OVERVIEW OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Intended Learning Outcome:

1. Label and explain the subsystems of the power distribution systems;

2. Illustrate the power distribution system with the respected

subsystems and design;

3. Design a power distribution system component, or process to meet

desired needs within realistic constraints such as economic,
environmental, social, political, ethical, health and safety,
manufacturability, and sustainability, in accordance with standards.

The electricity utility system is usually divided into three subsystems, generation,
transmission and distribution respectively. The distribution system is commonly broken down
into three components: distribution substations, primary and secondary distribution. That at
substation level, voltage is reduced and the power distributed in smaller amounts to the
customers, a substation will supply many customers with power. The number of transmission
lines in the distribution systems is many times that of the transmission systems (Talukdar,
2019).

Figure 1.1 Major Power System Components

The figure 1.1 shows the major power system components that has traditionally been
characterized as the most unglamorous component.

Distribution System

The distribution system typically starts with the distribution substation that is fed by
one or more sub-transmission lines. The distribution substation is fed directly from a high-
voltage transmission line, in which is likely no sub-transmission system but varies from
company to company. Each distribution substation will serve one or more primary feeders. The
figure below shows the infrastructure overview of distribution system.
 Figure 1.2 Overview of electricity infrastructure

Distribution Substations

Figure 1.3 Simple Distribution System

 A diagram of a very simple one-line distribution system is show in the figure above,
displays the simplest distribution substation and illustrates the major components can be found
in all substations.

• High-side and low-side switching: high-voltage switching is done with a simple switch.
More extensive substations may use high-voltage circuit breakers in a variety of high-
voltage bus designs. The low-voltage switching is accomplished with relay-controlled
circuit breaker. In other cases, reclosers will be used in place will be used in place of
the relay/circuit breaker combination.
• Voltage transformation: the primary function of a distribution substation is to reduce
the voltage to the distribution voltage level.
• Voltage regulation: as the load on the feeders varies, the voltage drop between the
substation and the user will vary. To maintain the user’s voltages within an acceptable
range, the voltage at the substation needs to change as the load changes.
• Protection: the substation must be protected against the occurrence of short circuits.
• Metering: every substation has some form of metering. The analog ammeter is
displaying the present value of substation current, as well as the minimum and
maximum currents that have occurred over a specific time period. Digital recording
meters are becoming very common. The meters record the minimum, average, and
maximum values of current, voltage, power, power factor, etc. over a specified time
range.

The distribution substation is providing power at any required transmission or sub-

transmission voltage level by the transmission or sub-transmission lines, which is forwarded to
multiple distribution feeders originating in the substation. There are several feeders originate
radially from the substation in order to supply the load. The different functions of distribution
can be given as follows:

a) Transmission of voltage: Several transformers are located within the substation for
stepping down voltage down voltage level as acceptable to the primary distribution
voltage level. The configuration of these transformers would either be three phase or
three single phase transformers connected as three phase banks. The primary
distribution voltage standards are 4.16kV, 7.2kV, 12.47kV13.2kV, 14.4kV 23.9kV and
34.5kV.
b) Protection and switching: Various types of switchgear are located at the substation and
can have the following components:
i. Switches: These are those devices which connect or disconnect different parts of
a network and also carry or obstruct normal load currents.
 ii. Circuit breakers: These devices work in a similar fashion to switches, in addition
to which they can interrupt short circuit current. These devices are often paired
with relays which can sense short circuit condition using potential transformers
and current transformers.
iii. Re-closure: These devices have the ability to reclose after opening, open again,
and reclose again, repeating this cycle a predetermined number of times until they
lockout. These are switches similar to circuit breakers.
iv. Fuses: These devices have the capability of carrying a fixed load current without
any hindrance and also obstruct a pre-defined fault current.
c) Regulation of voltage: The feeder will cause a voltage drop IZ volts per unit length,
owing to the current I flowing from source to load along the feeder length and finite
impedance Z per unit length. Load connected over the length of the bus will see varying
voltage levels with the farthest load seeing the lowest voltage of all.
d) Metering: Several substations have some sort of metering device that record, minimum
existing current and current peaks and falls that have occurred in the last time period.
Digital recording which is capable of recording a large amount of substation operational
information is also heavily employed.

Primary Distribution

The primary distribution system includes feeders coming out from the substation and
supplying power to several secondary distribution systems. Such feeders are generally three
phase circuits. Feeders are usually radial from substation to loads. In densely populated cities,
particularly commercial and business areas, where reliability is indispensable, feeders may be
mashed in topology. The prices to pay for such a reliable system are as follows:
▪ The cost incurred is huge because in case of a fault the system requires at least two
protective devices operating simultaneously. Further, in order to guarantee the
reliability, multiple switching devices should operate along the feeder.
▪ The fault currents tend to be lower, closes to normal load currents, and hence there is
less margin between breaker trip current and normal load current.
▪ Voltage control is very difficult since there are two control points.

Secondary Distribution

Branching from main feeder are laterals, also referred to in the industry as taps or
branches. The laterals may be three-phase, two-phase (two-phase of the three-phase feeder with
a neutral), or single phase (one phase from the single-phase feeder and a neutral) the laterals
are usually protected with fuses so that faulted laterals do not cause interruption at the feeder
level. Standard secondary voltage levels are:
➢ 120/240 V single-phase
➢ 120/480 V three-phase
➢ 277/480 V three-phase

Types of Distribution System

Radial Distribution System

Primary feeders take power from the distribution substation to the load areas by way
of sub feeders and lateral-branch circuits. The most common system used because it is the
simplest and least expensive to build. It is widely used in sparsely populated areas. A radial
system has only one power source for a group of customers. Radial feeders are characterized
by having only one path for the power to flow from the source (distribution substation) to each
customer. If the distributor is connected to the supply system on one end only, that system is
called radial distribution system. The radial system is employed when the power is generated
at low voltage and the substation is located at the center of the load. The consumers at the end
of the distributor would be subjected to serious voltage fluctuations when the load on
distribution changes. The advantages of radial system are its simplicity, and low cost, the
amount of switching equipment required is small and protective relaying is simple. The major
disadvantage of radial system is its lack of security of supply. It is not the most reliable system,
because a fault or short circuit in a main feeder may result in a power outage to all the users
served by the system. Service on this type of system can be improved by installing automatic
circuit breakers that will reclose the service at predetermined intervals. If the fault continues
after a predetermined number of closures, the breaker will be locked out until the fault is cleared
and service is restored. A schematic example of radial distribution system is shown in the figure
below.

Figure 1.4 A schematic example of a radial distribution system

Ring Main System
The loop (or ring) distribution system is one that starts at a distribution substation, runs
through or around an area serving one or more distribution transformers or load centers, and
returns to the same substation. The ring main system is more expensive to build than the radial
type, but it is more reliable and may be justified in areas where continuity of service is required-
at medical center. In the loop system, circuit breakers sectionalize the loop on both sides of
each distribution transformer connected to the loop. A fault in the primary loop is cleared by
the breakers in the loop nearest the fault, and power is supplied the other way around the loop
without interruption to most of the connected loads. If a fault occurs in a section adjacent to the
distribution substation, the entire load can be fed from one direction over one side of the loop
until repairs are made. A schematic example of ring main distribution system is shown in the
figure below. The ring main system has the following advantages:
a) There are very less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s terminals; and
b) The system is very reliable as each distributor is fed with two feeders.

Figure 1.5 A schematic example of ring main system

Interconnected System

The network system shown in the figure below is the most flexible type of primary
feeder system. It provides the best service reliability to the distribution transformers or load
centers, particularly when the system is supplied from two or more distribution substations.
Power can flow from any substation to any distribution transformer or load center in the
network system. The network system is more flexible about load growth than the radial or loop
system. Service can readily be extended to additional points of usage with relatively small
amounts of new construction. The network system, however, requires large quantities of
equipment and is, therefore, more expensive than the radial system. For this reason, it is usually
used only in congested, high load density municipal or downtown areas. When the feeder ring
is energized by two or more than two generating stations or sub stations, it is called
interconnected system.

Figure 1.6 A schematic example of interconnected system

Reconfiguration, Service Rotation, Islanding and Reliability Restoration in RDS

There are some issues in radial feeder in radial feeder reconfiguration which are to be
addressed carefully for the optimized power distribution of the feeder system. These are
reconfiguration, service restoration, islanding and customer reliability maintenance.

Distribution Feeder Reconfiguration

The objective of “Distribution Feeder Reconfiguration” can be a part of distribution

automation. The configuration management is done at the time of service maintenance or
service testing. The configuration of this radial distribution system can be changed by changing
the status of switches. The normally close sectionalizing switches are opened and same numbers
of normally open tie-switches are closed. This is called reconfiguration. In new topological
structure, the tree shape of radial distribution is maintained. The procedure can be said as the
part of “Distribution Management”. Generally, reconfiguration is done to obtain minimum loss
path for the loss feeding. So, other purposes of reconfiguration of distribution networks are to
minimize power loss and to improve voltage profile and reliability of the system.

Service Restoration in Distribution System

Service restoration is a process of restoring power flow immediately after any kind of
disturbance in the power system. This disturbance may be due to the fault in the distribution
system and in this case some portion of the distribution system may run out of power. To
establish this connection, some tie-switches have to be closed maintaining the radial structure.
Service restoration happens in the same procedure like feeder reconfiguration. For a complex
distribution feeder system, it is quite cumbersome to restore ample amount of power from a
distant control center. There are varieties of loads in distribution system such as industrial,
commercial and residential loads. If there is less power available at the feeding point, the control
center restores the service depending upon the priority of the customers.

Islanding

Power system islanding is closely related to the micro-grid islanding. It means isolation
of one or more than one node at the time of power distribution due to faulty power controlling
operation. As power flow is totally dependent on the status of the existing switches in the tree
structure, bad controlling or an invalid sectionalizing and tie switches combination can lead to
islanding of the whole or a single region. Islanding hampers the reliability of power system and
therefore it should be eliminated quickly after any outage.

Customer Feeding and Reliability Restoration

On the basis of priority, the electrical system is chosen to supply at the time of outage
to the residential, commercial and industrial customers. In industrial hub, outage of electricity
for one hour may cause serious loss of raw assists. In general, if a load point in feeder section
is heavily loaded then there will be chance of voltage dipping. As stated earlier, reconfiguring
the structure, the heavily loaded portion of the feeder can be transferred to lightly loaded feeder
portion. By doing this, some nodes in the feeder system may lead towards the verge of voltage
collapsing situation. Overloading can reduce the capacity of feeder line and life span of
distribution transformers connected to the system. Apart from this if configuration is changed
by altering a greater number of switches in the system, the power system can suffer from the ill
effect of the switching surge.
Optimization, Feasibility and Constraints

The main objective of power system is to supply the electricity to the consumer as
economically as possible maintaining the reliability of the service. In this process the system
operator or planner must look into the transmission loss, voltage profile and other power quality
issues. So, the power system must be run at optimum level of all factors. In some aspects the
optimization means a way of selecting the best one from a set of alternatives. In other aspect, it
means a set of techniques to design a system with respect to specific parameters. The parameters
are called constraints, which any result to its desired value. Optimization means to utilize the
resources wishfully.

Feasibility is the term which is closely related to the real life use of any problem. For
any optimized system to find out its strength and weakness is called feasibility. Any new
technology or strategy in power system comes after some cost conveying. Installation of new
unit in power station involves cost and time in the whole process. If new installed system does
not come with fruitful result, it cannot be feasible at all. So, an optimized system may not be
feasible all the time.

In case of power generation, the constraints are coal or water availability, number of
running units, liquid assets to preserve raw material, number of technicians available, etc. In
case of power transmission and distribution, the practical constraints are conductor capability
to carry current, transformer overload, loading conditions, voltage level, frequency, etc. So, any
process cannot yield suitable result without considering all the constraints of the system.

Ill Conditions in a Distribution System

The distribution systems usually fall into the category of ill-conditioned power systems
for conventional load flow methods with its special features, such as:
▪ Radial or weakly meshed topologies: Most of the distribution systems are radial or
weakly meshed types. The increase in requirements for reliability and outgoing
distribution generation has made the structure of distribution systems more complex.
Therefore, the power flow analysis in such distribution systems has become more
difficult.
▪ High R/X ratio of the distribution lines: Transmission networks are composed mainly
of overhead lines thus; the ratio is usually lower than 0.5. In distribution networks
where both overhead lines and cables are used, the R/X ratio is high ranging from 0.5
to as high as 7, where high ratio values are typically for low-voltage networks.
 ▪ Unbalanced operation: Three-phase unbalanced orientation greatly increases the
complexity of the network model, since phase quantities have to be considered
including mutual couplings.
▪ Loading conditions: Most of the load flow methods were developed assuming a static
load model. But, a practical load model is required for getting reliable results.
▪ Dispersed generation: Distributed generation is being increasingly used to meet the
fast load increase in the deregulation era. The utilities have to analyses the operating
conditions of the radial-type systems with distributed sources.
▪ Non-linear load models: Widespread use of non-linear loads such as, rectifiers in
distribution system distorts the current drawn from the source. Usually the commercial
SCADA/DMS systems treat these distribution systems as independent parts, i.e.,
HVAC (High Voltage AC) loop and MVAC (Medium Voltage AC) or LVAC (Low
Voltage AC) radial systems. Such rough equivalence will cause inaccuracies in the
power flow solutions.

Recent Development in Load Flow Studies in Radial Distributions Systems

It is well known that the efficient load flow method is one of the most important and
highly demanded software in the power industry, through which any network can be analyzed.
The analysis of a distribution network has become an important area of activity for present day
power system engineer.
The conservation of power principle at a node level was the main principle used in the
load flow methods. The principle says that, at any node the power fed into the node is equal to
the sum of the power dissipated in the series branch connected to that node”. The distribution
network is considered in two configurations namely distribution network with main feeder only
and the other is distribution network with main feeder and laterals. Kersting, Mendive and
Kersting developed techniques for solving the load flow problem in radial distribution networks
based on ladder-network theory in the iterative routine. This solution is complicated and having
many assumptions for a typical distribution system, which is rarely a „pure‟ ladder network. In
other words, the method is not designed to efficiently solve for meshed networks. Also, Stevens
demonstrated that the ladder –based technique is very fast but does not guarantee convergence.
A method based on Kirchhoff‟s voltage and current laws, also has been proposed for
solving radial distribution networks. This method is known as Backward/Forward Sweep
Method. In this method, a branch-numbering scheme was employed to enhance the
computations. The method was then extended to apply to weakly meshed networks. In this
method, they first break the interconnected grid at a number of points (breakpoint) in order to
convert it into one simple loop. The radial network is solved by direct application of Kirchhoff‟
lows. They then account for the flows at the break point by injecting currents at their two end
nodes. The numerical efficiency of this method however diminishes as the number of break
point required to convert the meshed network to radial configuration increases. This restricts
the practical application of the method to weakly mashed networks.
Baran and Wu obtained the load flow solution in a distribution system using iterative
solution of three fundamental equations representing real and reactive power and voltage
magnitude. These three equations are useful because they can be used in real system rather than
in other classical known forms. If convergence is not met, a new equivalent network is
determined with the new parameters and the process is continued till the convergence is
achieved. Then the node voltages and branch power losses are computed. The main advantage
of this method is the efficiency is achieved by avoiding repeated computations of node voltage
magnitudes. Here they computed the system Jacobean matrix using a chain rule. The mismatch
and the Jacobean matrix involve only evaluating simple algebraic equations and trigonometric
functions. The formulation and evaluation of Jacobean are time consuming and requires large
computer memory storage.
Goswami and Basu presented a direct method for solving radial and mashed
distribution networks. The method has the advantage that there is no convergence problem and
an accurate solution is guaranteed for any realistic distribution system, and the ease with which
composite load can be represented. The disadvantage is the difficulty in numbering the node
and the branches, and the limitation that no node in the network is the junction of more than
three branches.
Another method has been proposed by Das for radial distribution network based on
evaluating the total real and reactive power fed through any node. They created a unique node,
branch and lateral numbering scheme to enhance the evaluation of real and reactive load fed
through any node and receiving end voltages. This method has the advantage that all the data
can be stored in vector forms, thus saving an enormous amount of
computer memory.
Ghosh and Das also presented a simple method for solving radial distribution networks
by evaluating only a simple algebraic expression of receiving end voltage. In this method they
assumed an initial flat voltage for all nodes. Then by numbering the nodes beyond each branch,
they calculated the loads and charging current then the branch currents. The modified nodal
voltages are recalculated and also the losses. Evaluating the difference between new and
previous voltage values and then comparing it with an accepted tolerance verified the
convergence of this method. This method is simple and has good and fast convergence, and can
be used for composite load modeling, if the composition of the load is known. In the case of
distribution network main feeder and laterals a proper bus and branch numbering scheme is
used to read and retrieve the branch parameters and load values. In this configuration each
lateral is treated as a main feeder of distribution network and the iteration process is continued
for each lateral. Since the iteration process is carried in the forward direction of the power flow,
the method is named as “Forward Sweeping Method”.

PRACTICE EXERCISES 1.1

Direction: Answer the following questions.

1. What is the primary function of an electrical distribution system?
2. Describe the key components typically found in a distribution system, from the
substation to the customer.
3. Explain the difference between radial, loop and network distribution system topologies,
and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each.
4. What are some common voltage levels used in distribution systems, and why are
different voltage levels employed?
5. Discuss the importance of reliability and resilience in distribution systems, and what
measures can be taken to improve them.
6. What are some of the main challenges faced by modern distribution systems, such as
integrating renewable energy sources and managing increasing demand?
7. Explain the concept of smart grids and how they are changing the operation and
management of distribution systems.
8. Describe the role of protective devices, such as fuses and circuit breakers, in ensuring
the safety and reliability of distribution systems.
9. What are some of the factors considered when designing and planning a distribution
system, such as load forecasting and economic considerations?
10. Discuss the importance of power quality in distribution systems, and what can be done
to mitigate power quality issues like voltage sags and harmonics.
REFERENCES:
Abdelhay A. Sallam & Om P. Malik, “Electric Distribution Systems”, John Wiley & Sons, 2nd
ed. 2019
Kersting, William H., “Distribution System Modeling and Analysis”, CRC Press Taylor and
Francis Groups, LLC, 2002;
T.A. Shorts, “Electric Power Distribution Equipment and Systems”, CRC Press Taylor and
Francis Groups, LLC, 2006;
Turan, Gönen, “Electric Power Distribution System Engineering”, CRC Press Taylor and
Francis Groups, LLC, 2008
V. Kamaraju, “Electrical Power Distribution Systems”, Tata Mcgraw Hill, 2009