12/04/2021

Week 6: What shapes coastlines? Lecture outline

Part 1: What shapes coastlines?
• Introduction to coastal zone processes
• Geological controls on coastal morphology
➢ Tectonic setting

➢ Sea level

• Modern day processes: waves vs tides

Part 2: Wave processes I
• Wave vs tide dominated coasts
• Intro to wind wave processes.

Barwon River estuary . Photo: N. Rosengren Readings: Davidson-Arnott (2010) Ch. 1 - 4 Merriman Creek (VIC)

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Channels of different forms deliver sediment and water to the coast The next stage of the journey from source to sink

Temporary storage in
Sediment is routed from hillslopes, to rivers, to the coast.
depositional landforms

Delivery to nearshore

Reworking and alongshore transport

Offshore transport
Photo: N. Rosengren https://earthsurface.readthedocs.io/en/latest/_images/s2s.png

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The coastal zone

The interface between land and sea
Comprised of several zones - varying processes and energies

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Beach_zones.png

Backshore
Dry under normal conditions (storms = wet)
Above high tide limit
Beach and berms Hinterland
Storms
Tides and waves Deep water waves
and currents
Subaerial and aeolian
(above the water) Breaking waves

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Foreshore Nearshore
Between high and low tide limit Underwater. Shallow water processes
Top of berm to water line Swash zone to deep water
Hinterland Wave breaking
Offshore
Deep water

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Closure depth: seaward limit of nearshore-offshore sediment exchange A

Active coastal zone: where sand is exchanged in a cross-shore direction

Krauss et al. (1998)

A’
Closure Closure
depth depth

A’
Cross shore sediment transport

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• Beach profiles showing the envelope of change • Beach profiles showing the envelope of change
• Used to calculate a beach volume change. • Used to calculate a beach volume change.

Horizontal Horizontal

Vertical Vertical

Closure depth Closure depth

Karunarathna (2014) Karunarathna (2014)

Surveying a beach profile

https://twitter.com/clareboston/status/779310929553096708

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The beach profile The beach profile

There is an energy gradient present across the active profile Expressed by a change in grain size
Determined by the processes acting within each zone Coarsest grains are in the swash zone and on the beach berm

Offshore Nearshore Offshore Nearshore

Bierman & Montgomery 2014 Bierman & Montgomery 2014

Offshore Onshore
Fine grains Coarse grains Fine grains
Deep water waves Breaking waves Aeolian processes
(lower energy) (higher energy) (lower energy) Low energy High energy Low energy

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www.sussex.ac.uk/geography/researchprojects/BAR/images/Kent/sandwich_bay

(1) Swash zone (2) Beach berm

Berm

Berm crest

Swash zone: the land-ocean boundary where waves runup the beach.

Uprush (run up) onshore flow Berm: a near horizontal plateau on the beach face formed by the deposition of material by waves

Backwash (return flow) offshore flow

Berm crest
Generally uprush velocities are greater
but of shorter duration vs the backwash

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SDHwvNHpSpw

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www.southampton.ac.uk

A beach profile changes form depending on wave conditions

Victoria: summer = deposition and winter = erosion.

Low waves: wide and flatter beach

https://www.livescience.com/24695-before-and-after-hurricane-sandy-new-jersey.html

Storm berm

Fairweather berm

Storm: steeper and narrow beach

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(1)
People can also affect beach stability over multiple scales
(1) Fairweather conditions
- Low waves
- Wide and flat beach

(2)
(2) Storm conditions
- Big waves
- Narrow, eroded beach
- Offshore bar storage

(3)
(3) Fairweather conditions
- Low waves
- Beach rebuilds

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Palm Beach Erosion

Sand transport

Currumbin Creek Currumbin Creek

Sand trapping

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i6k6WN2GtWI&feature=emb_logo
SE waves https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i6k6WN2GtWI&feature=emb_logo
SE waves

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Drove erosion elsewhere….. Now artificial

beach nourishment, dredging and beach
protection are an ongoing cost.

$18.2 million Palm

Beach Artificial Reef

https://www.griffith.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0021/213375/Currumbin-Creek-Dredging.pdf

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What shapes a coast?

Any questions?? https://www.flickr.com/photos/gridarendal/32049683086

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Coastal boundary conditions (1) Tectonic setting

Coastlines are shaped by boundary conditions: Influence first and second order coastal features (i.e. 1000 - 1 km)
Tectonic setting controls morphology of drainage basins + sed supply
(1) Tectonics (plate boundary position) Large geological scale
These factors and the age of the coast determine shelf width
(2) Sea level (rising or falling)
(3) Process dominance (waves vs tides). Smaller local scale Wave energy is greatly dissipated across a wide continental shelf
Active coast = close to plate boundary. Passive = away from it.

Tectonic setting = location with respect to plate boundaries.

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(Inman and Nordstrom, 1971)

3 coast types globally (Inman & Nordstrom, 1971) Collision

coast Trailing
Collision coast; trailing edge coast; marginal seas edge coast
Active margin = collision coast.

Passive margin = trailing edge coast.

e.g. California (collision coast) e.g. Louisiana (trailing edge coast)

Collision coasts on
active margins

Collision coast
Trailing margin (African)
Trailing margin (American)
Marginal sea Trailing edge on passive margin

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(a) Trailing edge coast (passive margin)

• Located far from the active plate boundary (i.e. passive areas)
• Wide coastal plain and continental shelf (also quite shallow)
• Depositional landforms: deltas, estuaries, barriers, and lagoons.
(a) Trailing edge coast

(b) Collision coast

Elevation
(m MSL)

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(b) Collision coast (active margin) (c) Marginal seas

• Found on leading edge of the continent where it is crashing into an • Semi connected to the open ocean
oceanic plate (i.e. collision) - mountainous and tectonically active • Can be sheltered by islands, barriers or continents - lower waves
• Narrow continental shelves and steep continental slopes • Generally shallow in comparison to the open ocean
• Large deltas and barrier islands systems are largely lacking • Tend to have irregular shaped shorelines.

Black Sea

Mediterranean Sea
Examples: Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea
Northern California coast. https://www.nap.edu/read/2249/chapter/7

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Brooke et al., (2010)

Emergent coast: regressive sea level
(2) Sea level
Sea level can either be stable or rising or falling:
• Transgressive - rising and forms submergent coasts
SL
• Regressive - falling and forms emergent coasts.

Submergent: transgressive

SL

OIS (or MIS) (the numbers on the bottom of the graph) represent
alternating warm and cool periods (which drive sea level change).
http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/12/causes-of-coastal-variability.html

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Sea level (SL) curves

SL curves show the change in SL over time - e.g. the Holocene PGMT. Mid-Holocene high-stand Regression

Foraminifera

PGMT Lewis et al., (2013)

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VIC context: VIC context:

Peak of the LGM (22 kya): 8 - 6 kya: all estuaries form by
SL is 125 to 120 m lower submergence of coastal plain.
~18 kya: the PGMT starts Stable SL: barrier formation
leading to marine restriction.
SUBMERGENCE of coastline

SEA SEA SEA

Tasman Peninsula at the

Last Glacial Maximum
(LGM) (22 ka) showing
the extended drainage
and the position of Bass
Basin (Murray-Wallace,
2012; Bird, 1993).
https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1447&context=theses

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(3) Waves vs tides

Wave energy vs tidal energy determines coastal morphology

(1) Tide dominated

Low wave energy

Any questions?? TR > 4 m macrotidal

(2) Mixed energy

Mod. wave energy
TR 2-4 m mesotidal

(1) Wave dominated

High wave energy
TR < 2 m microtidal

Tidal range (TR) (in m) = high - low tide

Davis and Hayes

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Classification of coasts by tidal range Relative tidal range (RTR)

RTR = STR / Hb
STR = Spring tidal range (m)
Hb = Breaking wave height (m)
RTR is dimensionless (no unit)
RTR > 3 = tide dominated and RTR < 3 = wave dominated.

Davies 1980

Tidal range > 4 m Tidal range 2 - 4m Tidal range < 2 m RTR 0.5 = wave dominated RTR 6 = tide dominated

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RTR in Australia:
RTR values What drives this split?
RTR = 7.50
0
Southern coast is exposed to persistent high wave energy from the S - SW.
2
Tide-dominated (> 3)
4
Wave dominated (< 3)
6
RTR = 0.50

>10

Microtidal, wave-dominated
RTR > 3 (tides dominant) RTR < 3 (waves dominant)

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What drives this split? 10 min break

In the northern coast of Australia, there are islands and topography that can: https://earth.nullschool.net/
(1) Distort the tidal wave to amplify tides and (2) block ocean waves.

The coast is “less open” vs the south.

https://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/0/654/dissipation_large.jpg

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TR < 2 m
Summary: What shapes coastlines? (1) Wave dominated coasts Microtidal
RTR < 3
(1) Sea level; (2) tectonic setting; and (3) relative wave vs tide energy Wave-driven sediment transport (e.g. coarser sands)
Spits, bars, berms, and barriers
(1) Tide dominated
Wide surf zone
Low wave energy
TR > 4 m macrotidal

(2) Mixed energy

Mod. wave energy
TR 2-4 m mesotidal

(1) Wave dominated

High wave energy
TR < 2 m microtidal
e.g. West Victoria (RTR = 0.9; STR = 0.9 - 1.6 m)
Tidal range (TR) (in m) = high - low tide
Davis and Hayes Fitzroy River (N. Rosengren) Estuaries close by high wave-energy/transport.

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Wave built features dominate beach profile (e.g. bars and berms)
Longshore drift: Common on
wave-dominated coasts.Drift
occurs under oblique waves.
Beach
Berm

MSL
Longshore bar

Cheng et al., 2016

Closure depth

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TR 2 - 4 m
Mixed-energy Barrier Island Mesotidal
RTR: 3.30
Barrier islands with multiple inlets
A smaller surf zone Lagoon

Mix of sands and muds

Ebb tide delta
Tidal deltas.

Ocean

N
Dalrymple and Choi (2007)

e.g. East Frisian islands (Germany)

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Ocean EBB TIDAL DELTAS Tidal deltas and barriers can be a visual indicator of coast type:
Wave dominated coasts: More pronounced flood tidal deltas;
Mixed energy: More pronounced ebb tidal deltas (seaward).

Lagoon

FLOOD TIDAL DELTA

Lagoon

Flood-tidal delta: Shoals deposited by the flood tide (landward side); Ocean
http://users.clas.ufl.edu/adamsp/Outgoing/GLY4734_Spring2014/S24_TidalInlets.pptx.pdf

Ebb-tidal delta: Deposited by ebb-tidal currents (on the seaward side).

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Microtidal: Barriers are long and thin with little variation in shape;
Mesotidal: Short and narrow in the centre; wider inlet (ebb flows).

MICRO MESO

http://users.clas.ufl.edu/adamsp/Outgoing/GLY4734_Spring2014/S24_TidalInlets.pptx.pdf

e.g. Gulf Coast of the U.S.A.

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Tide dominated coasts Tides in embayments

Tides are the dominant process shaping landforms (TR: > 4 m) • Tides can become amplified in embayments vs the open coast
• Port Phillip and Westernport Bays in VIC are a good example
• Finer sediments (muds) • Topographic and bathymetric controls are important.
• Tidal flats and creeks
• Funnel shaped estuaries
with wide mouths
• Flat and low-gradient
beaches.

TR > 4 m
Macrotidal
RTR = 6 Median significant wave height (Hs) for Victoria (in m) (Water Technology, 2004)
e.g. NT (Australia)

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Port Phillip Westernport

Extreme tide-dominance
Bay of Fundy in Canada = the tidal range is 16 m (come in at 5.1 m/s)
Highest tides in the world
Water Tech (2004)

RTR: 32 (STR/Hb = 16/0.5).

Low tide

Watch someone barely out walk the tide:

High tide
Wiki Commons (2019) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l0TqFXiPfuk

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Time Lapse video:

The shape of the bay amplifies the tide by a https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EnDJ6_XpGfo
Introduction to wind wave processes
process called resonance.
Waves transfer energy from the ocean to nearshore

Main force controlling erosion/deposition of global coastlines

https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/145784/massive-muddy-tides-in-the-bay-of-fundy Photo: N. Rosengren

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Wave generation in the ocean Wave generation by winds

Generated by vertical displacement of water: Pressure differences form across the ocean’s surface
1. Winds acting on the ocean surface;
Positive pressure
2. Extreme (sudden) events (e.g. tsunami); Negative pressure
Davidson-Arnott (2010)

3. Ultra low-frequency processes (e.g. tides).

Wind direction

OCEAN

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Transfer of energy from wind to water surface - wind shear.

The height of wind waves is dependent on:
(1) Wind speed.
(2) Wind duration
(3) Fetch distance.

http://twentyfourpdf.jelastic.tsukaeru.net/wind-waves-generation-propagation-editions.html

Air pressure is at a maximum on the windward side of the crest and a minimum on the leeward
slope. This reinforces the upward movement as the crest approaches and the downward
movement after it has passed. The result is a transfer of energy from wind to wave. Fetch: The distance of water wind can move over in a constant direction to generate waves.

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Fetch A > Fetch B… so ocean waves would be higher.

Waves organise themselves by period and length and travel in groups called swells. Wave Groups
Fetch A Fetch B

X L
X

Closer to Source Closer to Shore

Sea Swell Surf

L
(B) Local wind waves in Port Phillip Bay.
(A) Classic Southern Ocean low hitting SW VIC.
http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2011/06/08/death-and-the-sea-world-ocean-day-2011/

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Global trends in wave height The waveform

The Southern Ocean has an “unlimited” fetch and experiences
high-energy waves all year-round
Function of strong westerly winds in the mid-latitudes
Tropics have lowest wind speed and waves (on average).
WikiMedia (2018)

Component Symbol Unit Definition

Crest - m Peak (highest part) of wave
Trough - m Lowest part of wave
Height H or Hs m Vertical distance between trough to crest
https://earth.nullschool.net/
Amplitude a m Vertical distance between still water level to (a = H/2)
Global wind speeds (m/s) Global wave height (m) Wavelength L (or λ) m Horizontal distance from crest to crest

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Wave parameters Period vs frequency

Parameters most commonly measured as wave data:

Parameter Symbol Unit Definition

Maximum wave height Hmax m The single highest wave in a wave record.
Significant wave height Hs m Average measurement of largest 1/3 of waves.
Direction (peak) Dp °N Direction the wave approaches from.
Time for a full waveform (crest - crest) to pass a
Wave period T or Tp s
fixed position. Tp is period with peak energy.
The number of cycles per unit of time. F = 1/T.
Frequency F Hz
(i.e. frequency is the inverse of period).
Celerity (speed) C m/s Velocity of the waveform. C = L/T.

Significant Wave Height (Hs) is used over Hmax as it represents waves

that have more potential to do work and create change along a coast.

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Waves in different water depths Waves in different water depths

Deep Water: Intermediate Depths: Shallow Water:
Depth generally controls wave form and breaking D > ½ L. Circular orbits D < ½ L. Elliptical orbits Waves break
No interaction with bottom Waves ‘feel’ the bottom. Interact with bed (friction)
Waves propagate energy (not mass) in the direction a wave is moving No motion at wave base . Friction = shoaling Sediment transport and stirring.

Shallow water Intermediate water Deep water

Decreasing water depth

Propagation direction

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Summary
Coasts are shaped by large scale (sea level and tectonic setting)
processes and regional scale processes (waves vs tides)

Wave dominated, mixed energy, and tide dominated coasts all

have different morphologies

Wind waves transfer energy to a coastline

Height/energy a function of: wind speed, duration, and fetch.

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