EC703

(Revised August 2014)

Drinking Water Treatment:

An Overview
Bruce I. Dvorak, Extension Environmental Engineering Specialist; and
Sharon O. Skipton, Extension Water Quality Educator

Consumers concerned about their water quality must sort through an assortment of information to determine
what contaminants are present, which contaminants are of real concern and the appropriate response and treatment
that will be most effective for their particular situation. This guide provides an overview of household water
problems, causes and potential­health effects. The problem then can be matched to appropriate treatment method(s)
for further investigation. The treatment methods listed in this guide are for household water problems requiring
prolonged treatment.

Using the Overview Tables in This Guide but instead­are discussed in the appropriate NebGuide
concerning­specific contaminants (e.g., iron and manga-
This guide presents two tables to help identify poten- nese). Consult a water treatment professional for assistance
tial treatment options: the first table is a tool for matching in situations with multiple contaminants. Since certain
water quality problems with potential treatment solutions contaminants have no visible taste, color, or odor, the last
and the second table briefly describes­practical home drink- portion of Table I lists con­taminants for which there are no
ing water treatment methods. Further discussion includes symptoms of the problem other than possible health effects.
information on source protection, treatment considerations Once practical treatment methods are identified, a
and drinking water standards. Other useful NebGuides brief description of the treatments can be found in Table
related­to drinking water are available online at II, Summary of Drinking Water Treatment Methods. Further
http://water.unl.edu/drinkingwater or can be obtained information on specific alternatives is available in other
through your local or state Extension office. UNL NebGuides which focus on specific treatments. These
In Table I, A Summary of Drinking Water Quality are available online at http://water.unl.edu/drinkingwater.
Problems and Solutions, a problem or its symptom can The NebGuide series on drinking water treatment focuses
be identified and located in the first two columns of the on contaminants most likely to be encountered in Nebraska
table. Its source or cause is then listed, followed by possible drinking water supplies. It is possible that some water sup-
health effects. The drinking water standard or guideline for plies may contain contaminants­not addressed here, such
that contaminant is then listed (see discussion of drinking as crypto­sporidium, giardia, hexavalent chromium, and
water­standards later in this guide). Footnotes indicate the others.­
type of standard or guideline. The final column lists pos-
sible home treatment options effective for the situation; it Source Protection
is possible­that other treatments may be effective but may
not be as practical from a cost, operation or maintenance The best option for assuring good water quality is pro-
standpoint. Also, some treatments for one contaminant­ tecting the water source from contamination in the first
may help reduce­the amount of another­contaminant even place. Once a supply is contaminated, in addition­to treating
though that treatment would not be a primary choice for the water as necessary, it is important­to correct the situa-
the secondary contaminant. Less frequently used treatment tion causing the contamination. Contaminant removal can
options listed in Table I are not included in Table II, be costly and take considerable time. In situations where

Extension is a Division of the Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln
cooperating with the Counties and the United States Department of Agriculture.
University of Nebraska–Lincoln Extension educational programs abide with the nondiscrimination policies
of the University of Nebraska–Lincoln and the United States Department of Agriculture.
© 2003-2014, The Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska on behalf of the University of Nebraska–Lincoln Extension. All rights reserved.
treatment would be extensive or costly such as high nitrate Those who obtain water from a private source are
concentration, septic system contamination, or presence of not bound by such regulations and are responsible for
numerous contaminants, improved water quality may be the quality of their supply, including protection, testing,
achieved more practically by drilling a new well or connect- maintenance and treatment. It is essential to know what
ing to a rural or municipal water system. This guide focuses contaminants are present, their quantities and reasons for
on treatment options. Other management options for deal- their removal (i.e., to reduce contaminants posing health
ing with specific contaminants may be viable alternatives­to risks, to remove tastes or odors, etc.) prior to selecting
treatment; further information on managing specific con- treatment methods or equipment. Some contaminants of
taminants can be obtained from the appropriate NebGuide concern have no taste, color or odor. Information should be
in the contaminant series. obtained­through water analysis by an approved laboratory.
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) established two
Treatment System Considerations classifications of water quality standards. Primary Standards
are established for substances considered to be a threat
When considering water treatment, it is important to human health if present in excess amounts. Maximum
to realize that there is no one piece of treatment equipment Contaminant Levels (MCLs) set by these standards indicate
that manages all contaminants. All treatment methods have the highest level of the contaminant considered to be safe.
limitations. The treatment system that is best for any par- Secondary Standards are not established to protect public
ticular household depends on the contaminant(s) present, health, but rather as guides to manage taste, odor, color and
concentration(s), the size of the household, the age and corrosive effects. Suppliers are not required by federal law to
health of its occupants and maintenance and operational meet secondary standards.
requirements of the system. There also may be situations
in which a combination of treatment methods is most The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) also
effective­. An example of this is the use of a sediment filter has established Health Advisory Levels (HAL) for various
as pre-treatment before activated carbon treatment. Also, contaminants. These are not legally enforceable, but are
treatment systems can be classified as either Point-of-Use guidelines. They contain a margin of safety that is typi-
(POU) or Point-of-Entry (POE). POU devices treat water cally 100-1,000 times lower than the highest concentration
at the point it is used, such as the faucet. This allows treat- thought to cause no adverse health effects. This safety mar-
ment of water used only for drinking and cooking. POE gin accounts for differences in body types and individual
devices treat water as it enters the household; so all water sensitivity to a contaminant. HAL contaminants are catego-
used within the house is treated. This is important if a con- rized as probable carcinogens (cancer causing agents), pos-
taminant can be absorbed­through the skin or by inhalation sible carcinogens or non-carcinogens. If the contaminant
during bathing, showering or other times of water contact. level is at or below the non-carcinogen level, EPA states an
It is also important when managing substances that may individual can consume that water every­day for a lifetime
cause staining, mineral deposits or other problems in the without increasing health risks. If the contaminant level is
water distribution system. equal to the probable carcinogen level, that water consumed
over an entire lifetime increases the risk of cancer by one in
Consumer Reports and a million. HAL summaries can be obtained from the EPA’s
Safe Drinking Water Hotline (Phone: (800) 426-4791).
Drinking Water Standards

People who use water from a public or municipal sup- Acknowledgment

ply can be assured that their water meets federal and state
guidelines to protect public health and that their water The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of
is tested regularly. This does not mean the water is free former University of Nebraska–Lincoln Extension Engineer
of regulated contaminants, but that they are below the Jodi Kocher, who collaborated with them in the previous
level established for the standard. Consumer Confidence version of this publication.
Reports­(CCRs), available from local water utilities, inform
consumers­on the source of the water, contaminants that
are present, potential health effects of those contaminants
and methods of treatment used by the utility.

2 © The Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska. All rights reserved.

 Table I. A Summary of Home Water Quality Problems and Solutions
© The Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska. All rights reserved.

Problem Symptom Source or Cause Possible Health Effects Standard/Guideline* Treatment Options

Appearance, Odor, or Taste

White scaly deposits in pipes or Naturally occurring deposits of Generally contributes a small G) Hardness mineral concentra- Ion exchange water softener
appliances, on glassware; soap calcium and magnesium amount to total calcium and tion, mg/L: 0-17 = soft; 17-60 =
scum in sinks and bathtubs magnesium dietary needs slightly hard; 60-120 = moder-
ately hard; 120-180 = hard; over
180 = very hard

Green stains on fixtures; blue- Acidic water; Water high in car- Stains may indicate copper or SS) pH of 6.5-8.5 Calcite filter; soda ash chemi-
green tint to water bon dioxide or dissolved oxygen lead; see section for specific cal feed followed by sediment
with pH below 6.8; reaction metals under Contaminants with filtration
with brass and copper plumbing no visible color, odor or taste.

Grittiness, abrasive texture to Naturally occurring fine sand May be harmful contaminants Sediment filtration; distillation
water when washing, residues particles or silt in water that attached to soil/clay particles
in sink passes through well screen

Salty or brackish water; Black- Naturally occurring high so- Excess sodium for those on Reverse osmosis; distillation
ening and pitting of stainless dium content low sodium diets due to blood
steel sinks and kitchen utensils pressure

Soda taste, slippery feel High total dissolved solids that No direct health effects; can SS) 500 mg/L total dissolved Reverse osmosis; distillation
are alkaline interfere with disinfection solids; SS) pH of 6.5-8.5
Sharp chemical odor in water; Leaching of pesticides into Anemia or other blood disor- EPA has specific standards for Activated carbon filtration;
may also be odorless (refer to groundwater ders, nervous system or repro- many pesticides reverse osmosis, distillation
section on odorless contami- ductive disorders; increased risk
nants) of cancer, stomach, liver, kidney
problems, etc., especially if
consumed over long term
Musty, earthy, or woody smell Usually harmless organic matter None SS) odor Activated carbon filtration

Chlorine smell Excessive chlorination Chlorine in water is not poi- PS) mg/L chlorine residue Activated carbon filtration
sonous to humans or animals
although high concentrations
can cause eye or nose irritation
and stomach discomfort.

*PS = Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Primary Standard; SS = SDWA Seconday Standard; HAL = EPA Health Advisory Level; G = Guideline.
3
 Table I. A Summary of Home Water Quality Problems and Solutions (continued)
4

Problem Symptom Source or Cause Possible Health Effects Standard/Guideline* Treatment Options

Appearance, Odor, or Taste (continued)

Gasoline or oil smell Potential leak in fuel tank or Varies depending on the PS) Benzene = 0.005 mg/L; PS) Activated carbon filtration in
underground storage tank leak- contaminant; possibly anemia, Ethyl benzene = 0.7 mg/L; PS) some cases
ing into water supply; discharge increased risk of cancer, liver Toluene = 1.0 mg/L; PS) Xylenes
from factories or landfills; run- and kidney problems especially = 10 mg/L; G) MTBE = 0.20
off from agriculture or other if consumed over long term mg/L
nearby source
Rotten egg odor Dissolved hydrogen sulfide gas; Not usually a health risk at con- SS) 250 mg/L sulfate Oxidizing filter; continu-
naturally occurring centrations present in house- ous chlorination followed by
hold water; however, hydrogen activated carbon filtration;
sulfide gas is flammable and de-aeration may reduce to ac-
poisonous if released at high ceptable levels; activated carbon
concentrations filtration

Rotten egg odor Presence of sulfate-reducing No known health risk SS) 250 mg/L sulfate Continuous chlorination
bacteria in water supply followed by activated carbon
filtration
Rotten egg odor Action of magnesium rod in hot No known health risk Replace magnesium rod from
water heater in presence of soft heater with acceptable alterna-
water tive such as an aluminum rod
Detergent odor or foaming Septic tank leakage into water Gastrointestinal illnesses (diar- Eliminate source and shock
water supply which may indicate rhea, vomiting, cramps) chlorinate well
© The Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska. All rights reserved.

associated bacterial or viral

contamination
Phenol (chemical) odor Industrial waste seepage into Varies depending on the Varies depending on the Activated carbon filtration for
groundwater contaminant­ contaminant a short time; filter capacity is
reached quickly

Cloudy water or suspended par- Clay, silt or sand from well May be harmful contaminants Sand trap; new well screen; sedi-
ticles that settle out in water attached to soil/clay particles ment filtration

Brownish-blackish stains on Natural deposits of manganese No known health risk SS) 0.05 mg/L Manganese Ion exchange water softener;
fixtures and laundry; affects the in soil which interact with oxidizing filter; continuous
flavor and color of food and organics; Above 0.05 mg/L chlorination followed by
water manganese causes staining and sediment filtration; ozonation
Black cast to water is usually found combined with followed by sediment filtration;
iron aeration followed by sediment
filtration

*PS = Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Primary Standard; SS = SDWA Seconday Standard; HAL = EPA Health Advisory Level; G = Guideline.
 Table I. A Summary of Home Water Quality Problems and Solutions (continued)
© The Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska. All rights reserved.

Problem Symptom Source or Cause Possible Health Effects Standard/Guideline* Treatment Options

Appearance, Odor, or Taste (continued)

Water appears clear when first Dissolved iron; natural deposits; No known health risk SS) 0.3 mg/L Iron Ion exchange water softener;
drawn from tap; water turns Indicates more than 0.3 mg/L oxidizing filter; continuous
reddish-brown during cooking/ dissolved iron chlorination followed by
heating; reddish-brown stains sediment filtration; ozonation
on sinks and other porcelain followed by sediment filtration;
fixtures; stains on laundry aeration followed by sediment
filtration

Water is reddish or discolored Precipitated iron No known health risk Oxidizing filter
when drawn

Brownish cast that does not pre- Organic (bacterial) iron No known health risk Shock chlorinate well, followed
cipitate and drop out of water by continuous chlorination and
activated carbon filtration

Reddish color in water sample Colloidal iron No known health risk Continuous chlorination
after standing 24 hrs. followed by activated carbon
filtration

Yellowish tint to water after soft- Tannins (humic acids) present No known health risk SS) 15 color units Anion exchange; continuous
ening and/or filtering from water passing through chlorination followed by acti-
peaty soil, decaying vegetation, vated carbon filtration
or from influence of nearby
surface water

*PS = Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Primary Standard; SS = SDWA Seconday Standard; HAL = EPA Health Advisory Level; G = Guideline.
5
 Table I. A Summary of Home Water Quality Problems and Solutions (continued)
6

Problem Symptom Source or Cause Possible Health Effects Standard/Guideline* Treatment Options

Contaminants with no visible color, odor or taste

High chloride Excessive salt content Excess sodium for those on SS) 250 mg/L Chloride Distillation; reverse osmosis
content in water low sodium diets due to blood
pressure
Fluoride Natural deposits; fertilizer; Optimal fluoride level is 0.07 PS) 4.0 mg/L; SS) 2.0 mg/L Reverse osmosis; distillation
aluminum industries; water mg/L for good dental health;
additive excess leads to dental fluorosis;
yellowish or mottled teeth in
children may occur at concentra-
tions over 2 mg/L; excess levels
can contribute to bone disease if
consumed over long term
Nitrate Nearby human or animal waste Inadequate oxygen-carrying PS) 10 mg/L Nitrate as Reverse osmosis; distillation
leaching into groundwater; capacity in the blood of a fetus Nitrogen
heavy use of fertilizers with or infant less than 6 months
No visible color, odor or taste

nitrogen entering groundwater; (Blue baby syndrome or

natural deposits methemoglobinemia)
Radon Radon gas is given off by natu- Increased risk of lung cancer if 5 pCi/L for Radium 226 and De-aeration; activated carbon
rally occurring decaying radium inhaled over long term Radium 228 combined filtration
dissolved in water
Lead Corrosion of lead pipes or Serious damage to brain/ PS) 0.015 mg/L Reverse osmosis; distillation;
solder­in home; erosion of nervous system, kidneys and red activated carbon filtration
© The Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska. All rights reserved.

natural­deposits blood cells equipped with special media­;

replace lead pipes and solder in
home
Copper Corrosion of copper plumbing Short-term exposure — nausea/ PS) 1.3 mg/L; SS) 1.0 mg/L Activated carbon filtration
in home; natural deposits; wood vomiting, diarrhea, stomach equipped with special media;
preservatives cramps; liver and kidney damage­ reverse osmosis; distillation
if consumed over long term
Other heavy Industrial waste pollution; cor- Kidney and nervous system EPA has maximum Reverse osmosis; distillation;
metals (zinc, rosion from plumbing caused disorders; blood disorders; contaminant levels (MCL’s) activated carbon filtration in
cadmium, etc.) by low pH water gastrointestinal disorders if for each metal some cases; ion exchange water
(Possible metallic taste) consumed over long term softener will remove cadmium,
copper and zinc if operated
properly
Arsenic Natural Deposits, smelters, glass, Increased risk of cancer, skin, PS) 0.010 mg/L Reverse osmosis; distillation;
electronics wastes nervous system, and circulatory iron- or manganese-doped
disorders if consumed over long adsorbent media
term
*PS = Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Primary Standard; SS = SDWA Seconday Standard; HAL = EPA Health Advisory Level; G = Guideline.
 Table I. A Summary of Home Water Quality Problems and Solutions (continued)
© The Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska. All rights reserved.

Problem Symptom Source or Cause Possible Health Effects Standard/Guideline* Treatment Options

Contaminants with no visible color, odor or taste (continued)

Uranium Erosion of natural deposits Increased risk of cancer; kidney 0.030 mg/L Reverse osmosis, distillation,
toxicity if consumed over long special adsorbent media (such
term as titanium dioxide) and anion
exchange)

Chloramines Water additive used to control Eye and nose irritation; stom- PS) 4.0 mg/L as Cl2 maximum Activated carbon filtration
microbes ach discomfort; anemia residual

Disinfection By-product of chlorination of Increased risk of cancer; liver, PS) 0.08 mg/L Activated carbon filtration
Byproducts­ drinking water; Water additive kidney or central nervous
(Trihalo­ used to control microbes system problems if consumed
methanes) over long term
No visible color, odor or taste

Bacteria- Bacteria commonly tested for Gastrointestinal disorders PS) If coliform bacteria are Ultraviolet radiation;
(coliform) include coliform and E. coli (diarrhea, vomiting, cramps) if detected, pathogens may or continuous­chlorination; distil-
(E. coli)­ bacteria. Coliform bacteria pathogenic bacteria are present may not be present. Steps must lation; ozonation
are commonly found in the be taken to identify the source
environment and are generally and fix problems. The MCL for
not harmful. E. coli bacteria is E. coli bacteria is zero. If E. coli
an indication of contamination bacteria are detected, pathogens
from human or animal waste, are more likely to be present.
which indicates pathogens could Immediate action must be taken
be present in the water supply. to ensure pathogen-free water.

Crypto­sporidium Unlikely in groundwater unless Gastrointestinal disorders PS) 99% killed/inactivated Fine micron filters with molded
well is extremely close to surface (diarrhea, vomiting, cramps) activated carbon blocks; ozona-
water; Human or animal wastes tion; reverse osmosis
leaching into water

Giardia Unlikely in groundwater unless Gastrointestinal disorders PS) 99.9% killed/inactivated Ultraviolet disinfection; con-
well is extremely close to surface (diarrhea, vomiting, cramps) tinuous chlorination; ozonation;
water; Human or animal wastes fine micron filters with molded
leaching into water activated carbon­blocks

Viruses Unlikely in groundwater unless Gastrointestinal disorders PS) 99.99% killed/inactivated Ultraviolet disinfection;
well is extremely close to surface (diarrhea­, vomiting, cramps) continuous chlorination;
water; Human or animal wastes ozonation­; ultra filters; reverse­
leaching into water osmosis

*PS = Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Primary Standard; SS = SDWA Seconday Standard; HAL = EPA Health Advisory Level; G = Guideline.
7
 Table II. Summary of Drinking Water Treatment Methods
8

Treatment Method How It Works What It Removes Operation and Maintenance Issues For Further Information

Activated carbon filtra- As water flows through the filter Pesticides; organic compounds such System must be monitored and carbon G1489 Drinking Water Treatment:
tion contaminants adsorb, or stick to, the as benzene and carbon tetrachlo- cartridges must be replaced at regular Activated Carbon Filtration (Ion
surface of activated carbon particles. ride; many odors (check Table I for intervals. Failure to replace filter Exchange)
specific odors); bacterial or colloidal regularly can result in “breakthrough”
iron or tannins when combined with with elevated levels of contaminants
continuous chlorination; radon; lead in water.
or copper if equipped with special
media; some other heavy metals in
certain cases; chlorine; chloramines;
trihalomethanes. Filters with molded
activated carbon blocks will treat
Cryptosporidium and Giardia.

Reverse osmosis (RO) Contaminants are removed by forcing Certain tastes (See Table I for specific Activated carbon or sediment filtration G1490 Drinking Water Treatment:
water through a membrane which has tastes); some pesticides; high chloride is often used to pre-filter water before Reverse Osmosis
microscopic holes. Water molecules content; fluoride; nitrate; lead, copper, reverse osmosis. Activated carbon
pass through the membrane but larger and other heavy metals; arsenic; Cryp- post-filters are also common. Pre-
particles cannot. The membrane is tosporidium; viruses. filters and post-filters require regular
flushed to remove trapped contami- replacement. RO membrane must be
nants. regularly monitored and disinfected.
RO systems can waste a large amount
of water.

Ion exchange water As water passes through a resin bed in Hard water (calcium and magnesium); When the resin is filled to capacity, it G1491 Drinking Water Treatment:
© The Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska. All rights reserved.

softening the softener, calcium and magnesium dissolved iron; manganese; will treat must be recharged. Depending upon Water Softening (Ion Exchange)
in the water are exchanged for sodium cadmium, copper and zinc if operated the type of softener, some degree of
or potassium which do not create the properly. monitoring of the regeneration cycle is
nuisance problems associated with necessary. People on restricted sodium
hard water. diets should consult their doctor about
drinking softened water since it con-
tributes sodium to the diet.

Sediment filtration As water passes through a filter made Sediment; acidic water when preceded Depending on the type of filter, G1492 Drinking Water Treatment: Sedi-
of sand, filter paper, compressed glass by soda ash feed; dissolved iron or cartridge replacement or backwash- ment Filtration
wool or other straining material sus- manganese when preceded by continu- ing must be done on a regular basis in
pended particles such as sand, soil or ous chlorination, ozonation or aera- order to maintain effectiveness.
other particles are trapped on the filter. tion; turbidity.
 Table II. Summary of Drinking Water Treatment Methods (continued)
© The Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska. All rights reserved.

Treatment Method How It Works What It Removes Operation and Maintenance Issues For Further Information

Distillation Water is heated to create steam which Sediment; high salt content; high total Energy costs for distillation can be G1493 Drinking Water Treatment:
is then condensed to be collected as dissolved solids; pesticides if properly significant. Scale buildup and sediment Distillation
treated water. Contaminants removed equipped with gas vent; fluoride; must be periodically removed from
remain in the heating chamber or boil nitrate; lead, copper and other heavy the distiller. Contaminants with a
off into the atmosphere. metals; arsenic; bacteria. boiling point lower than water, such
as some pesticides and solvents, can
vaporize with the water and condense
with treated water instead of being
removed. Some units have a gas vent
to release these contaminants to the
air. Distilled water may have a flat or
bland taste.

Aeration Oxygen is introduced into the water by Dissolved iron or manganese when Regular backwashing of the filter
an aerator. This oxidizes contaminants followed by sediment filtration; may following aeration is required.
such as iron and manganese, causing help reduce rotten egg odor from Aeration is not recommended for
them to form solids which can then be dissolved hydrogen sulfide gas; radon. water containing bacteria which may
filtered out of the water. clog the system.

De-Aeration Mix air with water to remove dissolved­ Dissolved hydrogen sulfide gas; radon. If water has high hardness (e.g., cal-
gases from the water. Aeration and cium, magnesium, iron, manganese)­,
De-aeration equipment sometimes system should be designed to manage
are very similar, but are designed for precipitates and scale build-up.
different treatment goals.

Continuous Chlorination­ Chlorine is fed or injected into the wa- Dissolved iron or manganese when Chlorine must have adequate contact G1496 Drinking Water Treatment:
ter to kill bacteria and other microbial followed by sediment filtration; rotten time with water to disinfect it. Continuous Chlorination
contaminants, as well as to oxidize iron egg odor from dissolved hydrogen Therefore the chlorine dose must
and manganese causing them to form sulfide gas or sulfate-reducing be carefully synchronized with the
solids which can then be filtered out. bacteria (followed by activated carbon water flow so water does not move
filtration); bacterial or colloidal iron or too quickly through the system.
tannins when combined with activated Chlorine feed pumps must be carefully
carbon filtration; bacteria; Giardia; calibrated and maintained. Careful
viruses. handling of chlorine is required since
it is toxic. Depending on the organic
content of the water, byproducts of
the chlorination process may include
trihalomethanes (THM’s) which may
increase the risk of cancer. Activated
carbon filtration may be used after
chlorination to remove excess chlorine
and its byproducts; filters should be
changed regularly.
9
 Table II. Summary of Drinking Water Treatment Methods (continued)
10

Treatment Method How It Works What It Removes Operation and Maintenance Issues For Further Information

Ultraviolet (UV) As water passes through the system, a Bacteria; Giardia; viruses. Sediment buildup and algae growth
radiation­ special lamp produces ultraviolet light may cause problems within the system
that kills bacteria and other microbial and must be periodically removed.
contaminants. The lamp must be kept clean to
maintain effectiveness. In turbid, or
cloudy, water the UV light may not
reach some of the organisms. Water
may need to be treated for turbidity
prior to entering the UV system. Also,
UV radiation does not have a residual
effect so water that leaves the system
can be recontaminated.

Ozonation Water enters a system where ozone, Bacteria; Giardia; Cryptosporidium; Equipment that tests for ozone in
a chemical form of pure oxygen, viruses; dissolved iron or manganese treated water must be purchased or
is produced and mixed with the when combined with sediment bacterial tests performed, as this is the
water. Ozonation destroys bacteria filtration. only way to determine if the system is
and other microbial pathogens and operating properly. Dehumidification
oxidizes compounds such as iron and of surrounding air is frequently
manganese causing them to form required. Careful monitoring is
solids which can then be filtered out. required as ozone is a toxic gas.
Ozonation does not have a lasting
(residual) effect so recontamination of
water can occur. Ozonation equipment
© The Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska. All rights reserved.

is costly.

Ultra, micro, and nano As water passes through a filter, Cryptosporidium; Giardia; viruses.­ Depending on the type of filter­,
filtration suspended particles are trapped on cartridge replacement or backwashing­
the filter. Particles removed depends­ must be done on a regular basis in
upon the size of the pores in the filter. order to maintain effectiveness.
Pore sizes from smallest to largest are
nanofiltration, ultra filtration and
microfiltration.
 Technical Review provided by: Joe Harrison, Further References
Technical Director, Water Quality Association; Shirley
Niemeyer, University of Nebraska–Lincoln Extension; Tom Wagenet, L, K. Mancl, and M. Sailus, 1995. “Home Water
Schuerman, Nebraska Department of HHS Regulation and Treatment,” Northeast Regional Agricultural
Licensure; Mike Wentink, Nebraska Department of HHS Engineering Service, Cooperative Extension, Ithaca,
Regulation and Licensure; Darrel Siekman, UNL Extension; N.Y.
John Wilson, UNL Extension.
“Understanding the New Consumer Confidence Report,”
Portions of Table I: A Summary of Drinking Water American Water Works Association.
Quality Problems and Solutions were adapted from: “Drinking Water Standards,”
“Matching Drinking Water Quality Problems www.epa.gov/safewater/mcl.html.
to Treatment Methods,” University of Nevada-Reno, “Safe Drinking Water: Testing & Treating Home Drinking
Cooperative Extension, 2000. Water,” University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
College of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service.
“Testing for Drinking Water Quality,” NebGuide G907
Extension, Institute of Agriculture and Natural
Resources, University of Nebraska–Lincoln.

This publication has been peer reviewed.

UNL Extension publications are available online

at http://extension.unl.edu/publications.

© The Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska. All rights reserved. 11