TOPIC 1: Marxist Theories

1. Core Principles of Marxism

o Historical Materialism: Emphasizes the role of economic structures in shaping

societal and political developments. Changes in the economic base lead to
transformations in the superstructure (politics, culture, ideology).

o Class Struggle: Society is divided into classes based on their relationship to the
means of production (bourgeoisie vs. proletariat). International relations reflect these
dynamics globally.

o Capitalism: Criticized as a system of exploitation where the bourgeoisie profits from

the labor of the proletariat, leading to inequality and conflict.

2. Application of Marxism in International Relations

o Global Capitalism: International relations are shaped by the global capitalist system,
which creates dependencies and perpetuates inequalities between developed (core)
and developing (periphery) countries.

o Imperialism: As analyzed by Lenin, imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism,

where powerful nations exploit weaker ones for economic gain. This explains
colonialism and neocolonialism.

3. Dependency Theory

o Originates from Marxist thought, arguing that underdeveloped countries are trapped
in a cycle of dependency due to exploitative economic relationships with developed
countries.

o Focuses on how global capitalism maintains the underdevelopment of periphery

nations.

4. World-Systems Theory

o Developed by Immanuel Wallerstein, this theory categorizes the world into core,
semi-periphery, and periphery nations.

o Core countries dominate economic and political systems, while peripheral countries
are exploited for labor and resources. Semi-periphery nations act as a buffer zone.

5. Criticism of Traditional Theories in IR

o Challenges realism and liberalism for focusing solely on states and ignoring the
impact of global capitalism and class structures.

o Highlights how these theories often serve the interests of dominant capitalist states.

6. Relevance of Marxism Today

o Offers insights into issues like global inequality, labor exploitation, environmental
degradation, and the influence of multinational corporations.

o Analyzes the global south's struggles against neoliberal policies imposed by

international institutions like the IMF and World Bank.
 7. Critiques of Marxist Theories

o Overemphasis on economic factors, neglecting cultural and ideological dimensions of

power.

o Perceived lack of practical solutions for addressing global inequalities.

o Dismissed by some as overly deterministic and outdated in explaining modern

international relations.

Tips for Exam Answers

• Use Examples: Refer to instances of colonialism, multinational corporations, or global

financial crises as evidence of Marxist critiques.

• Compare Theories: Highlight differences between Marxist perspectives and dominant IR

theories (realism/liberalism).

• Key Terms: Be ready to explain terms like "historical materialism," "imperialism,"

"dependency," and "world-systems theory."

TOPIC 2: Social Constructivism

1. Core Principles of Social Constructivism

o Social Reality is Constructed: Emphasizes that the structures of international

relations (e.g., anarchy, sovereignty) are socially constructed, not given by nature.
These structures are shaped by shared ideas, norms, and beliefs.

o The Role of Ideas: Ideas, norms, and identities influence state behavior as much as, if
not more than, material power or capabilities.

o Mutual Constitution of Agent and Structure: States (agents) shape the international
system (structure), but the system also shapes states in return.

2. Key Concepts in Social Constructivism

o Anarchy is What States Make of It: Alexander Wendt's famous assertion that anarchy
does not inherently lead to conflict; it depends on how states interpret and act within
the system.

o Identity and Interests: State identities (how they see themselves) influence their
interests and behaviors. For example, a "democratic" state may prioritize human
rights in its foreign policy.

o Norms and Institutions: Norms are shared expectations about appropriate behavior.
For example, the norm against using nuclear weapons shapes state behavior, even if
there is no binding enforcement mechanism.

3. How Social Constructivism Explains International Relations

o State Behavior: States act based on their identities, norms, and relationships with
other states. For instance, allies behave differently toward each other than toward
adversaries.
 o Change in the International System: Constructivism explains how changes in ideas
and norms (e.g., the spread of democracy, human rights norms) can transform
international relations.

o Non-Material Factors: Unlike realism or liberalism, constructivism focuses on non-

material factors like culture, history, and ideology.

4. Examples of Social Constructivism in Practice

o End of the Cold War: Constructivists argue that the Cold War ended not just because
of material factors (e.g., economic decline of the USSR) but also due to changes in
ideas, such as Gorbachev’s policies of glasnost and perestroika.

o Human Rights Norms: The global adoption of human rights norms shows how ideas
can shape state policies and international law.

o Environmental Cooperation: The growing importance of addressing climate change

reflects the influence of global norms and shared ideas about sustainability.

5. Criticism of Traditional Theories in IR

o Challenges realism for its focus on power and anarchy, and liberalism for its
overemphasis on institutions and material gains.

o Argues that these theories neglect the importance of ideas, norms, and identities in
shaping international relations.

6. Critiques of Social Constructivism

o Accused of being too abstract and lacking predictive power compared to materialist
theories.

o Focus on norms and ideas may overlook the role of economic or military power in
certain cases.

o The flexibility of the theory can make it difficult to falsify or test empirically.

7. Relevance of Social Constructivism Today

o Helps explain issues like the influence of global norms on human rights, climate
change cooperation, and the development of international institutions.

o Provides a framework for understanding cultural and ideological conflicts in a

globalized world.

Tips for Exam Answers

• Key Authors: Refer to scholars like Alexander Wendt and Nicholas Onuf.

• Use Examples: Highlight how constructivism explains phenomena like the EU’s emphasis on
shared identity or global responses to the COVID-19 pandemic.

• Compare Theories: Explain how constructivism differs from realism and liberalism by focusing
on ideational factors over material ones.

• Key Terms: Be ready to define and discuss terms like "norms," "identity," "mutual
constitution," and "anarchy is what states make of it."
TOPIC 3: Post-structuralism

1. Core Principles of Post-Structuralism

o Critique of Objectivity: Post-structuralism challenges the idea that there is an

objective truth in international relations. Reality is seen as constructed through
language, discourse, and power relations.

o Power and Knowledge: Heavily influenced by Michel Foucault, post-structuralism

argues that power and knowledge are interconnected. The way we "know" the world
shapes how power operates and vice versa.

o Decentering the Subject: Questions the centrality of the state or other actors as fixed
entities, focusing instead on how identities and roles are constructed through
discourse.

2. Discourse and Representation

o Discourse: Refers to the ways language and communication construct social reality.
For example, how terms like "terrorism" or "rogue states" are used shapes
perceptions and policy decisions.

o Representation: Examines how certain narratives dominate while others are

marginalized. For instance, Western representations of the Global South often
reinforce stereotypes of underdevelopment or chaos.

3. Critique of Traditional IR Theories

o Challenges realism and liberalism for their assumptions about fixed categories like
states, power, and anarchy.

o Argues that these theories legitimize existing power structures by presenting them as
natural or inevitable.

o Rejects positivism, the idea that IR can be studied scientifically in the same way as
natural sciences.

4. Key Themes in Post-Structuralism

o Deconstruction: Inspired by Jacques Derrida, deconstruction involves analyzing texts

and ideas to uncover hidden assumptions and contradictions. For example, the
dichotomy of "civilized" vs. "barbaric" often reveals implicit biases.

o Power of Narratives: Examines how dominant narratives shape international policies,

such as the "War on Terror."

o Identity Construction: Highlights how state and individual identities are not fixed but
constantly constructed and reconstructed through discourse.

5. Examples of Post-Structuralism in Practice

o Security Studies: Instead of treating security threats as objective realities, post-

structuralists examine how threats are socially constructed through discourse.

o Global War on Terror: Analyzed as a narrative that legitimizes specific policies and
actions while marginalizing alternative perspectives.
 o Humanitarian Intervention: Explored as a discourse that often frames Western
nations as saviors and non-Western nations as victims needing intervention.

6. Critiques of Post-Structuralism

o Overly Abstract: Accused of being too theoretical and disconnected from practical
policy issues.

o Lack of Alternatives: Focuses on critique without offering clear solutions or

alternative frameworks for international relations.

o Complex Language: Its reliance on dense and technical language can make it
inaccessible.

7. Relevance of Post-Structuralism Today

o Offers insights into how language and narratives shape global politics.

o Helps deconstruct dominant narratives to reveal hidden power dynamics and biases.

o Provides tools for critically examining issues like climate change discourse, migration
narratives, and the portrayal of global crises.

Tips for Exam Answers

• Key Scholars: Mention figures like Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, and Richard Ashley.

• Use Examples: Highlight cases like the "clash of civilizations" narrative or the framing of
refugees in international discourse.

• Critique Positivism: Discuss how post-structuralism challenges the scientific approach to IR,
emphasizing subjectivity instead.

• Key Terms: Be ready to define and discuss "discourse," "deconstruction,"

"power/knowledge," and "representation."

TOPIC 4: Pos-colonialism

1. Core Principles of Post-Colonialism

o Legacy of Colonialism: Post-colonialism examines how the history of colonialism

continues to shape global power dynamics, identities, and inequalities.

o Eurocentrism: Challenges the dominance of Western perspectives in international

relations, highlighting how non-Western voices and experiences are often
marginalized.

o Power and Identity: Focuses on how power relations constructed during colonial
times persist in the form of cultural hegemony, economic dependency, and political
control.

2. Critique of Traditional IR Theories

o Challenges realism and liberalism for ignoring the historical and ongoing impacts of
colonialism.
 o Argues that these theories universalize Western experiences and values while
neglecting the diverse realities of the Global South.

o Criticizes the concept of sovereignty as rooted in European history, ignoring how

colonialism disrupted indigenous political systems.

3. Key Themes in Post-Colonialism

o Subaltern Studies: Inspired by the works of Antonio Gramsci and Gayatri Spivak, this
examines the perspectives of marginalized groups who have been excluded from
dominant narratives. Spivak’s famous question, “Can the subaltern speak?” addresses
whether oppressed voices can truly be heard within global systems.

o Orientalism: Edward Said's concept that Western portrayals of the "East" (Orient)
reinforce stereotypes and justify domination. For instance, the depiction of the
Middle East as inherently violent or irrational.

o Hybridity and Resistance: Explores how colonized peoples combine indigenous and
colonial cultures to create new identities, often resisting domination through cultural
practices.

4. Post-Colonialism in International Relations

o Economic Dependency: Highlights how former colonies remain economically

dependent on former colonial powers through unfair trade agreements, debt, and
multinational corporations.

o Global Institutions: Critiques institutions like the IMF, World Bank, and WTO for
perpetuating inequalities rooted in colonial structures.

o Cultural Imperialism: Examines how Western norms and values dominate global
culture, undermining local traditions and identities.

5. Examples of Post-Colonialism in Practice

o Decolonization Movements: The struggles for independence in Africa, Asia, and Latin
America highlight the long-term impact of colonial rule.

o Global Inequality: The persistent wealth gap between the Global North and South
reflects colonial exploitation's legacy.

o Climate Justice: Post-colonialists argue that countries most responsible for climate
change (industrialized nations) often impose the heaviest burdens on vulnerable,
formerly colonized nations.

6. Critiques of Post-Colonialism

o Overemphasis on Colonialism: Critics argue that it sometimes reduces all global

issues to colonial legacies, ignoring other factors like domestic governance.

o Lack of Practical Solutions: Focuses heavily on critique without offering clear policy
alternatives for addressing global inequalities.

o Internal Diversity: Post-colonialism often generalizes the Global South, neglecting the
unique experiences of individual nations and groups.
 7. Relevance of Post-Colonialism Today

o Provides a framework for understanding global inequality, migration, and cultural

tensions.

o Highlights the need for inclusive approaches in global governance that account for
diverse perspectives.

o Offers insights into movements advocating for reparations, decolonizing education,

and cultural preservation.

Tips for Exam Answers

• Key Scholars: Refer to Edward Said, Gayatri Spivak, Homi Bhabha, and Frantz Fanon.

• Use Examples: Mention the economic dependency of African nations, the portrayal of the
Middle East in Western media, or the role of the Global South in climate negotiations.

• Key Terms: Be prepared to define and discuss "orientalism," "subaltern," "hybridity," and
"cultural imperialism."

• Link to IR Theories: Contrast post-colonialism with realism, liberalism, and constructivism to

highlight its unique focus on historical and cultural dimensions.

TOPİC 5: Feminism

1. Core Principles of Feminism

o Gender Matters: Feminism argues that gender is a central organizing principle in

international relations, affecting power dynamics, policies, and global structures.

o Critique of Patriarchy: Highlights how traditional IR theories are built on masculine

norms and often ignore women's experiences and contributions.

o Intersectionality: Acknowledges how race, class, ethnicity, and other factors intersect
with gender to shape individuals' experiences in global politics.

2. Critique of Traditional IR Theories

o Realism and Liberalism: Criticized for focusing on state-centric, militaristic, and

masculine concepts like power and security, neglecting how these impact individuals,
particularly women.

o Neglect of Women's Contributions: Traditional theories often ignore the roles

women play in peacebuilding, development, and resistance movements.

o Security Defined Narrowly: Feminists argue that security should include human
security, focusing on issues like poverty, sexual violence, and health, rather than just
military strength.

3. Key Themes in Feminist IR

o Gendered Division of Labor: Explores how global capitalism reinforces gender

inequalities, such as women’s overrepresentation in low-wage and unpaid labor.
 o Militarization and Masculinity: Examines how military practices and policies often
valorize masculine traits like aggression while marginalizing feminine perspectives on
peace and cooperation.

o Women's Roles in Conflict and Peace: Highlights the impact of war on women, such
as gender-based violence, and their roles as peacebuilders and negotiators.

4. Feminism in Practice

o UNSCR 1325: The United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women,
Peace, and Security emphasizes the importance of women's participation in conflict
resolution and peace processes.

o Sexual Violence in Conflict: Feminists have drawn attention to the use of sexual
violence as a weapon of war and the need for accountability.

o Global Inequalities: Focuses on how international policies, such as those of the IMF
and World Bank, disproportionately affect women in developing countries.

5. Types of Feminism in IR

o Liberal Feminism: Focuses on equal representation and legal reforms to address

gender inequality, such as increasing women's participation in diplomacy.

o Radical Feminism: Critiques deeper structural inequalities, such as the patriarchal

foundations of states and militaries.

o Postcolonial Feminism: Examines how colonial histories and cultural specificities

shape women's experiences differently across the Global South.

o Poststructural Feminism: Analyzes how language and discourse construct gender

roles and perpetuate inequalities.

6. Critiques of Feminism in IR

o Overemphasis on Gender: Critics argue that feminists sometimes reduce complex

issues to gender, overlooking other critical factors like class or geopolitics.

o Fragmentation: The diversity of feminist approaches can make it challenging to

present a unified framework.

o Engagement with Power: Some argue that feminism lacks practical strategies for
addressing power dynamics in global politics.

7. Relevance of Feminism Today

o Highlights the importance of gender in addressing issues like climate change,

migration, and global health.

o Advocates for inclusive governance, emphasizing women's representation in

international institutions and policymaking.

o Challenges gender-based violence and inequality in both conflict and peacetime

contexts.

Tips for Exam Answers

 • Key Scholars: Mention Cynthia Enloe, J. Ann Tickner, and Carol Cohn.

• Use Examples: Highlight cases like the impact of war on women in Afghanistan or the role of
women in peacebuilding in Liberia.

• Key Terms: Be ready to discuss "patriarchy," "gendered division of labor," "human security,"
and "intersectionality."

• Contrast with Traditional Theories: Emphasize how feminism broadens the scope of IR by
focusing on people and social issues rather than just states and power.

TOPIC 6:: International Ethics

1. Definition and Scope of International Ethics

o Moral Considerations in IR: International ethics examines how moral values and
principles influence the behavior of states, organizations, and individuals in the global
arena.

o Key Question: What is the right thing to do in international relations? Focuses on

issues like war, human rights, global justice, and environmental ethics.

2. Major Approaches to International Ethics

o Realism:

▪ Ethics play a limited role; national interest and power are prioritized.

▪ Skeptical of moral principles guiding state behavior, emphasizing survival in

an anarchic international system.

o Liberalism:

▪ Advocates for universal values like democracy, human rights, and the rule of
law.

▪ Supports international institutions (e.g., UN) to enforce ethical norms

globally.

o Constructivism:

▪ Ethical norms and values are socially constructed and can change over time.

▪ Highlights the importance of shared ideas and collective moral

understandings in shaping state behavior.

3. Key Ethical Theories in IR

o Utilitarianism:

▪ Decisions should maximize overall happiness or well-being.

▪ Example: Humanitarian intervention justified if it reduces suffering.

o Deontological Ethics:

▪ Focuses on duties and principles rather than outcomes.

 ▪ Example: Respecting sovereignty and human rights as a moral duty,
regardless of consequences.

o Just War Theory:

▪ Provides a framework for evaluating the morality of war. Divided into:

▪ Jus ad bellum (justice of going to war) – e.g., self-defense.

▪ Jus in bello (justice in war conduct) – e.g., avoiding harm to civilians.

▪ Jus post bellum (justice after war) – e.g., fair treatment of defeated
parties.

4. Ethical Issues in International Relations

o Humanitarian Intervention:

▪ Balances state sovereignty with the responsibility to protect (R2P).

▪ Example: NATO intervention in Kosovo (1999).

o Human Rights:

▪ Promoting universal human rights while respecting cultural diversity.

▪ Debates over Western bias in defining human rights.

o Global Inequality:

▪ Ethical questions about wealth distribution, development aid, and debt relief.

▪ Example: Fair trade practices and climate justice.

o Environmental Ethics:

▪ Responsibility of states to address global environmental challenges like

climate change.

▪ Ethical considerations of intergenerational justice.

o Nuclear Ethics:

▪ Debates over deterrence, disarmament, and the moral implications of using

nuclear weapons.

5. Examples of International Ethics in Practice

o Paris Climate Agreement: A collective effort to address climate change reflects

principles of global justice and shared responsibility.

o UN Peacekeeping: Ethical dilemmas in balancing sovereignty with protecting

civilians.

o International Criminal Court (ICC): Pursuing accountability for war crimes and crimes
against humanity.

6. Critiques of International Ethics

 o Cultural Relativism: Critics argue that ethical standards are not universal and vary
across cultures.

o Hypocrisy in Practice: States may invoke ethics selectively to justify self-interested

actions.

o Power Dynamics: Ethical norms often reflect the interests of powerful states,
marginalizing the Global South.

7. Relevance of International Ethics Today

o Addresses contemporary issues like global health, migration, and cyber warfare.

o Guides international cooperation and conflict resolution.

o Encourages accountability and moral responsibility in a globalized world.

Tips for Exam Answers

• Key Scholars: Mention Michael Walzer, John Rawls, and Hedley Bull.

• Use Examples: Highlight cases like the Iraq War (2003), Syrian refugee crisis, or climate
change negotiations.

• Key Terms: Be ready to discuss "just war theory," "humanitarian intervention," "responsibility
to protect (R2P)," and "global justice."

• Compare Theories: Explain how different ethical approaches (realism, liberalism,

constructivism) address the same issue differently.

TOPIC 7: War and World Politics

1. Definition and Nature of War

o War: Organized and sustained conflict between political entities, typically states or
groups.

o Clausewitz’s Definition: “War is the continuation of politics by other means.”

Highlights the political objectives behind warfare.

o Types of War:

▪ Interstate Wars: Conflicts between states (e.g., World Wars).

▪ Civil Wars: Conflicts within a state (e.g., Syrian Civil War).

▪ Proxy Wars: Indirect conflicts where states support opposing sides (e.g., Cold
War-era conflicts).

2. Theories of War in International Relations

o Realism:

▪ War is a natural outcome of an anarchic international system.

▪ Emphasizes power, survival, and security dilemmas.

 ▪ Example: Balance of power theory to prevent war (e.g., Cold War bipolarity).

o Liberalism:

▪ Sees war as preventable through cooperation, institutions, and democracy.

▪ Promotes collective security (e.g., UN) and economic interdependence to

reduce conflicts.

o Constructivism:

▪ Views war as socially constructed, influenced by ideas, identities, and norms.

▪ Example: The Cold War as a conflict driven by ideological differences.

3. Causes of War

o System-Level Causes:

▪ Anarchy and power struggles.

▪ Distribution of power (unipolarity, bipolarity, multipolarity).

o State-Level Causes:

▪ Nationalism, authoritarianism, or internal political instability.

▪ Example: Expansionist policies of Nazi Germany.

o Individual-Level Causes:

▪ Decisions by leaders (e.g., Hitler, Napoleon).

▪ Psychological factors like misperception or overconfidence.

4. War in the Context of World Politics

o Global Power Dynamics: War shapes and reshapes the balance of power, alliances,
and international order.

o Impact of Technology: Advances in military technology (e.g., nuclear weapons,

drones) have transformed the nature and scale of warfare.

o Economic Consequences: Wars can disrupt trade, destroy economies, or lead to

economic gains for victors.

5. Key Concepts in War and World Politics

o Security Dilemma: When one state’s efforts to increase security make others feel less
secure, leading to arms races or conflict.

o Just War Theory: Evaluates the morality of war based on its causes (jus ad bellum)
and conduct (jus in bello).

o War Economy: Some conflicts are perpetuated by economic interests, such as control
over resources (e.g., oil or minerals).

6. The Role of International Institutions

 o Organizations like the United Nations aim to mediate conflicts, enforce peace, and
prevent wars.

o Collective security and peacekeeping missions play critical roles in conflict zones.

7. Examples of War in World Politics

o World Wars: Shaped modern international relations and institutions like the UN.

o Cold War: A period of proxy wars and ideological conflict between the US and USSR.

o Post-9/11 Wars: The global War on Terror, including interventions in Afghanistan and
Iraq.

8. Contemporary Issues Related to War

o Cyber Warfare: Emerging as a new domain of conflict, targeting infrastructure and

information systems.

o Terrorism: Non-state actors challenging traditional state-centric views of war.

o Hybrid Warfare: Combining conventional military tactics with cyber, economic, and
informational tools.

o Climate Change and Conflict: Resource scarcity and environmental disasters as

drivers of war.

9. Critiques and Alternatives to War

o Criticism of militarism and the human cost of war.

o Promotion of diplomacy, mediation, and non-violent conflict resolution.

o Efforts toward disarmament and arms control (e.g., nuclear treaties).

Tips for Exam Answers

• Key Scholars: Mention Carl von Clausewitz, Kenneth Waltz, and Michael Doyle.

• Use Examples: Reference major wars like WWI, WWII, or contemporary conflicts such as
Ukraine-Russia.

• Key Terms: Be ready to discuss "security dilemma," "just war theory," "balance of power,"
and "hybrid warfare."

• Compare Theories: Highlight how realism, liberalism, and constructivism explain the causes
and consequences of war differently.