Laminar Flow

Neeraj Adhikari
All real fluid are viscous in nature
The fluid viscosity produce tangential or shear stresses in a moving fluid
The shear forces act as a friction force and tends to retard the motion of fluid
particles
The viscosity effects have to be considered when dealing with fluid flow in a
conduit, flow through porous medium and in lubrication of bearings
The principal reason for analyzing such a fluid flow is to establish
relationship among the velocity field, flow rate, shear stress, pressure
gradient and geometry of the fluid flow
Reynold’s Experiment

The flow of water through pipes has been studied by various scientists and
engineers from time to time
The Russian scientist D. Mendeleev was the first to suggest that there are
two kinds of liquid motion : Laminar and Turbulent
In laminar flow, fluid particles moves in flat or curved unmixing layers or
streams and follow a smooth continuous path
There is no transverse displacement of fluid particles which remain in an
orderly sequence in each layer
Soldiers on a parade provide a somewhat crude analogy to laminar flow
In turbulent flow, motion of fluid particles is irregular and the path lines are
erratic curves.
There is intermingling of fluid particles resulting into fluctuations in the fluid
velocity and pressure.
The turbulent flow resembles a crowd of commuters in a rail station during
rush hours
It was Osbornae Reynolds, an English scientist who confirmed the existence
of these two regimes experimentally, and postulated that under certain
conditions there could be transition from one regime to the other and vice
versa
The apparatus design by Reynolds for the experiment consists of
-A constant head tank filled with water
-A small tank consisting dye
-a horizontal glass tube with bell mouth entry
-a regulating valve
Reynolds observed that when the flow velocities are low, the dye remains in
the form of straight and stable filament stretching along the tube length
During flow at low velocities, the fluid particles are not mixing with one
another and they move in layers – indicative of steady laminar flow
When the flow velocity is slowly increased, a disturbance or instability starts
to develop in the dye line; the line breaks up into a helical path
Such a flow wherein the motion are randomized and irregular represents
turbulent flow, and the velocity at which it initiates is called the lower critical
velocity.
With a further increase in the flow velocity, the dye line breaks completely
and the dye gets diffused throughout the flow, the velocity at this instant is
called the higher critical velocity
His investigation revealed that the kind of fluid flow is governed by following
parameters:
-Dynamic viscosity of fluid
-Density of fluid
-Mean flow velocity and
-Characteristics dimension of the stream cross-section, for e.g. diameter of
pipe
Grouping of these variables results into a dimensionless quantity called
Reynolds number.
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝜇𝜇
This number represents the ratio of inertia to viscous force
If the flow is laminar, there may be occasional natural disturbances that damp
out quickly (Fig a). If transition is occurring, there will be sharp bursts of
intermittent turbulent fluctuation (Fig b) as the increasing Reynolds number
causes a breakdown or instability of laminar motion. At sufficiently large Re,
the flow will fluctuate continually (Fig c) and is termed fully turbulent.
when you gently turn on the kitchen faucet. For very low flow rates, the
water exits smoothly indicating laminar flow in the pipe; for higher flow rates,
the flow is churned up indicating turbulent flow
Under normal conditions, transition to turbulence occurs at Re≈2300 for flow
in pipes: For water flow in a 10 cm diameter pipe, this corresponds to an
average speed of 2.88 cm/s.
With great care to maintain the flow free from disturbances, and with smooth
surfaces, experiments have been able to maintain laminar flow in a pipe to a
Reynolds number of about 100,000! However, most engineering flow
situations are not so carefully controlled, so we will take Re≈2300 as our
benchmark for transition to turbulence
Turbulence occurs when the viscous forces in the fluid are unable to damp
out random fluctuations in the fluid motion (generated, for example, by
roughness of a pipe wall), and the flow becomes chaotic
For example, a high-viscosity fluid such as motor oil is able to damp out
fluctuations more effectively than a low viscosity fluid such as water and
therefore remains laminar even at relatively high flow rates
The approximate values of lower critical Reynolds number are
2320 for circular pipes and tubes
1000 for parallel wall
500 for free surface i.e., open channel flows
1 for flow around a sphere
The entrance region
Because of the no-slip condition at the wall, velocity at the wall must be zero
along the entire length of the pipe
A boundary layer develops along the walls of the channel
The solid surface exerts a retarding shear force on the flow
Thus the speed of the fluid in the neighborhood of the surface is reduced
At successive sections along the pipe in this entry region, the effect of the
solid surface is felt farther out into the flow
Flow of viscous fluid through circular pipe

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑟𝑟
Shear Stress 𝜏𝜏 = −
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2

1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Velocity 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑅𝑅 2 − 𝑟𝑟 2
4𝜇𝜇 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝑈𝑈𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Ratio of velocities �
=2
𝑈𝑈

32� 𝑢𝑢𝐿𝐿
Loss of pressure head ℎ𝑓𝑓 =
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝐷𝐷2
Flow of viscous fluid between two parallel plates

1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Shear Stress 𝜏𝜏 = − [𝑡𝑡 − 2𝑦𝑦]
2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Velocity 𝑢𝑢 = − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝑦𝑦 2
2𝜇𝜇 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝑈𝑈𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Ratio of velocities �
= 1.5
𝑈𝑈

12�𝑢𝑢𝐿𝐿
Loss of pressure head ℎ𝑓𝑓 =
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑡𝑡 2
Determine the (i) pressure gradient, (ii) shear stress at the two horizontal
parallel plates and (iii) discharge per meter width for the laminar flow of oil
with a maximum velocity of 2 m/s between two horizontal parallel fixed
plates which are 100 mm apart. Given 𝜇𝜇=2.4525 Ns/m2

(-3924 N/m2, 196.2 N/m2, 0.133 m3/s)

Loss of Energy in pipes

When the fluid flows through the piping system, some of the energy (head)
is lost to overcome hydraulic resistance which is classified as:
-The viscous friction effects associated with fluid flow
-The local resistances which result from flow disturbances caused by
• Sudden expansion and contraction of pipe cross-sections
• Curves and bends in the pipelines
• Entrance and exit losses
• Obstructions in the form of valves, elbows and other pipe fittings
The frictional pressure drop associated with fluid flow is called the major
pipe loss
While the contributions of pipe fittings are collectively referred as minor pipe
loss
While analyzing the flow through long pipes, the local losses due to change
in cross-sections, bends, valves and fittings of all kinds can be neglected in
comparison to the loss of head caused by viscous friction
However, in short pipes the minor loss become quite significant and may
sometimes overweight the viscous friction losses
Laws of fluid friction
Laws of fluid friction for laminar flow
The frictional resistance in the laminar flow is as follows
• Proportional to the velocity of flow
• Independent of the pressure
• Proportional to the area of surface in contact
• Independent of nature of the surface in contact
• Greatly affected by the variation of the temperature of the flowing fluid
Laws of fluid friction for turbulent flow
The frictional resistance
• Proportional to (velocity)n, where the index n varies from 1.72 to 2.0
• Independent of pressure
• Proportional to the density of the flowing liquid
• Slightly affected by the variation of the temperature of the flowing liquid
• Proportional to are of surface in contact
• Dependent on the nature of the surface in contact
Experimental measurements and conclusions on turbulent flow through
pipes indicate that the viscous friction associated with fluids are proportional
to:
• Pipe length, l
• Wetted permeter, P
• Vn where V is the average flow
Velocity and n is an index depending in the material and nature of the pipe
surface. Rougher the surface, greater the value of n. With turbulent flow in
commercial pipes, n=2
The frictional resistance force can be written as:
= 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑉𝑉 2
Where, 𝑓𝑓𝑓 is a non-dimensional factor whose value depends upon the
material and nature of pipe surface.
Major head loss
Darcy-Weisbach Equation
4𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣 2
ℎ𝑓𝑓 =
2𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
f =Darcy coefficient of friction
𝑓𝑓 = 4𝑓𝑓
𝑓𝑓= friction factor
Darcy- Weisbach equation & Hagen Poiseuille equation

64
4𝑓𝑓 =
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Thus Darcy equation is valid for both laminar and turbulent flow; the
difference lies in the value of friction coefficient
Turbulent flow
In turbulent flow we cannot evaluate the pressure drop analytically; we must
resort to experimental results and use dimensional analysis to correlate the
experimental data. In fully developed turbulent flow, the pressure drop, Δp,
caused by friction in a horizontal constant-area pipe is known to depend on
pipe diameter, D, pipe length, L, pipe roughness, e, average flow velocity, V,
fluid density, ρ, and fluid viscosity, μ. In functional form
Δp=Δp(D, L, e, V, ρ, μ)
Applying dimensional analysis
△𝑝𝑝 𝐿𝐿 𝑒𝑒
= 𝜙𝜙 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅, ,
𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 2 𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷
Further simplifying the equation
𝑒𝑒
𝑓𝑓 = 𝜙𝜙 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,
𝐷𝐷
Moody Diagram

𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣 2
ℎ𝑓𝑓 =
2𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

The friction factor is

determined
experimentally. The
results, published by
L. F. Moody
• To determine head loss for fully developed flow with known conditions, the
Reynolds number is evaluated first. Roughness, e, is obtained from data.
Then the friction factor, f , can be read from the appropriate curve in at the
known values of Re and e/D. Finally, head loss can be found using

𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣 2
ℎ𝑓𝑓 =
2𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
Minor Head Losses
The local or minor head losses are caused by certain local features or
disturbances.
The disturbances may be caused by change in the size or shape of a pipe
This would affect the velocity distribution and may result in eddy formation

• Sudden expansion and contraction of pipe cross-sections

• Curves and bends in the pipelines
• Entrance and exit losses
• Obstructions in the form of valves, elbows and other pipe fittings
Sudden Enlargement
Fluid fails to make adjustment with the with the change in direction needed
for complete filling of the larger diameter pipe
The flow brakes away from the edges of narrow section
Eddies form and the resulting turbulence causes dissipation of energy
The initiation and onset of turbulence is due to fluid momentum and its
inertia
𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 2
ℎ𝑒𝑒 =
2𝑔𝑔

𝑉𝑉 12
ℎ𝑒𝑒 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
2𝑔𝑔
Since losses are wasteful, use of sudden enlargements should be avoided
as far as possible
The task is accomplished by incorporating diffusers
A diffuser is a flow passage with gradual increase in area and static
pressure rise in the direction of flow
Reduction in energy loss occurs due to elimination of eddies
If the diffuser is of sufficiently low divergence (6 to 8 degrees), separation is
delayed and a considerable reduction occurs in the extend of dead water
region
Sudden Contraction
In sudden contraction there exists two phases
A converging flow wherein the stream leaves the surface at the corner of the
junction and attends a minimum cross sectional area at the vena-contracta. At
vena-contracta, the effective flow area becomes considerably less than the
cross-sectional area of the small-diameter pipe. The accelerating flow is stable;
boundary layer has no chance to separate and consequently there is little loss of
head between entrance and the vena-contracta
A diverging flow downstream from vena-contracta wherein the stream expands
and ultimately assumes uniform flow over the entire cross-section of the narrow
pipe. During the sudden and unguided expansion, vortices are formed between
the mainstream and the wall of the pipe. Eddy formation and the consequent
energy dissipation are essentially responsible for most of the head loss.
The loss of head in a pipe contraction is thus caused mainly by the turbulence
created by abrupt expansion of the flow just after it has passed through vena-
contracta
 2
1 𝑉𝑉22
ℎ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = −1
𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 2𝑔𝑔

𝑉𝑉22
ℎ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
2𝑔𝑔
When a suddenly contraction is introduced in a horizontal pipe line from
50cm to 25cm, the pressure changes from 10,500kg/m2 to 6900kg/m2.
Calculate the rate of flow. Assume co-efficient of contraction of jet to be 0.65.
Following this, if there is a sudden enlargement from 25cm to 50cm and if
the pressure at the 25cm section is as previous, what is the pressure at the
50cm enlarged section?

0.3723 m3/s,78480N/m2
Loss of head at entrance
The loss of head as entrance is given by he = Ke v2/2g
Where, v is the mean velocity in the pipe and Ke is the loss coefficient.
The entrance loss is caused primarily by the turbulence created by the
enlargement of the stream after it passes through the section of vena-
contracta, which is formed immediately after the edge of the entering mouth.
The value of Ke is much more depended on the conditions at the entrance to
the pipe.
Losses at bends, elbows, tees and other fitting
The loss of head in pipe fittings may be expressed in terms of
𝑣𝑣 2
ℎ = 𝑘𝑘
2𝑔𝑔
Where v is the average flow velocity
In the expression h = K v2/2g

K Depends on
-The radius of curvature, r,
-The diameter of the pipe, D
-Angle of bend

K varies according to the value of r/D ratio for smooth pipe. For rough pipes
K depends on both the r/D ratio and e/D ratio.
Sharp bends result in separation downstream of the bend.
The turbulence in the separation zone causes flow resistance.
Greater radius of bend reduces flow resistance
The centrifugal force on the particles near the centre of the pipe, where the
velocities are high, is larger than the centrifugal force on the particles near
the walls of the pipe, where the velocities are law because of this
unbalanced condition a secondary flow develops.
This combines with the axial velocity to form a double spiral flow which
persists for some distance.
Bend loss is not directly proportional to the angle of the bend.
Losses due to obstruction
Loss is due to reduction in cross section area
A = area of pipe
a = area of obstruction
Cc = contraction co-efficient
2
𝑉𝑉 2 𝐴𝐴
ℎ𝑜𝑜 = −1
2𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴 − 𝑎𝑎
D’Alembert’s Paradox of 1752

D’Alembert’s Paradox- The ball experience no drag, which is unrealistic

Praltle suggest that even though friction is negligible in general for high-
Reynolds number flow there would always be a thin boundary layer, in which
friction is significant and across the width of which velocity increases rapidly
from zero to the value inviscid flow theory defines
Boundary layer flow
External flows are flows over bodies immersed on an unbounded fluid
The flow over a sphere and the flow over a streamlined body are examples of
external flows
When a real fluid flows past a solid body or a solid wall, the fluid particles
adhere to the boundary and condition of no slip occurs. This means that the
velocity of fluid close to the boundary will be same as that of the boundary
If the boundary will be stationary, the velocity of fluid at the boundary will be zero
Further away from the boundary, the velocity will be higher
At the region, velocity gradient (du/dy) exists and the narrow region of the
fluid is called boundary layer
The value of shear stress is given by
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜏𝜏 = 𝜇𝜇
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The velocity outside the boundary layer is constant and equal to free-stream
velocity
𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢
There is no variation of velocity in this region, the velocity gradient
𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦
becomes zero
As a result, shear stress is zero
Only in the thin region adjacent to a solid boundary (the boundary layer) is
the effect of viscosity important. In the region outside of the boundary layer,
the effect of viscosity is negligible and the fluid may be treated as inviscid.
Boundary layer
Laminar boundary layer
The flow in the boundary layers initially is laminar. Transition to turbulent flow
occurs at some distance from the stagnation point, depending on freestream
conditions, surface roughness, and pressure gradient
Reynolds Number, Re =ρUx/μ , The length x is measured from leading edge
For calculation purposes, under typical flow conditions, transition usually is
considered to occur at a length Reynolds number of 500,000. For air at
standard conditions, with freestream velocity U =30m/s, this corresponds to x ≈
0.24 m.
Turbulent boundary layer
If the length of the plate is more than the distance x, the thickness of
boundary layer will go on increasing in the downstream direction
Then the laminar boundary layer becomes unstable and motion of fluid
within it, is disturbed and irregular which leads to transition from laminar to
turbulent boundary layer
The short length over which the boundary layer flow changes from laminar
to turbulent is called transition zone
Further downstream the transition zone, the boundary layer is turbulent and
continue to grow in thickness, which is called turbulent boundary layer
The velocity profile in laminar layer may be approximated by a parabola
The velocity profile in the turbulent layer follows a logarithmic law
Boundary-layer thickness
The boundary layer is the region adjacent to a solid surface in which viscous
stresses are present, as opposed to the free stream where viscous stresses
are negligible. These stresses are present because we have shearing of the
fluid layers, i.e., a velocity gradient, in the boundary layer. Both laminar and
turbulent layers have such gradients, but the difficulty is that the gradients
only asymptotically approach zero as we reach the edge of the boundary
layer. Hence, the location of the edge, i.e., of the boundary-layer thickness,
is not very obvious—we cannot simply define it as where the boundary layer
velocity u equals the freestream velocity U
Boundary-layer thickness is defined as the distance from the boundary of
solid body measured in y-direction to the point, where the velocity of the fluid
is approximately equal to 0.99 times the free stream velocity (U) of the fluid
It is denoted by symbol 𝛿𝛿

5𝑥𝑥 0.37𝑥𝑥
𝛿𝛿 = For laminar flow and 𝛿𝛿 = for turbulent flow
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 0.2
Displacement Thickness (𝜹𝜹∗ )
It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the
solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for
the reduction in flow rate on account of boundary layer formation

Momentum Thickness (𝜽𝜽)

It is defined as the distance measured perpendicular to the boundary of the
solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for
the reduction in momentum
Factors which influence the thickness of boundary layer
The boundary layer thickness increases as the distance from the leading
edge increases
The boundary layer thickness decreases with the increase in the velocity of
the flow
Greater the kinematic viscosity of the fluid greater is the boundary layer
thickness
The boundary layer thickness is considerably affected by the pressure
gradient
• If pressure gradient is negative it accelerates the retarded fluid in the boundary layer
• If pressure gradient is positive the boundary layer is further decelerated and hence
assists in thickening of the boundary layer
Boundary layer within round pipe
The boundary layer can grow only up to the centre line of the pipe
The boundary layer cannot exceed the radius of the pipe
When once it happens, it continues with an unchanged profile and is said to
constitute a fully developed flow
The length of development is of the order of 50 to 80 diameters of the pipe
and depends lot upon surface finish, initial level of turbulence and the
downstream conditions as well as the properties of the fluid
Laminar Flat-Plate
Boundary Layer: Exact Solution
Governing Equations

Boundary Conditions
Flow Separation
Flow Separation
A favorable pressure gradient is one in which the pressure decreases in the
flow direction (i.e., ∂p/∂x <0); it is called favorable because it tends to overcome
the slowing of fluid particles caused by friction in the boundary layer.
This pressure gradient arises when the freestream velocity U is increasing with
x, for example, in the converging flow field in a nozzle.
Adverse pressure gradient is one in which pressure increases in the flow
direction (i.e., ∂p/∂x >0); it is called adverse because it will cause fluid particles
in the boundary-layer to slow down at a greater rate than that due to boundary-
layer friction alone.
If the adverse pressure gradient is severe enough, the fluid particles in the
boundary layer will actually be brought to rest.
When this occurs, the particles will be forced away from the body surface (a
phenomenon called flow separation) as they make room for following particles,
ultimately leading to a wake in which flow is turbulent.
Examples of this are when the walls of a diffuser diverge too rapidly and when
an airfoil has too large an angle of attack; both of these are generally very
undesirable!
Force on Immersed Body
In engineering fields there are various problems which involve the fluid
around the submersed bodies.
In such problems either a field may be flowing around submerged stationary
body or body may be flowing through a large mass of stationary fluid.
Examples:
Motion of very small objects such as sand particles in air or water.
Large bodies such as airplane, submarines, automobiles, ships etc. moving
through air or water
Structure such as buildings and bridges etc. which are submerged in air or
water.
A body wholly immersed in a real fluid may be subjected to two kinds of
forces.
Drag force : The component of force in the direction of flow on a submerged
bodies is called drag force (FD).
Lift force : The component of force in the perpendicular to the flow is called
the lift force (FL).

Symmetrical body moving through an ideal fluid at a uniform velocity, the

pressure distribution around a body is symmetrical and resultant (FD and
FL) force acting on the body is zero.
Symmetrical body moving through an real fluid at a uniform velocity (FD, no
FL)
The production of lift force requires asymmetry of flow, while drag force
exists always.
It is possible to create drag without lift but impossible to create lift without
drag.

The fluid viscosity affects the flow around the body causes the force on the
body accordingly;
At low Reynolds' Number the fluid is deformed in very wide zone around the
body causing pressure force & friction force.
As Reynolds' Number increases, viscous effects are confined to the
boundary layer causes predominant the friction force on the boundary.
Expression for Drag and Lift
Consider a body held stationary in a stream of real fluid moving at a uniform
velocity U.

Let θ = inclination of the tangent to the small element dA with the direction of
flow.
Then the force acting on dA of the surface of the body can be considered to
have two components, tangential component 𝜏𝜏dA (called shear force)
And normal component pdA (called pressure force) acting along the
directions tangential and normal to the surface respectively.
The summation of component of the forces acting over the entire surface of
the body in the direction of fluid flow is drag force, FD and perpendicular to
fluid flow is lift force, FL.

𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷 = � 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + � 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏

𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴

𝐹𝐹𝐿𝐿 = � 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 − � 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴

Here, ∫𝐴𝐴 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 is called pressure drag and ∫𝐴𝐴 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 is called frictional
drag.
The drag and lift for a body moving in a fluid of density 𝜌𝜌 , at uniform velocity
U are calculated mathematically as

𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑈𝑈 2
𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷 =
2

𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑈𝑈 2
𝐹𝐹𝐿𝐿 =
2
Where, CD=coefficient of drag
CL=Coefficient of lift
A=Area projected on a plane perpendicular to the direction of flow
Resultant force
𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 = 𝐹𝐹 𝐷𝐷 2 + 𝐹𝐹 𝐿𝐿2
Experiments were conducted in a wind tunnel with a wind speed of 50km/hr
on flat plate of size 2m long and 1m wide. The density of air is 1.15kg/m3.
the co-efficient of lift and drag are 0.75 and 0.15 respectively. Determine:
a. The lift force
b. The drag force
c. Magnitude and direction of resultant force
d. Power exerted by air on the plate
Briefly explain flow separation. Explain different ways to prevent separation
of boundary layer