Coastal Environments.

Definition of terms

Coast: It is the interface or narrow zone where the sea and land meet.

It is the narrow contact zone between land and sea.

Also called shore.

Coastline: It is the line where shore and water meet. Also called shoreline.

Waves: these are large movements of water in oceans due to effect of winds.

The stronger the winds the larger the waves.

Features of waves

Swash -Forward movement of the waves towards the shore.

It is when waves move or transfer their energy towards the coast / shore from the
ocean.

Backwash-the retreating of the waves back to the ocean

It is when waves move or transfer their energy towards the ocean from the coast or
shore.

Fetch

It is the maximum distance covered by waves.

The greater the fetch the greater the wave energy.

Crest

It is the highest part of a wave.

Trough

It is the lowest part of a wave.

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Wavelength

It is the horizontal distance between two successive crests or troughs of a wave.

A- Swash
B- Backwash
C- Fetch
D- Coast/shore
E- Ocean
F- Crest
G- Trough
H- Wavelength

Types of waves

There are two different types of waves. Namely;

a} constructive waves

b} destructive waves.

They can affect the coastline in different ways.

When a wave reaches the shore, the water that rushes up the beach is known as
the swash.

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 The water that flows back towards the sea is known as the backwash.

The energy of the swash and backwash determine the type of wave.

a} Constructive waves

These types of waves are responsible for building features along the coast through
deposition.eg beaches and sand bars

The characteristics of a constructive wave are:

 strong swash to bring sediments to the coast

 weak backwash to avoid carrying back the deposited sediments

 the waves are gentle, low in height and further apart

 they form depositional landforms along the coast.

b} Destructive waves

These types of waves destroy or modify the existing coastal features mainly through
erosion.

They remove more materials from the shore than is deposited. These waves are more
effective on steep sloping coasts.

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 The characteristics of a destructive wave are:

 weak swash

 strong backwash which removes sediments from the shore

 the waves are steep, high in height and close together

 they cause erosional landforms along the coast.

Formation of waves.
Waves approach the coast at an angle controlled by prevailing winds.
They approach the coast at the same angle as the prevailing winds.
The water particles in a wave move in a circular manner towards the coast.
Waves break when ocean water gets to shallow end due to friction between the ocean
water and ocean floor.

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The top of the wave moves faster than the bottom as the wave breaks forming a hook
shape.

The coast as a system

 As with any geographical system, the coast, as a system,
has inputs, stores, transfers and outputs
 The system constantly strives to be in a state of dynamic equilibrium
 The coast can be viewed as both an open system and a closed system
o It is an open system because it receives inputs from the lithosphere,
atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and cryosphere
o However, during research and coastline management the coast can be
seen as a closed system where a specific sediment cell is examined

 There are examples of positive feedback at the coast

o As waves erode the cliff, material is released
o This material abrades the cliff which results in even more cliff erosion
 There are also examples of negative feedback at the coast
o As the shore is eroded, the material makes the wave-cut platform wider

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 o This can absorb wave energy and reduce the impact at the base of the
cliff

The littoral zone

 The littoral zone is the area of the coast that can be affected by wave action
 It is a dynamic zone which means that it is constantly changing due to the
interaction between processes on land and in the sea
 These changes can be:
o Long-term due to climate or sea level change
o Short term due to the tides, waves, and storms
 It is divided into four zones:
o Backshore is usually beyond the influence of wave action but can be
affected during storm events
o Foreshore is the intertidal area between high and low tide
o Nearshore is the breaker zone where friction between the seabed and the
waves causes them to break
o Offshore is the area outside the influence of waves

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Wave action
Wave action involves three activities namely:
 Erosion
 Deposition

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  Transportation

A}Wave erosion
Also called marine erosion.
It is wearing away or breaking down of land by sea or waves.
Waves erode in four ways. Namely ;
 Hydraulic action

Waves break against the cliffs by their sheer and tear force.

They also force and trap air in cracks in the rock.

This air is compressed by the waves, eventually causing the rock to break apart.

 Corrasion /Abrasion

It occurs when particles carried by the waves crash against the cliffs, they rub the cliff
through friction action eroding them.

 Attrition

Particles carried by the waves crash against each other and are broken up into smaller
and rounded particles.

This method does not erode cliffs and sea floors.

 Corrosion/solution

The acids in sea water slowly dissolve the chalk and limestone cliffs and ocean floor.

The material produced is carried away in solution form.

Wave erosion landforms

They include; caves, cliffs, wave cut notch, wave cut platforms, headlands, bays,
arches, stacks and stumps.

i) Cliffs

 They are steep sided resistant rocks facing the ocean or sea.

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  They are shaped through wave erosion.
 Waves erode soft rocks quickly through corrosion, corrasion and hydraulic action
leaving behind hard rocks which are more resistant and forms steep cliffs.

 A notch is first developed and as erosion continues the notch enlarges.

 The overhanging land or the cave collapses leaving behind a cliff.
 Cliffs are high and bare.

A CLIFF

ii)Wave cut notch

 They are formed at the foot or bottom of a cliff.

 This happens when wave energy undercut the foot of a cliff in case of presence
of a crack there.
 The crack is eroded and widened through corrasion(abrasion),
corrosion(solution) and hydraulic action to form a wave cut notch.

iii) Wave-cut platform

 It is a wide gently-sloping surface found at the foot of a cliff.

 It starts through erosion of the cliff at its base which creates a Notch.

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  Further erosion increases the size of the notch and leaves the cliff unstable since
it is left overhanging the notch. This is called cliff undercutting.
 The unstable cliff collapses into the ocean due to the continuous undercutting.
 This makes the cliff to retreat inland.
 Repeated undercutting forms a new notch which erodes more and the cliff gets
unstable and collapses again into the ocean.
 The backwash carries away the eroded material, leaving a wave-cut platform.
 Therefore a wave cut platform is a bench-like rocky surface at the base of a cliff.
 They are only visible during low tides.

iv)Headlands and bays

 they are formed along coastlines with alternating layers of hard[resistant] and
soft(less resistant)rocks.
 Destructive waves erode the soft rocks rapidly to form bays.
 The hard rocks are left protruding into the ocean to form headlands.
 The headlands are fully exposed to waves and maybe eroded with time.

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  Headlands shelter bays from destructive waves.

Images showing steps in formation of headlands and bays

1. Coastline with alternating layers of hard and soft rocks

2. Soft rocks get eroded by waves and hard rocks left protruding towards the sea.
3. Headlands and bays formed.

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  A headland usually features:
o Have cliffs along its sides
o Projects out to sea
o Usually longer than it is wide
o Geology is of resistant rock
o
 A bay usually has:
o A wide, open entrance from the sea.
o A roughly, semi-circular shape extending into the coastline.
o Land that is lower than the headlands surrounding it.
o A bay may or may not have a beach.

v) Caves
 The headlands may have cracks or lines of weakness.

 These cracks in the headland are exploited by erosional processes of hydraulic

action, abrasion and corrosion .This widens them leading to formation of caves.

vi) Arches

 If two caves lying adjacent to each other meet an arch is formed with an
opening through the headland.
 An arch may also form when wave erosion attacks a headland from opposite
sides.
 As the two sides meet they form a hollow structure called an arch.
 Both caves and arches have a roof.

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vii) Stacks and stumps

 The arch continually becomes wider through further erosion and undercut from
all sides, until its roof becomes too heavy and collapses into the sea due to lack
of support.
 This leaves behind an isolated pillar/rock in the sea called a stack.
 The stack is fully exposed to destructive waves from all sides.
 The foot of the stack is eroded continuously by waves.
 The top part of the stack finally collapses into the sea leaving behind a short
bottom part of the stack known as the stump.
 It is only visible at low tides.

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The key factors which affect coastlines are:

 The rock type/geology :Hard rocks produce headlands while soft rocks are
easily eroded and they produce bas along the coastlines.
 The angle of the slope : steep slopes erode more violently and frequently.
 Weather conditions : freezing temperatures and heavy rain increase weathering
and the rate of erosion.
 The amount of vegetation : the presence of vegetation helps stabilise slopes
but also increases the occurrence of biological weathering.
 The amount of human activities : if there are no man-made structures (eg sea
walls) to protect the coast, then the coast is more vulnerable to attack. However,
the construction of houses, industry and other man-made structures in the first
instance are the reasons why coastal erosion is a concern.
 The fetch of the wave and the strength of the wind: Powerful winds and a
long fetch create the most damaging (erosive) waves.

Students activity
Which statement below, best describes the characteristics of a destructive wave? (1)

A long wavelength & weak backwash

B short wavelength & weak backwash

C short wavelength & strong backwash

D long wavelength & strong backwash

B.WAVE TRANSPORTATION
Influences on Sediment Transport

 Material in the sea arrives from many sources:

o Eroded from cliffs
o Transported by longshore drift along the coastline
o Brought inland from offshore by constructive waves
o Carried to the coastline by a river

Once in the water, the material is moved in different ways:

 Traction
 Saltation
 Suspension

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  Solution

The Longshore drift:

It is the main process of deposition and transportation along the coast.
Waves move in the same direction as the prevailing winds towards the coast.
The Swash carries sediments at acute angles towards the coast and the backwash
carries the sediments back to the ocean at right angles.
The swash and backwash carry sediments along the coast repeatedly within each wave
forming a zigzag pattern.
The Process of Longshore Drift

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Sediment Cell Concept

A sediment cell (or coastal sediment cell) is a section of the coastline that operates as
a closed system for the movement of sediment. Within a sediment cell, sediment (such
as sand, shingle, or silt) is moved and recycled through processes like erosion,
transportation, and deposition. The boundaries of sediment cells are typically defined
by natural features like headlands or estuaries that prevent significant transfer of
sediment to adjacent cells.

Key Features of a Sediment Cell:

1. Sources: Points where sediment is introduced into the system, such as cliffs (via
erosion), rivers, or seabeds.
2. Transfers: Processes that move sediment along the coast, primarily through
longshore drift, waves, tides, and currents.
3. Sinks: Areas where sediment is deposited and stored, such as beaches, dunes,
or offshore bars.

 Sediment Cells are an important way of understanding the coastal system

o They can be considered a closed system as most sediment movement is
contained within the cell
o There are 11 sediment cells around the UK coastline
o Sediment cells can be divided into sub-cells where the inputs (sources),
stores (sinks), transfers, and outputs within the system can all be
identified

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  The sediment budget is the balance between the inputs and outputs of sediment
in the system
 Coastal systems should be in a state where the sediment budget is in a state
of dynamic equilibrium
 However, human activity and natural changes like climate change can disturb the
state of dynamic equilibrium.

c} Wave deposition
It is building up/ accumulation/dropping of materials by waves along the coast.

It occurs when sea waters lose their energy.

This happens mainly due to constructive waves.

The swash is very strong to carry a lot of materials towards the coast while the
backwash is very weak hence does not carry deposited materials back to the ocean.
Factors leading to wave deposition include:

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 waves starting to slow down and lose energy

 shallow water

 sheltered areas, eg bays

 little or no wind

Depositional landforms
When water loses its energy, any sediment it is carrying is deposited. The build-up of
deposited sediment can form different features along the coast. They include; beaches,
spit, bar, salt marsh, tombolo and sand dunes

i}Beaches

 They are formed along coasts from continuous deposition of sand or shingles or
both by constructive waves.
 They are temporary because the deposited materials are loose and can be
carried back to the ocean in case of destructive waves.
 Waves with strong swash bring a lot of sand or shingles to the coast and
because the backwash is very weak the materials are piled up and deposited
along the coast to form a beach.
 A sandy beach has a gentle sloping profile, whereas a shingle beach can be
much steeper.
 The size of the material is larger far inland of the beach, due to the high-energy
storm waves carrying large sediment.
 The smallest material is found nearest the water as the waves break here and
break down the rock through attrition.
 Shingles are small smooth rounded stones.

ii}Spits

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  Formed from deposition by constructive waves.
 A spit is an extended stretch of sand or shingle jutting out into the sea from the
land.
 It is a long, narrow accumulation of sand or shingle with one end attached to the
mainland and the other end projecting to the sea.
 It has a hook [its curved] at the end projecting towards the sea.
 The direction the hook of the spit faces is determined by the direction of
prevailing winds.
 They form on shallow coasts where there is impact of longshore drift.
 Sand and shingle are deposited along a line forming a spit.
 They also form across river estuaries or bays.

Main features of a spit.

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  It is long and thin. [elongated]
 It has a hook. [curved at the sea facing side]
 One side is attached to the mainland.
 It is made up of sand and shingle deposited on a line.
 It has low height because of minimal vertical deposition.
 Sometimes form salt marshes behind them.

iii}Sand Bar .

 Formed by continuous deposition of materials along a line by constructive waves.

 Both sides of a bar are attached to land.
 The shaping of the bar along a line is influenced by longshore drift.
 They form when a spit grows across a bay or a river estuary.
 The water enclosed between the bar and the mainland forms a salt marsh or a
lagoon.

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 

iv} Tombolo

It is formed when a spit grows due to continuous deposition by constructive waves until
the other side gets attached to an island.

The shaping of the tombolo along a line is influenced by longshore drift.

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 v}Sand dunes

 their formation is not affected by waves. Formed on the far end of the beach
inland due to effect of prevailing winds.
 They move dry sand across the beach until it meets an obstacle that can be a
rock or bushes.
 The dry sand is deposited on one side of the obstacle and with time forms a ridge
known as a sand dune.
 The sand dunes are parallel to the coastline.
 The top part of a sand dune has a hook shape.

Sub aerial processes.

They include weathering and mass moment.

WEATHERING

 Weathering is the break-down of rock in-situ. Weathering does not involve the
movement of material and this makes it different from erosion
 Sub-aerial weathering describes coastal processes that are not linked to the
action of the sea

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  It includes freeze-thaw weathering (mechanical/physical) and salt weathering
 Weathering weakens cliffs and makes them more vulnerable to erosion

Mechanical /physical weathering includes

1.Freeze-thaw or frost shattering

 Water gets into cracks and joints in the rock

 When the water freezes it expands and the cracks open a little wider
 Over time, pieces of rock split off the rock face, whilst big boulders are broken
into smaller rocks and gravel

2.Exfoliation/onion peeling

 This happens in hot climates

 When rocks warm up during the day the rock expands

 At night the rock cools and contracts

 Over time this causes very thin layers of rock to flake off

3.Salt crystallisation

 Salt crystallisation occurs because salt crystals are bigger than water molecules

o This exerts pressure on the rock, causing the rock to break down

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 Chemical weathering: occurs when rocks are broken down by a chemical process
e.g Carbonation.

 Rainwater is slightly acidic through absorbing carbon dioxide from the

atmosphere forming weak carbonic acids.
 This reacts with minerals in the rock creating new material.
 Rock-type affects the rate of weathering e.g. limestone chemically weathers
faster than granite
 The warmer the temperature, the faster the chemical reaction.

Biological weathering: takes place when rocks are worn away by living organisms.For
example

 Trees and other plants can grow within the cracks in a rock formation
 As the roots grow bigger they push open cracks in the rocks making them wider
and deeper.
 Over time the growing tree eventually prizes the rock apart
 Tiny organisms like bacteria, algae and moss can grow on rocks
 These produce chemicals that break down the surface layer of the rock
 Burrowing animals such as rabbits disturb the ground .This destabilizes the rock
above the burrow increasing pressure on any cracks which eventually leads to
pieces falling off the rock

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Mass Movement
Mass Movement

 The downhill movement of material under the influence of gravity

 Throughflow and runoff caused by heavy rain can also make cliffs more unstable
and increase the likelihood of mass movement
 It includes landslides, slumping and rockfalls

 The type of movement is influenced by:

o Angle of slope (steeper is faster)
o Rock type
o Amount and type of vegetation
o Water eg Heavy rainfall
o Human activity
o Climate

Examples

 Soil Creep:
o Common in humid climes with the movement of less than 1cm per year
o Soil expands when it freezes, gets wet or is heated up in the sun
o As the soil expands, it lifts at right angles to the slope
o When the soil shrinks, it falls straight back down
o Soil creep takes a long time because the soil moves only a millimeters to a few
centimeters at a time
o Evidence of soil creep is bending trees, electric posts etc.

 Flow:
o Occurs on slopes between 5° and 15° with speeds between 1 to 15km per
year
o Usually happens after the soil has become saturated with a flow of water
across the surface
o Vegetation is flattened and carried away with the soil

 Slide:
o A movement of material 'en-masse' which remains together until hitting the
bottom of a slope

 Fall:
o Slopes are steep and movement is rapid
o Caused by a number of reasons:

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  Extreme weathering: Freeze-thaw action can loosen rocks that
become unstable and collapse
 Rainfall: Too much rain will soften the surface leading to the
collapse of the slope
 Earthquakes can dislodge unstable rocks
 Hot weather can dry out soil causing it to shrink and allowing rocks
to fall

 Slump:
o Usually found on weaker rock types (i.e. clay), that become saturated and
heavy
o This is common at the coast and is also known as rotational slip
o It involves a large area of land moving down the slope in one piece
o Because of the way it slumps, it leaves behind a curved indented surface

 Rock fall/scree
o Slopes are steep and movement is rapid
o Caused by a number of reasons:
 Extreme weathering - freeze-thaw action can loosen rocks that
become unstable and collapse
 Rainfall - too much rain will soften the surface leading to collapse of
the slope
 Earthquakes can dislodge unstable rocks
 Hot weather can dry out soil causing it to shrink and allow rocks to
fall

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27
Di
 scordant & Concordant Coast Formation
Discordant coastlines

 A discordant coastline is one where the rock structures meet the coast at an
angle - run perpendicular to oncoming waves
 Alternating rock types lead to the formation of headlands and bays
 Discordant coasts are also known as Atlantic coasts

Concordant coastlines

 Concordant coastlines are where the rock structures run parallel to the coast
 Dalmatian and Haff coastlines are examples of concordant coastlines

COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

There four main coastal ecosystems mainly:

 Coral reefs and

 Mangrove swamps
 Sand dunes
 Salt marshes

A} Coral reefs.
 It is an underwater ecosystem build by colonies of tiny animals called polyps.
 It is a community of living organisms that exist in colonies.
 It has a wide biodiversity because it is made up of plants, fish and many other
creatures.
 They are usually found in tropical and sub tropical seas between 30 degrees
north and south of the equator.
Global distribution of coral

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Conditions required for formation of coral reefs
1. Sunlight and shallow water.
Corals need to grow in shallow water where sunlight can reach them easily for
photosynthesis. Corals depend on the zooxanthellae (algae) that grow inside of them for
oxygen and since these algae needs sunlight to survive, corals also need sunlight to
survive. Corals rarely develop in water deeper than 165 feet (50 meters).
2. Clear water.
Corals need clear water that lets sunlight through; they don’t thrive well when the water
is opaque. Sediment and plankton can cloud water, which decreases the amount of
sunlight that reaches the zooxanthellae.(algae). Therefore they require water free from
sediments and pollutants.
3.Warm waters.
Reef-building corals require warm water conditions to survive. Different corals living in
different regions can withstand various temperature fluctuations. However, corals
generally live in water temperatures of about 18 to 27° C.
4. Clean water.
Corals are sensitive to pollution and sediments. Sediment can create cloudy water and
be deposited on corals, blocking out the sun and harming the polyps. Wastewater
discharged into the ocean near the reef can contain too many nutrients that cause
seaweeds to overgrow the reef.
5. Salty / saline water.

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 Corals need saltwater to survive and require a certain balance in the ratio of salt to
water. This is why corals don’t live in areas where rivers drain fresh water into the ocean
like estuaries.
6. Presence of planktons.
Planktons provide food for the polyps and increase the amount oxygen in the water .
7. Plentiful supply of oxygen.
Oxygen facilitates growth of planktons hence the coral reefs.
8. Calm waters
To prevent the forming coral reefs from being swept away by strong waves.
9. Basic/ alkaline water
Around pH 8.
Too much acidic/alkaline water kills the polyps hence no coral reefs forming

Importance of coral reefs

1. A Coastal Protection.
In most countries, reefs form along the coastlines. Coral reefs are a very effective for
absorbing waves energy and contribute to environmental protection through the
reduction of coastal erosion.
They also reduce the damage in case of storms, hurricanes. In doing so, they protect
both ecosystems located between the reefs and coasts, such as seagrass and lagoon
and human settlements located by the sea.

2. An habitat.
Coral reefs often host fish that live further offshore. They provide breeding and areas
with calm waters for the fish to lay eggs.
3. A food resource.
Reef animals like fish, crustaceans, molluscs and other invertebrates are an important
source of protein.
4. An economic importance.
Because of the income coming directly from fishing in their waters, reefs provide
resources and services worth billions of dollars every year. Millions of people around
the world depend on coral reefs for food, protection and employment.

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5. A tourism wealth
They attract divers, recreational fishermen and lovers of white sand beaches. Through
tourist services, billions of dollars are collected.
6. A medical future.
Coral reefs also contribute to the advancement of research. Reefs contain chemical
compounds that have molecules that have the potential of our drug discovery. Reef
organisms are used in the treatment of diseases such as certain cancers including
leukemia, HIV, cardiovascular diseases, ulcers. In addition, long coral skeleton,
because of its very close similarity to our bones nature, served as material for bone
grafts.

Coral reefs threats.

Coral reefs in most regions in the world have been facing the following threats
1.Physical damage.
This happens because of destruction from coastal development, dredging, quarrying,
destructive fishing practices and gear, boat anchors and groundings, and recreational
misuse. It involves touching or removing corals.
2.Pollution

Pollutants that originate from land but finds its way into coastal waters. There are many
types and sources of pollution from land-based activities, for example: Sedimentation
from coastal development, urban stormwater runoff, forestry, and agriculture
3.Overfishing.
This is catching fish in large numbers which alters food-web structure and causes
effects, such as reducing the numbers of grazing fish that keep corals clean of algae
overgrowth. Blast fishing (i.e., using explosives to kill fish) can cause physical damage
to corals as well.
Coral harvesting for the aquarium trade, jewelry, and curios can lead to over-harvesting
of specific species, destruction of reef habitat, and reduced biodiversity.
4. Increased ocean temperatures.
These threats are caused by warmer atmospheric temperatures and increasing levels
of carbon dioxide in seawater.
Global warming causes seawater temperatures. This warming causes corals to lose
algae that produce food that corals need, placing stress on the corals.

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The coral also lose their coloration—a condition known as coral bleaching. Severe or
prolonged bleaching can kill coral colonies or leave them more vulnerable to other
threats such as infectious disease.

5. Ocean acidification.
As more carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, it has adverse effects on the
oceans.
Carbon dioxide entering seawater reacts to form carbonic acid, causing an increase in
acidity. High acidic levels kills corals.

B] Mangrove swamps

Mangrove swamps are areas of vegetation found along sheltered tropical coastlines and
estuaries.

They are made up of different species of evergreen mangrove trees and other plants.

Mangrove trees are halophytes (plants that grow in salty water ).

Physical characteristics of mangroves

 Coastal mangroves need a high temperature of around 27° C otherwise they

will not grow, although some mangroves have adapted to more temperate
conditions such as New Zealand
 Mangroves need shallow water between 0.5 to 2.5 metres in depth, but can
survive where the tidal ranges go slightly above or below this level
 Mangroves need high levels of humidity between 75 and 80% to enable them
to grow

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  Coastal mangroves need a high level of rainfall between 1500 and 3000 mm
per annum, this can be gained from rainfall or moisture in the air making
tropical climates ideal

Adaptations of mangrove trees

 they have special aerial roots that help in gaseous exchange and filter salts.
 They have leaves that excrete salts.
 They have prop roots that help in support.

Significance of mangrove swamps

 They are a home to diverse number of species e.g. fish, birds, frogs, snakes,
insects, and crocodiles,mammals,crabs.
 Also, mammals like rats and monkeys, tigers.
 They protect the coastline from erosion by acting as a natural barrier and flood
defense.
 They filter pollutants from rivers.
 They prevent sediments from reaching the nearby coral reefs.

C.Characteristics of Sand Dunes

 Sand dunes can be small ridges or large hills usually found at the back of a
beach
 They can extend backwards for many miles as well as along the beach
 They are an important ecosystem supporting unique flora and fauna that have
adapted to live within the dune system
 Dunes are vulnerable to erosion by natural processes and human activity:
 It is common to see vulnerable sections of dunes fenced off to prevent public
access, or for paths to be laid to prevent people from eroding the dunes further

Formation of a sand dune

 Windblown sand is deposited against an obstruction: Pebbles or driftwood

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  As more sand particles are caught, the dunes grow in size, forming rows at right
angles to the prevailing wind
 Over time, the ridges of the dunes will be colonized and fixed by vegetation in a
process called succession
 The first plants (pioneer species) have to deal with:
o Salinity
o Lack of moisture as sand drains quickly (highly permeable)
o Wind
o Temporary submergence by wind-blown sand
o Rising sea levels

Coastal Dune Succession

 Embryo dunes
o Wind-blown dried sand is trapped by debris and deposition begins
o Pioneer species such as lyme grass and sea couch grass begin to
colonise, these are halophytic plants which can tolerate high salt levels
o There is little soil content and high pH levels (alkaline)
o Embryo dunes are very fragile and reach a maximum height of 1 metre
 Fore dunes
o The embryo dunes bring some protection against the prevailing wind
o This allows other species of plant to grow such as marram grass
o Marram grass begins to stabilise the dune with its root system which can
grow to 3m to reach the water table
o These plants add organic matter to the dunes making the dunes more
hospitable for plants that later grow
o A microclimate forms in the dune slack
o Maximum height is 5 metres
 Yellow dunes
o These are initially yellow but darken as organic material adds humus to
the soil
o Marram grass still dominates the vegetation, but more delicate flowering
plants and insects are found in the dune slacks
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 o 20% of the dune is exposed, down from 80%
o Height does not exceed 8 metres
 Grey dunes
o Grey dunes are more stable, with less than 10% of exposed sand and
have a good range of biodiversity
o Soil acidity and water content increase as more humus is added
o Shrubs and bushes such as gorse begin to appear
o Height is between 8 - 10 metres
 Mature dunes
o As the name suggests, these are the oldest and most stable of the dunes
o They are found several hundred metres or more from the shoreline
o The soil can support a variety of flora and fauna such as oak trees and
alders (climax vegetation)
o This is the final stage in succession which is known as the climax
community stage

D. Salt Marshes

 Salt marshes are found all over the world and are not temperature dependant
 Like mangroves, they are an ecosystem of the intertidal zone
 They are typically very flat, with numerous channels running through them
They form in:
 Coastal areas that are well sheltered, such as inlets and estuaries where fine
sediments can be deposited
 Areas behind spits and artificial sea defences where tidal waters can flow
gently and deposit fine sediments
 They form in brackish water (partly salty and fresh).

Features of Salt Marshes

 Salt marshes are communities of nonwoody, salt-tolerant plants

 They begin as tidal mud flats, gaining height as more sediment is deposited
 This builds up to and above the level, and frequency of tidal flooding ensuring
that the soil never dries out and remains muddy and sticky
 Pioneer species of halophyte (salt torelant) plants begin to colonise

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  As these plants die and add nutrients to the soil, sediment builds up. This
makes the conditions more favourable and other species start to develop.
 The lower marshes are flooded daily by the rising tide.
 They are good coastal defences in some areas, acting as a natural buffer
against coastal erosion and flooding
 However, in many areas they have been reclaimed for agriculture or
development, and are threatened by human activities

THREATS TO COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

Climate Change

 Rising sea levels: Causes coastal erosion, habitat loss (e.g., mangroves, salt
marshes), and flooding of coastal areas.

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  Ocean warming: Leads to coral bleaching and the disruption of marine species'
habitats and migration patterns.
 Ocean acidification: Affects marine life, particularly organisms with calcium
carbonate shells (e.g., corals, mollusks).
 Extreme weather events: Hurricanes, typhoons, and storm surges damage
habitats and coastal infrastructure.

2. Pollution

 Marine pollution: Plastics, chemicals, and other debris harm marine life and
disrupt ecosystems.
 Nutrient pollution (eutrophication): Excess nutrients from agricultural runoff lead
to algal blooms and hypoxic dead zones.
 Oil spills: Devastate marine and shoreline environments.
 Industrial waste: Heavy metals and toxins poison marine organisms and
accumulate in the food chain.


3. Overexploitation of Resources

 Overfishing: Disrupts food chains and diminishes fish populations.

 Destructive fishing methods: Practices like trawling and blast fishing destroy
habitats such as coral reefs and seagrass beds.
 Sand mining: Depletes beaches and alters sediment dynamics.

4. Habitat Destruction

 Coastal development: Urbanization, ports, and tourism infrastructure encroach

on critical habitats like mangroves, dunes, and wetlands.
 Land reclamation: Conversion of natural coastal areas for agriculture or urban
use.
 Deforestation: Loss of mangroves and other coastal vegetation weakens
shorelines and reduces biodiversity.

5. Invasive Species

 Non-native species introduced through shipping, aquaculture, or other means

can outcompete native species, alter habitats, and disrupt ecosystem balance.

6. Sedimentation

 Caused by deforestation, agriculture, and construction upstream, leading to the

smothering of coral reefs, seagrass beds, and other habitats.

7. Tourism and Recreation

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  Unregulated tourism can lead to habitat destruction, pollution, and disturbance of
wildlife.
 Recreational activities like anchoring boats damage coral reefs and seagrass
beds.

8. Illegal Activities

 Poaching: Illegal harvesting of marine species, such as sea turtles and their
eggs.
 Unregulated coastal development: Violations of environmental laws exacerbate
ecosystem damage.

9. Natural Threats

 Tsunamis and earthquakes: Cause abrupt destruction of coastal environments.

 Cyclones and storms: Intensify erosion and damage habitats.

Strategies for Mitigation:

 Enforce sustainable fishing and pollution controls.

 Protect critical habitats through marine protected areas.
 Implement climate adaptation strategies like restoring mangroves and coral
reefs.
 Promote community awareness and participation in conservation.

COASTAL RECESSION/EROSION

Coastal recession refers to the gradual movement of a coastline inland over time. This
process occurs when land along the coast is eroded or worn away by natural forces
such as waves, tides, currents, and storms. Human activities can also accelerate
coastal recession.

Causes of Coastal Recession:

1. Wave Action: Continuous pounding by waves removes sediment from the

coastline.
2. Tidal and Storm Surges: High tides and storms can cause significant erosion.
3. Sea-Level Rise: As sea levels rise due to climate change, low-lying coastal
areas may become submerged.
4. Human Activities: Sand mining, construction of dams (which reduce sediment
flow to coasts), and coastal development can worsen recession.
5. Weak Geology: Coasts with softer rocks (like clay) erode faster than those with
harder rocks (like granite).
6. Dredging

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  The removal of sediment from rivers or the sea
 This impacts on the amount of sediment being deposited at the coast

7.Dams

 The construction of dams, traps river sediment behind the dam wall
 It is estimated 100 billion tonnes of sediment is stored behind the world's dams
and this increases by a billion tonnes each year
 Like dredging, this starves the coast of sediment
 It is estimated that dams on the river Ebro in Spain have led to a 93% reduction
in sediment downstream
 The reduction of sediment supplied to the coast due to dams and dredging leads
to greater coastal erosion because:
o Beaches decrease in size as they are not being supplied with sediment
o Destructive waves have more impact by increasing the rate of coastal
erosion

8.Global sea level rise further increases risk because

 Densely populated coastal areas also increase the number of people at risk
 Low-lying coastal areas are often densely populated due to:
o Attractive scenery and beaches
o Deltas are fertile and ideal for agriculture
o Suitable for ports and trade
 Globally, almost 300 million people live in coastal areas below 2m
 Of the 10 world's largest cities, 8 are in coastal areas
 Countries and regions which are particularly low-lying include:
o Bangladesh - over 10% of the land is 1m or less above sea level
o Maldives - has an average height of 2m above sea level with highest point
being 2.4m

9.Height of land

 Low lying areas are more vulnerable to rising sea levels and storm surges
 Storm surges and spring tides leads to water flooding areas of the back-shore
and beyond

10.Vegetation removal

 The removal of vegetation, including salt marshes and mangroves, increases

coastal flood risk
 It is estimated that 50% of salt marshes and 35% of mangroves have been lost
since the 1950s due to:
o Reclamation for development - housing and transport
o Coastal management such as sea walls
o Tourism, to create beaches with open views to the sea

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 o Shrimp farming
 Where vegetation exists, it significantly impacts wave height, which reduces the
risk of flooding:
o In the UK, salt marshes are estimated to reduce wave height by up to
80%
o 100m of mangroves is estimated to reduce wave height by between 13-
66%
 The vegetation:
o Traps sediment, which helps to increase the land height
o Reduces the impact of waves and erosion because, it absorbs the wave
energy

11.Tropical cyclones

 A tropical cyclone is an area of very low air pressure

 As in a depression, it is formed by warm rising from the ocean surface, forming
towering cumulonimbus clouds, which rotate around a central eye
 Tropical cyclones form in the zone between 5-30° north and south of the
equator, in areas where sea temperatures are 27°C or above
 A tropical cyclone brings heavy rain and strong winds
 When wind speeds reach 39mph it is categorised as a tropical storm, when they
reach 74mph it is a tropical cyclone

12.Storm surges

 A storm surge is a rise in the sea level as a result of a storm or tropical cyclone
and affect approximately 1.5 million people a year with a range of short-term
impacts including:

Effects of coastal erosion and flooding.

 Destruction of farmland.Fertile soil and crops are swept away by strong waves.
 Destruction of property like roads and houses near coastal regions.
 Increased expenses while doing repairs for destroyed property.
 Increased deaths of both people and animals who are swept away by the waves.
 High cost of insurance on property along the coast due to high risks.
 Lack of market on coastal properties like houses or land along the coast.

Responses to wave erosion and flooding.

This involves what has been done to protect the coast from wave erosion.

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They include soft and hard engineering methods.

a} Hard engineering methods.

It is use of manmade structures to protect the coast from wave erosion.

They are expensive, short-term options and are not friendly to the environment.

They have high impact on the environment and are unsustainable.

Examples of hard engineering methods are;

i} Building of sea walls.

It is a wall built at the edge of the coastline.

They divert wave energy back to the sea.

They also protect the base of cliffs, land and buildings against erosion and also prevent
coastal flooding in some areas.

However, they are expensive to build. Also curved sea walls reflect the energy of the
waves back to the sea hence the waves remain powerful.

Over time the wall may begin to erode increasing the cost of maintenance.

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 ii}Building of wooden groynes.

It is a wooden barrier built on the beach at right angles to the coastline.

Prevents the movement of beach material along the coast by longshore drift.

They increase wave deposition.

They can however be seen as unattractive, costly to build and maintain.

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 iii} Building of gabions

 These are wired cages filled with huge rocks.

 The gaps between the stones absorb the energy of waves.
 They are mostly located at the foot of cliffs to make sure that the waves don’t
reach the cliffs.
 They are expensive to build and unattractive.

iv}Building riprap.

 Also called rock armours / boulder barriers

 Heavy, large boulders/concrete blocks are piled up on the coastline because they
absorb the energy of waves hence allow the buildup of a beach.
 They can be expensive to obtain and transport the boulders.

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v} Use of slatted revetments.

 A staircase of blocks is placed on the coastline.

 They help distribute wave power making it less powerful.
 They are unsuitable/unreliable for high energy conditions and expensive to build.

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 b}Soft engineering methods/sustainable coastal defences

This includes use of natural and environment friendly options to reduce erosion.

They are less expensive, long-term and sustainable, with less impact on the
environment.

They include;

1. Beach nourishment

 Also called beach replenishment.

 This includes replacing beach or cliff material that has been removed by erosion
or longshore drift.
 This is done using sand and shingles from other parts the beach.
 It is a relatively inexpensive option but requires constant maintenance to replace
the beach material as it is washed away.

2. Managed retreat/realignment.

 This is when areas of the coast are allowed to erode and flood naturally on low
value areas eg places not being used for housing or farmland.
 The advantages are that it encourages the development of beaches (a natural
defence) and salt marshes to slow the wave speed and reduce wave energy.
 It is a cheap option, but people will need to be compensated for loss of buildings
and farmland damaged in case the areas flood. This makes the method
unreliable at times.

3Afforestation

 Planting of trees is allowed to on cliffs,headlands.

 The vegetation is used to reduce the impact of waves on the cliff.

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4.Marsh creation:is done on low lying areas.It creates an important habitat area.The
drawback is farmers may loose important farm land and seek compensation too.

5.Dune stabilization

Murram grass is planted.The roots help to bind the sand particles together.Its cheaper
and creates habitats for organisms.However planting is time consuming.

6.Cliff regrading

Helps to reduce the angle of the cliff inorder to stabilize it.Its cost effective ,however the
cliffs may collapse suddenly leading to rock falls which may be dangerous.The place
may also look unnatural.

Sustainable coastal management

1. Aspects of managing coast in a sustainable way include

2. Managing natural resources like fish,water,farmland,to ensure long-term
productivity.
3. Creating alternative livelihoods before people lose their existing jobs.
4. Educating communities about the need and how to adapt.
5. Monitoring coastal changes and then adapting or mitigating.
6. Managing fllod risk or relocating if needed.

Importance of coastal erosion response methods

Hard and soft engineering methods have the following benefits to people other than
reducing erosion;
 For beauty purposes
 For easy accessibility
 To reduce destruction of coastal landforms like cliffs.

COASTAL CONFLICTS AND INTERESTS

Land uses in coastal areas include tourism, farming, industry, fishing, trade and
transport, marine parks,

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 There are many different groups of people who have different interests in how coastal
areas are used and managed.

These groups include the following stake holders

 Local residents

 environmental groups

 developers

 local councils

 national governments

 tourist boards

 National Park Authorities

Each interest group may have a different view about how the land should be used or
what should be done to protect and manage coastal areas. A difference of opinion can
cause conflict between interest groups.

Conflicts over policy decisions

There are winners and losers.

Winners

These are classified as those who benefit economically e.g their homes and business
are protected.

Environmentally habitats may be protected.

Socially communities and home owners still remain in place,people still have jobs,so
less stress and worrying.

Losers

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 Those who lose their property,lose jobs,relocate etc.Communities and homeowners
have a strong attachment to a place so losing their property and their social networks is
a great loss. This will make them financially worse off and people may feel lonely if
forced to move and may be angered if areas are not chosen to be protected.

Ways of reducing these conflicts include

Use of CBAs (coct benefit analysis) and Environmental impact assessment (EIA)
as part of the coastal decision making process but these may not present the
feeling of the people.

Benefits of CBA’s

 Informed Decision-Making: Helps compare costs and benefits objectively,

guiding better choices.
 Efficient Resource Allocation: Ensures resources are directed toward projects
with the highest value.
 Risk Assessment: Identifies potential risks and prepares for uncertainties in
projects.
 Prevention of Waste: Avoids unnecessary expenditures by highlighting low-
benefit options.
Importance of EIA(environmental impact assessment)
 Environmental Protection: Identifies and mitigates potential environmental
damage from projects or activities.
 Sustainable Development: Ensures projects balance economic growth with
ecological preservation. Legal Compliance: Helps meet regulatory requirements
and avoid legal disputes.
 Informed Decision-Making: Provides stakeholders with information to make
environmentally responsible choices.

Reasons why groups of people might be concerned about the coast .

 Erosion may be threatening beaches or coastal settlements.

 People may want to develop tourism in the area or existing tourism could be
declining.

 There is a danger of flooding if sea levels rise.

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 There could be a problem with sewage and/or pollution.

Importance of coasts

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What is land reclamation?

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