Cellulase and pectinase enzymes are added, and the
mash is heated in order to accelerate the enzyme’s performance.
Clarification
Pectinization
If the juice is to be clarified further or concentrated after extraction, treatment with
pectinase may be required. The juice is monitored for pectin content using a
qualitative pectin check, consisting of combining one part juice with two parts
ethanol. If a gel forms, pectin is still present and depectinization must continue.
When depectinization is complete, a floc is typically formed by the aggregation of
partially degraded pectin-protein aggregates.
Filtration
Filtration systems are varied in design, operation, and application. The most
traditional system is diatomaceous earth (DE) filtration, in which DE is used
to aggregate and collect suspended solids. The DE is collected on filter paper inside
the pressure filter as the juice passes through the unit. The resulting juice is
sparkling clear. Owing to concern over the cost of DE and its disposal, other filtration
processes have been designed. The most successful is membrane filtration, in which
hollow fibre, open tubular, or ceramic membranes are employed in juice filtration
systems.
Preservation
fruit juice; orange juice
Automated equipment at an orange juice bottling plant.
Once the juice has been clarified, it is ready to be preserved. In some cases large
reserves of single-strength juice are kept in juice silos after having been pasteurized,
but usually the juice is immediately processed into retail or institutional packages.
For a single-strength juice packaging line, a typical process is to heat the juice to 88
°C (190 °F) and then bottle it. This produces a shelf-stable product.

For producing concentrate, the juice is passed through an evaporator, where the level
of soluble solids is typically brought to 70 percent by weight. Retail packages of
concentrate are typically filled at 45 percent dissolved solids; at this concentration a
three-to-one dilution by the consumer will create a finished product with a soluble
solid level of approximately 12 percent.

Fruit preserves, jams, and jellies

fruit preserves; jam

Jars of fruit preserves, jams, and jelly for sale at a farmers market.
The making of jellies and other preserves is an old and popular process, providing a
means of keeping fruits far beyond their normal storage life and sometimes making
use of blemished or off-grade fruits that may not be ideal for fresh consumption. In
jelly making, the goal is to produce a clear, brilliant gel from the juice of a chosen
fruit. Jams are made from the entire fruit, including the pulp, while preserves are
essentially jellies that contain whole or large pieces. Marmalade, usually made from
citrus fruit, is a jellylike concentrate of prepared juice and sliced peel.

The essential ingredients for a successful preserve are sugar, acid, and pectin. These
three ingredients lower the pH of the preserve and bind available water, thus
creating an environment in which the growth of microorganisms is retarded. In some
cases the fruit can provide all the pectin and acid that are needed. If the acid content
of the fruit is low, external sources such as lemon juice can be added. Similarly, if the
planned mix of fruit is low in pectin, a commercial source may be used. Sugar is
always added, and in general all of the three essential ingredients have to be added in
order to create a successful product.

The making of preserves begins with an initial mix containing not less than 45 parts
by weight fruit for every 55 parts by weight sugar solids. The sugar solids are added
after the fruit is crushed, and the mix is then cooked. Cooking may be done in a
highly controlled vacuum kettle, in which flavour volatiles are captured and returned
to the product. The cooking process continues until the heated mix is concentrated to
a predetermined level of soluble solids. A generally accepted level is 65 percent
soluble solids; at this concentration the boiling temperature is 7° to 12° above
the boiling point of water. The product is then transferred to containers and sealed as
a shelf-stable product.

The exact amount of sugar needed depends on the acidity level, the natural sugar
content, and the type of product desired. If sugar content is too low, the resulting
jelly will be tough; excessive sugar, on the other hand, will create a “soft set” that can
be broken easily. Appropriate amounts of acid and pectin are added during the
cooking process. The pH must be adjusted to an acidic level of approximately 3.1.
Increased acidity reduces the amount of sugar needed in the blend, although
excessive acidity can cause syneresis, or a separation of liquid from the gel. If the
pectin level is inadequate, then the preserve will not “set”; that is, not enough water
will be bound to create a complete gel.
Fruit preservation
Since fruits are generally acidic, they are naturally amenable to preservation. The
premier role of acidity in preservation is to stop bacterial growth. Second, increased
acidity can activate chemical reactions such as pectin set, which lowers water activity
and reduces the possibility of microbial growth.
Dehydration
Dehydration is among the oldest and most common forms of fruit preservation.
In dehydration, moisture in the fruit is driven off, leaving a stable food that has a
moisture content below that at which microorganisms can grow. There are three
basic systems for dehydration: sun drying, such as that used for raisins; hot-air
dehydration; and freeze-drying.
dried fruit; dehydrated fruit
Dried fruits, churchkhela, and sweets in a market in Yerevan, Armenia.
Dehydration has a number of advantages. Dehydrated fruit has a virtually unlimited
shelf life when held under proper storage conditions. Drying does not significantly
reduce the calories or minerals, and vitamin losses are similar to other preservation
methods. In addition, by reducing the weight and the need for refrigeration, handling
and transportation costs can be reduced dramatically. Dehydrated fruits are typically
reduced in weight by 75 to 90 percent.

Although dehydration offers a convenient product form, it usually requires a careful

inactivation of enzymes. This is usually accomplished by blanching of the fruit or by
chemical inactivation. Typically, sulfur dioxide is added for its antioxidant
and preservative effects. In order to control browning, the fruit is often treated prior
to dehydration with sodium sulfite and sodium bisulfite.
Thermal processes
In thermal processing, heat is used to destroy spoilage organisms and to inactivate
troublesome enzymes. Enzymes are typically responsible for browning, softening,
and the development of off-flavours. For high-acid fruit products the most typical
thermal process is canning, in which fruit or fruit products are hot-filled or heated in
a hermetically sealed container. The process temperature is generally in the range of
88 °C (190 °F).
Chemical preservation
Chemicals also can be used as a preservative, either through artificial addition or
through the action of microorganisms. An example of the latter method is
yeast fermentation, which can cause an increase in ethyl alcohol sufficient to
preserve the fruit product. Pickling is another example of chemical preservation. In
the case of pickling, the product may be preserved by the addition of
salt, sugar, acetic acid (vinegar), and alcohol. High sugar content also acts as a fruit
preservative by tying up all available moisture so that microorganisms cannot grow.
Irradiation
Although irradiation is an expensive method, it has been shown to be an effective
means of extending the shelf life of fresh fruits. Irradiated fruit products have not
been well received by the public, even in light of evidence supporting the
healthfulness and safety of such foods.
Freezing
Freezing of fruits and fruit products is a common consumer practice. Cold
temperatures act to retard the spoilage of fruit by inhibiting microbial action and
slowing metabolic processes. In order to achieve extended storage life, the product
must be held well below the freezing point of water—typically at a minimum of −23
°C (−10 °F). Generally, rapid freezing leads to an improved texture upon thawing.

A prerequisite for effective freezing is inactivation of fruit enzymes. Traditionally,

this is done through blanching or by the addition of a chemical. Blanching consists of
heating the fruit for a short time in water or steam prior to cooling and subsequent
freezing. The blanch step is intended to inactivate enzyme systems responsible for
off-flavours, browning, and softening.